Polarization

3.01
INTRODUCTION

The phenomena
enomena of interference and
diffraction confirm the wave nature of light. However, neither
is able to nature light. However, neither
of
these phenomenon identify the nature of
waves that
tell whether the light waves are longitudinal or
as light
ht is. That is, these
these phenomena do
phenomena do
notfoscillations
ture c connected with light- linear,
transverse.
circular,
Also, we cannot know about the
ndiffraction.This accomplished from the
is elliptical etc. from the study of
that is the subject of this chapter. study of another interterence
phenomenon called polarization and
The electromagnetie nature of light specifically
that the oscillations are confined to the plane ofrequires,
and
that the light consists of transverse waves
the wave front. From the
wll find that only such waves can be polarised. study of polarization, we
02. BLECTROMAGNETIC NATURE OF LIGHT AND ITS DESCRIPTION
Like all other em waves, the light waves also consist of
electric and magnetic vectors which oscillate
in phase with each other in the free space. The direction of
the oscillation of these vectors is
to each other as well as to the direction of
propagation of the em waves. As
perpendicular
character of light,
before, for describing the
em we assume that the
light propagating in the X-direction and the electric and
is
magnetic vectors are oscillating along the Y and Z directions respectively. That is
E jE, and E, Eo cos (wt- kx)
=

Also H =kH, and H, Ho cos (ot-kx)

=

The em character and the various phenomena connected with the

terms of electric or magnetic vector. However, we
light may be described either in
prefer description with the help of electric vector
the
because as explained in the chapter on em waves, the maximum value of the electric
vector is much
larger in magnitude than that of the magnetic vector. Also, it has been established through experimental
studies by Drude, Nernst and Weiner that the electric vector affects the eye or the
more and it is this vector that determines the intensity of the observed
photographic plates
light.
3.03. POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
Ihe light waves are emitted when the electrons of the excited atoms jump from some higher orbit to
Some lower orbit. This process of jumping down occurs in about 10° second. Each time it occurs, an
em pulse or
wave train of about 10- s duration goes out. That is, the length of the wave is limited to the
pace, that can be traversed by light in about 1 0 second. Each of these wave trains oscillates in a
Certain mode with the electric and magnetic vectors oscillating in certain constant orientation
Perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
onentation of the electric and magnetic vectors, In general, may vary trom wave train to wave train and
thus the light from the given source is a sequence of randomly oriented electric or magnetic vectors.

Unpolarized light.
Thelight, in which the wave trains have electric (or magnetie vectors oscillating-in randomly
ditributeddirectionsis said tobe unpolarized. It may be denoted as shown in fig.3.03.1.(a)
119
 120
Z

(a) AY (b) ()

(d)
Y
Fig. 3.03.1.
The different electric vectors may
be resolved along the Y and Z directions and the unpolarizedli
may be represented
as
shown in fig. 3.03.1 (5). Here, the direction of propagation of the wave
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Conventionally, it may also be depicted as shown in fie. 3
c.However, to have a much simplified pictorial representation, we prefer to denote the unpolariz
light as shown in fig. 3.03.1 (d). Here, the dot on the intersection of the perpendicular lines represen
the oscillations perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Plane polarized light.
fthe electric vectors of all the wave trains in a beam oflightoscillate in a certain constant orientation
the light is said to be linearly polarized. It is so called because the projection of the wave on a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is a line. See fig 3.03.2 (a) and (b). For the oscillationsin
the plane of the paper, it may be depicted as shown in fig 3.03.2 (c) and the oscillations perpendicula
to the plane of the paper it may be depicted as shown in fig. 3.03.2 (d)

(a) (b) ( (c)

Fig. 3.03.2
The linearly polarized light is also called plane polarized. This takes the three dimension
representation into account. Because the oscillations and propagation of such a light is in a plane
The plane in which oscillations take
place is called plane of oscillations. And
the plane perpendicular to the plane of
oscillations is called the plane of
polarization. Thus, if light waves are
propagating in the X-directions and the
electric vector is oscillating in the Y
AAAOSCILLATIONS IN
direction, then Y plane is the plane of
oscillations and the X-Z plane is the plane XY PLANE

of polarization. See fig 3.03.3. The

component of the electric vector in the plane
of polarization is zero. XZ PLANE AS THE
PLANE OF POLARIZATIO
z

Fig.3.03.3.
 POLARIZATION
121
cularly polarized light.
Cireuarly
circularly polarized light, the direction of
oscillation of the
jn hdically, but the magnitude remains constant. The location ofelectric (also magnetic)
the head of the
vector
eses on a helix. The electric vector
completes one rotation in electric vector
always one length of the wave. See
fig
J034

(a)
(6)
Fig. 3.03.4.
Eliptical polarized light.
fn the elliptically polarized light, the direction of oscillation of the electric vector also
erodically but magnitude varies within certain maximum and minimum limits. The location rotates of the
head of the electric vector always lies on the flattened helix. The rotation of the vector, in this case also
js completed in onelength of the wave. See fig. 3.03.5.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.03.5
lies between the circularly and linearly polarized lights as shown in
The elliptically polarized light
fig.3.03.6.

PARTIALLY
POLARIZED
LINEARLY
ELLIPTICALLY
CIRUCLARLY POLARIZED
POLARIZED
POLARIZED

Fig.3.03.6.
Partially polarized light.
The mixture ofpolarized and unpolarized light is called partially polarized light. (Fig. 3.03.7)
Polarization of light.
The process of obtaining polarized light from unpolarized or partially polarized light is called
polarization of light. In the following sections, we will discuss various methods of polarizing the light.

3.04. WIRE GRID POLARIZER

A device used to produce polarised light out of the unpolarised light is called polarizer. One such
device is called wire gria polarizer
 0 CUS

where 6 is the angle between transmission axis of the polarizer and analyser.

3.16,DOUBLE REFRACTION
Certain crystals like calcite, split the ray of light transmitted through them into two rays. This
phenomenon is known as double refraction. It is also known as anomalous refraction. fig. 3.16.1 Here,
AOis the incident ray. It is incident normally on the surface of the
S1ab of a doubly refracting material. On entering the slab, the ray is INCIDENT
split into two rays OB and OB'respectively. RAY
The two refracted rays are termed as ordinary ray and extra| O
Ordinaryray, which may be abbreviated as O-ray and E-ray. The O-|
the Snell's
ay, behaves like ordinary light ray should do isobeys
and
not like the rays
dw of refraction. But the behaviour of the E-raylaw. It is
ofOrdinary
ordinaryllight and it does not obey the Snell's because of
B
this reason that it is termed as extra ordinary ray. The velocity of the B'
eason
O-Tay is same in all directions but that of the E-ray is different in the
direction along which the
different directions. There is a particularThis
velocity of ray is a s that ofO-ray. direction is termed as
same E-RAY
e Opticaxis of the crystal. Some impotant properties of doubly
the O-RAY

refracting crystals are as NS

follows Fig. 3.16.1
Negative and positive crystals.
Suppose and v, be the velocities of the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Then crystals in which1

The term is optic axis and not optical axis. Also, the optic axis is a direction and not a line drawn through thecrystal.infact e

Sa plane through the crystal such that in a particular direction in this plane both O and E rays have the same
speed.
 MODERN'S OPTICS ANDI
PHYSICS (8.Sc.
134
as positive. Calcite is nepa
in which va >v, are termed gative
<v, are
termed as negative and the crystals
of positive crystal.
crystal and quartz is an example
Uniaxial and biaxial crystals.
one optic axis called uniaxial but those
having two axes are called biari.
Crystals having only and E-ray have the same speed.
in the biaxial crystals, there are two directions in which O-ray
Thus, vectors. There is a
certain angle between t
independent of the orientation of the oscillation of electric the waveleno
some extent depends upon
two optic axes, which is characteristic of the material and to
For uniaxial crystals, the angle is zero. Uniaxial crystals are : calcite, quartz, 1Ce, tournmaline, sodi
etc.
nitrate etc. The examples of the biaxial crystals are : mica, topaz, borax
axis.
Principal section is the section of the crystal parallel to the optic
State of poarization of the O-ray and E-ray
It is found that both the E-ray and O-ray are linearly polarized. But their polarization is mutuall
perpendicular to each other. The oscillation of electric vector for the O-ray perpendicular to the optie
axis and those of the E-ray are in the plane parallel to the optic axis. [That is the O-ray is polarized
perpendicular to the optic axis and the E-ray is polarised in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
O-ray]. See Fig. 3.16.2. Thus doubly refracting crystals can be used to obtain polarised light from the
polarised light.
OPTIC AXIs

ERAY

ORAY

Fig. 3.16.2.
The opposite faces of the doubly refracting crystals such as calcite are always parallel to each othe
So, the two refracted rays emerge parallel to the incident ray. If the incident ray is perpendicular to the
crystal surface as shown in the fig. 3.16.3, then the O-ray goes straight but the E.ray is displaced
slightly. If the crystal is rotated about the O-ray, the E-ray is found to rotate around the O-ray.
Polarization by anomalous or double refraction-Nicol prism.
The double refraction splits the incident ray into E-ray and O-ray, which are plane polarized rays o
light with electric field vectors at the right angle to each other. By selective absorption of one ofte
rays, we can use the phenomena for producing plane polarized light. This can be done with the
a specially designed device known as NICOL PRISM. It is a calcite, crystal cut across a diagonal # help
shown in fig. 3.16.3. The two halves are then cemented
together with a thin layer of Canada Balsa
The refractive index
of Canada Balsam (n 1-55) is intermediate between that of calcite for E-ray
=
(
= 1-486) and O-ray
(n, 1-658).
=

ne refractive index of O-ray is more than that for Canada Balsam and hence it can be total
rericcted (internally) and is absorbed by the black coating with angles
oT a caicite crystal is parallelogram (the crystal is rhombic) applied
to the crystal. The
principal
109 and 71°. The sectho
end faces

tne crystal are grounded by about 3° to reduce the acute angle to 68° and then polished. This is done
minimise the
chance'of total internal reflection or
transmission of both E and O-rays,
below. The prism is so as explain
designed that its long end is about three times the short end.
 135
POLARIZATION

Jed for grounding the edges of Nicol Prism.

the incident ray parallel to the long side of the prism as shown in fig. 3.16.3, the angle of
wnce at tthe layer of Canada balsam may vary with the rotation of the E and O-rays. It may become
incidenceat

CANADA BALSAM

+ O-RAY E-RAY

Fig.3.16.3
greater than the critical angle for E-rays which may be intemally reflected. In case, it becomes
the crtical angle for the O-ray both of the rays may be transmitted. Separation of E and O-rays is
pOssible only for a small range of directions of the incident angle. By grounding the edges of the Nicol
prism, the incident ray lies in the middle of the possible range of directions required for the separation
of the rays.
Uses of Nicol Prisms. When two Nicol A
prisims Pand A are arranged co-axially as shown ORDINARY
in fig. 5.16.4, then the prism P acts as polarizer LIGHT

and A as an analyser. This combination of Nicol PARALLEL NICOLS

(a)
prisms is called a polariscope. When the two
Nicols are similarly oriented i.e. the principal
section of analyser A is parallel to that of
polarizer P then the E-ray emerging from the
transmitted by the analyser. This
plarizer isfreely other CROSSED NICOLS
position as shown byfig. 3.16.4 (a) and the (b)
position shown in fig. 3.16.4 (c) corresponding
to angle of 180° between two principal
sections P A
become parallel are referred to oRDINARY
when they again LIGHT
as parallel Nicols.
The rotation of analyser by an angle of 90° PARALLEL NICOLS
(c)
from the positions shown in fig. 3.16.4 (a) and
)will make the principal sections
of the two Fig.3.16.4
No is transmitted by the combination
Nicols mutually perpendicular shown in fig. 3.16.4
as (b). light
The ray emerging out from P has vibrations in its principal
and the two Nicols are said to be crossed.
section of analyser A. The vibrations incident
section and therefore, are perpendicular to the principal
as O-ray in the analyser till
on analyser will have no component along its principal section and travel
these are totally intermally reflected at Canada balsam layer.
For intermediate positions of the two Nicols, the intensity of light transmitted by analyser obeys
Malus' law i.e. I « cos 6, where 6 is angle of rotation from the position of maximum intensity.
Note. It should be noted that if quartz is 4 con_trucha prism, similar to nicol prism then the
It is due to the reason that in quartz velocity of 0-rav is
quartz prism will not serve the similar purpose.
Hore than that of E-ray. Also, Canada balsam is rarer than quartz for both O-and E-rays and therefore,
either both rays will be totally intermally reflected or both will be transmitted depending upon angle of
balsam.
incidence on layer of Canada
 MODEKN
.
136 RETARDATION
PLATES)
BIREFRINGENCE (PHASE
317. different velocities through the crvstal
Only along
propagate with
the The
opticO-ray
axis their E-ray in general
and velocities are equal. Therefore, the refractive index of the doubly refractin
le refraction i_
Because of this reason,
the phenomenon of double refracs
and the E-ray.
is different for the O-ray
also called birefringence. w.r.t. each other. Therefore, birefringence
orthogonally polarised be
Since O-ray and E-ray are
certain materials to propagate the orthogonally polarized compone
nents
defined as the property of of
velocities.
light with different in velocities the slow ray lags
behind the fast ray which causes retardati.
Due to the difference
thickness (1) of the crystal and the difference betue
retardation depends upon the ween
The magnitude of
and fast rays.
the velocity of slow
BIREFRINGENT MATERIALS
STRUCTURE OF THE
is made of long thin fibrous molecule
Cellophaneis the typical example of the birefringent material. It
all arranged.parallel to another. The direction parallel to the length of these molecules and tha
termed the optic axes. The velocity of the plane polarised light having electie
perpendicular to it are as
to either of the above mentioned two axes is different. One of these axes
component oscillating parallel
is called slow aris and other is calledfast axis. If the electric vector of the plane polarised light oscillates
along the slow axes, then the speed component of light is less than that having the electric vector
ofthis
oscillating along the fast axis.
Cause of birefringence
The response of the electrons to the oscillating electric field vector alongthe length of the fibrous
molecules is different than to that oscillating perpendicular to the length of the molecules. Ifwetrea
the electrons as oscillators giving out the secondary emission of em waves, then we may say that the
stiffness constant of the oscillations is different along the length of the molecule than that perpendicular
to the length of the molecule. As a result, the polarizability of the molecules, susceptibility as wellas
the dielectric constant are different in the above mentioned two directions. The refractive index is also
related to the dielectric constant. So, the substance exhibits different refractive indices in the differen
directions.
Ptâne polarized light incident on a birefrigent material or retardation plate
Suppose plane polarized light will field vector E inclined to the fast optic axis at an angle '8s
incident on a sheet of birefringent material. We can resolve E into two components one along the fast
and the other along the slow axis as follows:
E= E cos 0, E, E sin 0. =

The light transmitted through the sheet will contain two plane polarized components having mutually
perpendicular polarizations along the fast and slow axis respectively. Let v,and v, be the speeds of light
corresponding to E,and E, respectively. If n, and n, be the corresponding refractive indices, the rbe the
thickness of the sheet, then the optical patha for the fast and slow components are
o n t and ð, = n,t.
Path difference between two components in the emergent ray is

=o,-ö,= (n,-n)
IfA be the wavelength of the incident light, then phase shift or phase difference between
. .(3.17.)
the

components in the emergent ray is

(n-n)t
*d =0,-ô. because refractive index for the slow component i.e. er the
n, is higher than that for the fast
component as n =
Hig
value of v, smaller is the refractive index.
POLARIZATION

the transmission of plane polarized lighi will generate a phase difference o between the rwo
hus,
Tments. For this reason, the plates are called phase retardation plates. Here (n, - np is called
oCe. From the above discussion, it is clear that a plane polarized light is splitinto orthogonaly
compa

birdcomponents, which emerge out of the sheet of the birefringent material. (In case the plane
polaed light is incident with electric field vector along the fast or slow axis, only one plane polarized
polent merges, as the magnitude of the other is zero). The phase difference between the wo
for the
ts is given by eqn. (5.17.2). Since n, and n are constants, the phase difference
o m p o n

ponents
chromatic light depends on 'f only. The two components superpose on emergence and we may

(ii)
got() lliptically polarized light if 0 <p <T and (i) circularly polarized lightif E, E,and o= .
=

of
the
The emergent ray may remain unaffected if o 0 or 2t. (iv) The emergent rays have
= sense

ncillaion of the electric vector reversed if o n. Since polarization depends only on the direction or
=

lineof 0Scillation, so when o = r the emergent light will be unaffected.

1.18 OUARTER WAVE, HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE PLATES

The path difference between the slow and fast components of the orthogonally polarized light
emerging from a retarlation plate.

value of ð.
Since n, and n, are constants for a given material, f can be adjusted to have any
Quarter, half and Full wave plates are the examples of phase retardation plates
which is cut with its optic
() Quarter wave plate : It is a uniaxial doubly refracting crystal plate
produce path difference of 4 (or
uis parallel to the refracting faces having thickess such that it can

phase difference t/2) between fast and slow rays.

Since for quarter wave plate 0 = /4
So Eq.I becomes

n,-n
or t
4(n,-n)
from a plane polarized light (see article
A quarter wave plate produces elliptically polarized light
3.19) double refractory crystal plate which is cut with its optic axis
(i) Half wave plate :It is also unixial
thickness such that it can produce a path difference of A/2 (or
parallel to the refracting faces having
phase difference t)
So for half wave plate,

..

or t 2(ns)

Half wave plate does not change the state of polarization of incident polarized light
(ii) Full wave platee
Here =

n-
Full wave plate also does not change the state of polarizatüion of incident polarized light
 MODERN'S OPTICS AND LASER PHY

CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT

3,19.PRODUCTION OF ELLIPTICALLY AND
To produce an elliptically polarized light we incident plane polarized beam of light on a quarter
be the
its electric vector making a certain angle '6' with the fast optic axes. If E
wave plate with then the magnitudes of the electric field vectors of the emergence
electricfield vector of the incident light,
components will be :
E sin .
E E cos
= and E, =

will introduce a phase difference, of between them and if we represent

The quarter wave plate
one of the components as

E, j E,sin wi, then the other component will be:

A

E =k E,sin|or+=kE,cos .

On emergence the two components will superimpose and the resultant will be given by:

.(1)
This is the equation of the ellipse with axis along Y and Z-axis (it is assumed that light propagating
along X-axis).
Thus the emergent light will be elliptically polarized
For producing circularly polarized light, the beam is incident in such a manner as to be equally
inclined (at 45°) to both of the slow and fast axes. Under such conditions (6 ==45°).

E, E cos 45°
=

2
and

E
E = E sin 45

Hence equation of the electric vector of the emergent light from equation (I) is

2
which is the equation ofa circle.
Elliptically polarized light incident on a quarter wave plate.
The elliptically polarized light consists of two orthogonally polarized components. If such a light is
transmitted through a quarter wave plate, a further phase difference of n/2 will be introduced between
two components. On emerging from the
quarter wave plate the two components will have a total phase
difference of t. In other words, transmitting elliptically polarized light through a quarter wave plate, is
equivalent to the transmission of a plane polarized light through a half wave plate. Thus, on
the two components will produce plane polarized light, similar to one from which
superimposing.
elliptically
light was produced. However, the direction of oscillation of the electric vector will be reversed. polarized
This
facyís made use in the analysis of polarized light.

3.20. ANALYSIS OF POLARIZED LIGHT

A device that polarizes light can also be used to
In the
analyse (the state of polarization) the polarized
light. former role, it is called polarizer and in the latter role, it is called
The analysis of the polarized light implies the identification of the analyser.
nature of polarization to answer
thequestions such as