2. What is the difference between TCP and UDP?

Differences between TCP and UDP

The main differences between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are:

Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is the Datagram-oriented protocol. This

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. Connection is because

Type of Service orientation means that the communicating devices there is no overhead for opening a
should establish a connection before transmitting data connection, maintaining a connection, or
and should close the connection after transmitting the terminating a connection. UDP is efficient
data. for broadcast and multicast types of network
transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery of data to The delivery of data to the destination cannot
Reliability
the destination router. be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error-checking mechanisms.

Error checking UDP has only the basic error-checking
mechanism It is because it provides flow control and mechanism using checksums.
acknowledgment of data.

Acknowledgment An acknowledgment segment is present. No acknowledgment segment.

Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission

There is no sequencing of data in UDP. If the
Control
Sequence order is required, it has to be managed by the
Protocol (TCP). this means that packets arrive in application layer.
order at the receiver.

UDP is faster, simpler, and more efficient

Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP.
than TCP.

Retransmission of lost packets is possible in TCP, but There is no retransmission of lost packets in
Retransmission
not in UDP. the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Header Length TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable length header. UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-length header.

Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

 Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Handshaking It’s a connectionless protocol i.e. No

Uses handshakes such as SYN, ACK, SYN-ACK
Techniques handshake

Broadcasting TCP doesn’t support Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

UDP is used by DNS, DHCP,

Protocols TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet.
TFTP, SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

Stream Type The TCP connection is a byte stream. UDP connection is a message stream.

Overhead Low but higher than UDP. Very low.

This protocol is used in situations where

This protocol is primarily utilized in situations when a
quick communication is necessary but where
safe and trustworthy communication procedure is
Applications dependability is not a concern, such as VoIP,
necessary, such as in email, on the web surfing, and
game streaming, video, and music streaming,
in military services.
etc.

5.What do you mean by Protocol?

Protocol Definition: It is a digital language through which we communicate with others on the Internet. protocol meaning is that it
a set of mutually accepted and implemented rules at both ends of the communications channel for the proper exchange
of information. By adopting these rules, two devices can communicate with each other and can interchange information. We can’t
even think of using the Internet without Protocols. Each protocol is defined in different terms and different use with unique name.
Message travel from sender to receiver via a medium (The medium is the physical path over which a message travels) using a
protocol.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

Circuit Switching

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the
connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the
receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving
the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
 o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path is accomplished in a switch
by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or
semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The crossbar switch has n 2 intersection points known
as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased. Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch.
The solution to this is to use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

 o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is
wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit and routed through
intermediate nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is
routed through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node. This type of network is known
as store and forward network.
o Message switching treat

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store the messages until the message is
forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the message switching technique.
Packet Switching

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces,
and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to identify their order at
the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each
packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the
correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

 o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.

OSI MODEL

Layers of OSI Model

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Layer 1- Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s
and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus,
star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note: 1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

Layer 2- Data Link Layer (DLL)

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking
“Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are
meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data
link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Layer 3- Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

The Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function of
the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Note: 1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
Layer 4- Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The
transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.
 At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation,
and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web application
requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications.
Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message
into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a type
of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the
receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between
devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Note: 1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the
Application Layer by making system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

Layer 5- Session Layer

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also
ensures security.

The Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use and
terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of
the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or full-
duplex.
Note: 1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the
“Application Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper
Layers or Software Layers.
Scenario
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in his
browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so
that it can be transmitted.
Layer 6- Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
 The Functions of the Presentation Layer are

Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is known
as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7- Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

The Functions of the Application Layer are

 Network Virtual Terminal

 FTAM- File transfer access and management
 Mail Services
 Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The current
model being used is the TCP/IP model.