Insam Level 2, English

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IUEs/INSAM (NDOKOTI) DOUALA

COURSE OUTLINE
YEAR: 2021/2022 ACADEMIC YEAR
COURSE CODE: ENG 102
COURSE TITLE: USE OF ENGLISH II
STATUS: COMPULSORY
LEVEL: YEAR TWO STUDENTS FOR HND
SEMESTER: FIRST SEMESTER
COURSE MASTER: Bangsi Mbanfu Wilfred

1. General introduction
AIM(S)
The main aim of this course is to develop students’ ability in the use of the English Language
(speaking, reading, listening and writing) in their specific disciplines. This is to better equip
them with the main tool to succeed in the business world, that is, the ability to communicate
with one another without fear of error.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, students will be expected to:
- Improve on their English language skills of speaking, reading, listening, and
writing, and understanding as well.
- Interact freely and confidently in all social situations where English is used, e.g.
speeches, debates, workshops, seminars, panel discussions etc.
- Learn and understand other courses of which English is the medium of instruction.
- Acquaint themselves with the basic structure of English and grammatical
functions.
- Know how to write various letters, take down minutes in meetings, and even do
public speaking.
- Know how words are formed in English, and how they co-occur.
- Know how to do negotiations, summarize documents, and draw up CVs.
2. Types of discourse
- Expository
- Descriptive
- Narrative
- Argumentative
3. Note-taking (in lectures, meetings, etc)
4. Turn-taking in Conversational English
5. -Basic techniques of Reading
-Basic techniques of Writing
6. Formal and Informal Letters
- Features
- Structure

The Formal Letter


- formats of formal letters
- Application for a Job
- Motivation Letter
- Letter of Complaint
- Administrative Letters

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- Invitations
7. CV Writing
8. Minutes Writing
9. Technical Writing
- Writing Technical Reports
- Writing Projects
- Writing technical Instructions
- Summarizing documents
10. Public Speaking
-techniques, stage fright, overcoming stage fright, gaining audience attention
11. Negotiation Techniques; the win-win approach, etc.
12. REVISION
13. EXAMINATION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Neba, A. F. &Tabah, N. E. (2012). An English Grammar and Writing Course.
UGELER: Buea.

2. Neba, A. F. &Tabah, N. E. (2015). An English Grammar and Writing Course.


( New Edition) UGELER: Buea.

3. Bergman, A. C. (1988). Heath Grammar and Composition with a Process


Approach to Writing. D.C. Heath and Company: Canada.

4. Mulderig, P. G. & L. Elsbree (1990). The Heath Handbook. 12 th Edition. Heath


and Company: Canada.

5. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. International Student’s Edition. (2010).


8th Edition. Oxford University Press: Oxford.

6. Strong, W. (1993). Writer’s Choice. Composition and Grammar. Glencoe


McGraw-Hill: USA.

7. Winterowd, R. W. & P. Y. Murray (1985). English Writing and Skills. Coranado


Publishers: USA.

8. Seminar Papers on Public Speaking, and Administrative Writing

EVALUATION

Assignments/ in-class exercises 15%


Written Tests 15%
Examination 70%

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CHAPTER ONE
TYPES OF DISCOURSE
General objective
Students need to know how to write different essay types.
Specific Objectives
- To know how to write a proper introduction
- To know how to develop paragraphs
A discourse is a very lengthy piece of writing on a particular topic. It can be an
academic discourse, political discourse, or even medical discourse. It is usually
presented at graduation ceremony, matriculations, or any public speech.
Another name for discourse is Essay. There are basically five types of essays;
descriptive, narrative, argumentative, persuasive and expository.
1. Narrative essay
A narrative essay tells a story which may be real or fictional. Such an
essay may be written in the first person pronouns; I, me, my we, us. It can
also use the third person pronouns; he, she, it, they. The order of events is
chronological. E.g a bad day at school, a natural disaster, a night to
remember, a family celebration.
2. Descriptive essay 7
It paints a picture that appeals to the readers’ senses. It seeks to create a
certain mood. It is used to describe persons especially their outward
features in such a way as to indicate inner qualities. The order of events
or details are spatial. Topics here could include; a classroom during a test,
a school dance, the person I will like to marry.
3. Expository essay
This is a multi-purpose kind of essay. It is written to explain, define, give
reason for etc. sample topics include; explain how to make a good first

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impression, explain how you can tell the sex of a fish, sex discrimination
in Cameroon.
4. Persuasive essay
It is written to persuade or convince an idea or point put forth in an
argument advanced. Here, you argue for and only for, or against and only
against. Possible topics include; freedom of the press, compulsory
education, equal opportunity.
5. Argumentative essay
It is equally written to convince or persuade. It appears in debate forms.
The pointe put forth is developed two-sidedly; you argue for and against.
e.g should sex education be implemented in primary schools?
Abortion should be legalised.

Paragraph development
An essay is a meaningful combination of paragraphs. So for every essay
to be complete, the paragraphs must be linked to one another and to the
main topic. Thus a good paragraph must be well developed in order to
achieve this goal. An essay has three main parts; introduction, body and
conclusion.
The ability to organise ideas into paragraphs is one of the first skills
required for effective writing. The technique for showing paragraph
autonomy is known as indenting. Each paragraph in a discourse must be
indented to show that it pivots on a main idea and supporting details.

Definition
A paragraph can be defined as a group of sentences that revolves around
one main idea and supporting details.

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Elements of a paragraph
There are 3 main elements in a paragraph, that is, topic sentence, unity
and coherence.

1. Topic sentence
It is a statement that expresses the main idea in a paragraph. It is the
idea around which a paragraph is built. It is a sentence that if removed
from the paragraph, it will have little or no meaning.
A topic sentence presents a general idea in a paragraph, limits the
scope, establishes a contract between the reader and the writer and
then catches the attention of the reader.

Unity
Unity is the relationship establish between the topic sentence and
supporting details in a paragraph. It can be destroyed one or two sentences that
do not relate to the topic sentence are included in the paragraph. When this
happens we only have a series of disconnected sentences, not a paragraph.

Coherence
Coherence is obtained when the sentences in a paragraph are arranged in
a logical order such that they follow together smoothly.

Characteristics of a Paragraph
The main characteristics of a paragraph are brevity and originality. By
brevity is meant the fact or a paragraph to be short, concise and straight to the
point. This counts a lot when writing a paragraph. It is not necessary for a
paragraph to be over loaded with issues that are uncalled for.

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NB: Originality means the words contain in the paragraphs are those of the
writer himself or herself. Originality guards against plagiarism or word lifting.

Transitions in Paragraph
A transition is a smooth movement from one point to the next usually
marked in discourse with transitional words or phrases such as ‘furthermore, on
the other hand’. Transitions help writers in showing how ideas relate to each
other or one another in a paragraph or a composition below are examples

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A TRANSITION CHART
SN Relationship Transition Examples
Conveyed
1 Addition Also, and, too, in addition, As far as I am concern, it is too late to go. Furthermore, the mud is
further, furthermore making travel dangerous.
2 Time Now, then, before,, after, The president gave his speech. Then he answered the reporter’s
earlier, finally, soon, later, question
next
3 Space Near, next to, alongside, That car is parked illegally. Next to it is a police cruiser.
away, inside, to the right,
behind
4 Emphasis Indeed, in fact, surely, without Most female students of UB attend classes late. Without a
a doubt, for a certainty, doubt/for a certainty they go to bed late
certainly,
5 Comparison Similarly, in the same way, in The customers in the play were breath-taking. Similarly, the sets
like manner were well-done
6 Contrast However, in contrasts, but, Exercise is important for fitness. However, the wrong technique
still, nevertheless can cause injury.
7 Cause and effect On the contrary, yet, in I wasn’t in school yesterday. For that reason I was punished.
contrary, since, because, so,
so as to, as a result,
consequently, thus, therefore
8 Illustration For example, for instance, in Dr. Liu is a caring teacher. For example, she never ignores the
particular, specifically, … etc students question no matter how long it takes to answer it.
9 Summary/clarification In summary, in conclusion, in Mark is bright, talented and handsome. In brief, he has it all.
short, all in all, in brief, in
other words …… etc

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Exercise
1. What is a thesis sentence?
2. What is a topic sentence?
3. What are the elements of a paragraph?
4. What transitional words can be used to indicate contrast?

Answers
1. This is the main sentence (central idea) that controls the whole essay.
2. This is the main sentence (central idea) that controls the whole
paragraph.
3. Topic sentence, unity and coherence
4. On the contrary, on the other hand, whereas, while etc.

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CHAPTER THREE
NOTE-TAKING (In Lectures, Meetings)

A proper note-taking is a vital skill for study especially in higher learning (study).

- A good note taking allows a permanent record for revision.


- Relevant points are always noted that one can later use in his/her speech or
in writing.
- Plagiarism is highly reduced.
- Your own ideas are clearly distinguished and you know the source of the
idea and how you think about them.

What effective note-taking requires


- You have to recognise the salient ideas
- Identify what information is relevant to your task
- Having a system of note taking that works for you
- Reducing the information to note and diagram format
- Where possible putting the information in your own
- Recording the source of the information

Reading note-taking strategies


a) Be Selective and Systematic
- note that not all that is written may be relevant to you
like if you are reading to understand a topic or specific information about an
assignment.
Make sure to skim the text before you start to take notes.

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 Highlight the salient points, read the relevant sections carefully and take
separate notes.
NB: If reading your notes, (for instance) you need to have a good margin where
you can take down salient points.
 Your source infos and thoughts are differentiated, headings with
bibliographic reference, colours to highlight.

b. Identify the purpose and function of a text


- In order to save time and for clarity purpose, it is utmost that you identify
the main purpose and function of a text.
- You have to;
- Read the title and the abstract or preface
- Read the introduction or first paragraph
- Skim the text to read topic headings and notice how the text is organised.
- Read graphic material and predict its purpose in the text.

It is to enable you get/identify potentially useful information as you get initial


overviews of the text, selected.

 You have to ask yourself: if this:


Will this give me the information I need and where might it be located in the
text.
 To easily access where it is located in the text, you can turn to the back of
the text and heck at the subject index (for some texts).
c) Identify how information is organised

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This has to do with organizing principles of texts (a sequential ordering of
information) such as:
- Past to present ideas
- Steps/stages of a process/event
- Most important point to least important point
- Well known ideas to least known ones
- Simple to complex ideas
- General to specific ideas
- The largest to the smallest parts of something
- Problems to results
- Causes to results

Most words to note are information words which are usually nouns, verbs
and adjectives.

d) Include your thoughts


When taking notes, (like an assignment), it is also helpful to record your
thoughts at the time in a separate column in a different ink to that of the text.
- What idea did you have about your assignment when you read the
information?
- How do you think this information can be used in your assignment?

Listening Note-Taking Strategies


With this, you can’t stop a lecture and reviews as you listen (unless it is a
taped lecture)

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That is why it is always good to prepare to listen, in order to improve your
comprehension. That is
- Have a clear purpose
- Recognise the main ideas
- Select what is relevant, you do not need to write all that is said
- Have a system for recording information that works for you.

Lecture Survival Tips


Strategies to increase comprehension and improve note-taking

a) Before the lecture


- revise the previous lecture or tutorial
- Pre-read about the topic
- Check the pronunciation of any new words or discipline-specific language in
the pre-readings
- Rule your pages according to your note-taking system

NB: This saves time in the lecture

b) During the lecture


- Be on time and sit where you can get the lecturer clearly
- Distinguish between main points, elaboration, examples, repetition,
restatements and new points by
\
a) Listening for structural cues (transition words, introduction, body summary
stages)

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b) Looking for non-verbal cues (facial expression, hand and body signals)
c) Looking for visual cues not references to names and sources
d) Listening to phonological cues (voice change in volume, speed, emotion

Generally, with more important information, the speakers will speak slower, louder
and they will direct their attention to the audience.

c) After the lecture


- Revise lecture notes within 24 hours. Tidy up your handwriting, filling in
every missing bit.
Reviewing eases remembering lectures
- Attach any hand-outs to your lecture notes

Use symbols and Abbreviations


When speed is essential, the use of symbols and abbreviations becomes very
useful for lecture
- Develop a system of symbols and abbreviations; some personal, some from
your courses
- Be consistent when using symbols and abbreviation

Some common use symbols for note-taking


= equals/is equal to/ is the same as
≠ is not equal to / is not the same as
≡ is equivalent
therefore, thus, so
because

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+ and, more, plus
> more than, greater than
< less than
- minus, less
→ gives, causes, leads to, results in, is given by, is produced by, results
from
↑ rises, increases by
↓ falls, decreases by
proportional to
not proportional to

Abbreviations can be classified into 3 categories


1) Common Abbreviations
Most are derived from Latin
c.f. (confer) = compare
i.e. (id est) = that is
e.g. (exempla grate) = for example
NB (nota benne) = not well
no. (numero) = number
etc (et cetera) = and so on

2) Discipline Specific Abbreviations


In chemistry,
Au for Gold
GM for magnesium

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3) Personal Abbreviations
Here, you can shorten any word that is commonly used in your lecture.
e.g. diff = different
gov = government
etc

Some abbreviations are so common that they have now become acronym –
an abbreviation pronounced as a word.
e.g. ENAM, IRIC,

Use concept Maps and Diagrams

Exercise
1. State three importance of note –taking.
2. How can notes be taken down;
a. During lectures?
b. After lectures?
3. What possible symbols can be used when taking down notes?
Answers
See notes above.

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CHAPTER FOUR
TURN-TAKING IN CONVERSATIONAL ENGLISH
Introduction
Conversion has to do with people talking to each other in turns.
Conversation is very important in life for it is via it that people learn how to
socialize with others and grow in life.
You have to know how to initiate a conversation.
- By learning to greet people before you start a talk.
- You have to also tell your name and repeat the other’s name, then move on
to more interesting topics.
- Learn to keep conversation topics very general (not your particular field).
Note that languages are used in context.
For conversation to be very successful and seen as a conversation, all parties need
to have their own time to speak. This is where turn taking in conversation (e.g.
English) comes in.
Turn taking in conversation is the polite act of speaking when you are supposed to
in a dialogue. It is different from interruption which is the impolite act of taking
when the other party is still talking and has not yet initiated a turn.
So, for a conversation to be very interesting, one needs to know certain cues on
how to take turns.
Focus is on verbal cues.

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Turn taking Cues
1) Turn–Yielding Cues
It is used by speakers to indicate that he/she as finished speaking, and another
person may speak. If this cue is properly followed, the listener will then take his
turn in response to this cue emitted by the speaker.
Six (6) turn-yielding cues identified by DUNCAN (1972), five (5) are verbal or
paralinguistic, transmitted via the auditory channel.
a) Intonation:
b) Drawl on the final syllable, - or on the stressed syllable, of a terminal
clause.
c) Sociocentric sequences: the appearance of one of several stereotyped
expressions, typically following a substantive statement. E.g. “but ah”, “you
know”, etc.
d) Pitch/loudness: a drop in paralinguistic pitch and/or loudness in conjunction
with one of the sociocentric sequence.
e) Syntax: Example What do you think? Don’t you think so?
f) Gesticulation: transmitted via visual channels.
2) Back - Channel Cues
Used by listeners to indicate that they do not wish to talk even though the speaker
is indicating turn-yielding cues.
So, the listener does not become the speaker when he is supposed to.
Indicators here include “mm”, “oh” - reinforces
Non-verbal cues – like postural shifts, head nods or hand gestures.

3) Turn - Maintaining Cues

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Used by a speaker when he wants to keep talking. Here, speaking – turns are
suppressed. Hand gesture constitutes the most important nonverbal behavior, for
this purpose.
Some vocal cues are also used such as increased changes in volume, and rate of
speech in response to turn – requesting cues from listeners.
Using more filled pauses (‘Ah…”) than silent or unfilled pauses is a useful method
of turn maintaining.

4) Turn – Requesting Cues


When a listener uses/displays a number of verbal/non-verbal cues to the speaker,
so that he may talk.
It is often accomplished by simultaneous talking.
Buffers: Short words of phrases (content – free). Example, “but uh”, “you know”.
With this, the speaker knows the listener wants to speak.
Stutter: Just like buffers but reveals a stronger demand to speak. Used when the
speaker persistently has the floor.

Exercise
1. What is the difference between taking a turn and interrupting?
2. List the various turn-taking cues in conversation
Answers
1. Turn-taking is the polite way of talking after another person has stopped
talking while interruption deals with cutting in on someone to speak
when that person is still talking.
2. See notes above.

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CHAPTER FIVE
BASIC TECHNIQUES OF READING AND WRITING
You have to scan and skim the test.
Scanning
Run your eye quickly over the text to locate specific words or phrases that are of
interest.
- Headings and subheading.
- Images and artwork.
- The body text for author’s names.
- The content page itself.
- The index d=for specific words.
The will help you decide whether you should read before and how useful the
document might be for your study.
Skimming
Read quickly to get an overview prior to in-depth reading. Although you may still
need to read the entire text, by scanning first, u can decide where you want to
concentrate your time.
Skim the text quickly to:
- Get an indication of the scope and content of the text.
- Read the first and last paragraphs to get the main points.
- Look at the first sentences of each paragraph to see where the content of the
paragraph will lead.
- Note the key points in the summaries.

Time Management: Very crucial in reading.


Tips

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- Think about what you want to know – reading with a purpose.
- Know how deeply to study the material.
- Read actively – note taking.
- Know how to study different types of materials.
The time you read
Where you read / Peak hours
Review information when you finish reading.
You have to be aware of your peak hours.

BASIC TECHNIQUES OF WRITING


Writing is the art of expressing ideas or putting down what is heard so that it can
be seen or felt.
It is a way of discovering ideas as well as a way of expressing them. It is a daily
actively in the life of a student or person engaged in academic pursuits.
1) Descriptive Writing Techniques
2) Narrative Writing
3) Expository Writing

THINGS TO NOTE WHEN WRITING (MECHANISM OF WRITING)


A) PUNCTUATION MARKS
i) The Full Stop [ . ]
- Used at the end of a sentence.
- Used to mark abbreviated words. E.g. U.N.O, H.I.V, etc.
ii) The Question Mark [ ? ]
- Used at the end of an interrogative Sentence.
E.g. - Are you going home?

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- When are you coming?
iii) The exclamation mark [ ! ]
- Used at the end of an exclamatory sentence. i.e. a sentence that expresses a
strong feeling. E.g. God forbid!
iv)The Comma [ , ]
It is one of the most commonly misused punctuation marks among learners in
particular and writers in general. Meaning can be distorted if a comma is wrongly
placed.
E.g. As the speaker finished the audience stood to cheer.
Without a comma after “finished”. The sentence momentarily suggests that the
speaker finished the child. But he actually finished speaking. As the speaker
finished, the audience stood to cheer.
The comma has cleared the confusion.
A comma is used to:
a) Separate words, phrases and subordinate clause written in a series. For
example, Coke, Fanta, and Malta are on sale here.
The boys went there to play, sing and dance.
Subordinate:
As he plays, as he sings, as he laugh, Lucas has that passion in him.
b) Separate short main clauses in a series.
For example; the boys came, saw went back and conquered.
c) Separate two or more adjectives modifying the same noun. For example; it
has been a long, tiring and painful struggle to Priesthood.
d) Set off participial phrases and adjective clauses that are not essential to the
basic meaning of a sentence. For example; John, hoeing the farm, did not see
the snake/viper.

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e) Set off expressions that interrupt the sentence. For example, when, Pauline,
did you come?
f) Other uses;
- Before and, but, or, nor, for, when they join main clauses in a compound
sentence.
For example, Philo eats meat all the time, but doesn’t eat banana.
- Use a comma after a participial phrase or an adverb clause that begins a
sentence.
For example, seen as a thief, Mary decided to run.
- Use a comma to set off appositives and appositive phrases.
For example, Paul Biya, the President of Cameroon is still very strong.
- Use a comma to set off parenthetical
For example, Livinus, one of the boys, is a thief.
- Used after words such as yes, no, well, why, when there are used at the
beginning of a sentence.
For example, Well, I couldn’t agree with you.
- Used in addresses.
For example, The Director, ENAM, Yaounde, P.O. Box …, Buea.
v) The Colon [ : ]
- Used to introduce a list especially after expressions such as ‘as follow’ and
‘the following’.
For example, this room contains the following: a bed, pots, tables, clothes
and a box.
- It can be used in writing time between the hour and the minute.
For example, 10:30a.m
- It can also be used after the salutation of a business letter. E. g., Gentlemen;.

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- To separate an initial sentence or clause from the second clause, list or
quotation that supports the first in a particular way.
For example, Going to school is not easy: to begin with you have to do a lot
of research
vi)The Semi Colon [ ; ]
It sometimes plays the role of a comma separating item in a series especially
closely related independent clauses or sentence. For example, To err is human; to
forgive, divine.
vii) The Apostrophe [ ’ ]
- Used to show ownership or relationship. - John’s …, Men’s suit. Boy’s
House.
- To show where letters have been omitted. – Don’t in a contraction.
- Used to form plural of letters and numbers. E.g. Your 5’s look like S’s.
viii) Quotation Marks [“ ”]
Used to enclose direct words of a speaker or writer. For example, the man said,
“today na today”. A direct quotation usually begins with a capital letter, set off
from the rest of the sentence by a comma. When a quoted sentence is divided into
two parts by an interrupting expression such as, he said, the second part begins
with a small letter. For example, “My aunt,” said Geoffrey, “sent me packing”
ix) Hyphen [ - ]
- Used to divide a word at the end of a line. For example, Sus-pended.
- Used in compound adjectives. For example, end-of-year-party.
x) Brackets ( )
They are used to add clarifying information. For example, At sunset (in the
evening) we will leave.

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B) CAPITALISATION
It is another important element in the writing process.
The proper use of letters in the upper case.
What is capitalized?
- The personal pronoun. Example, “I’ anywhere in a sentence.
- The interjection. Example, “Oh!”
- The first letter of the first word of sentence. Example, The boys were here.
- All proper noun. Example, Joseph, Lucas, Canada, Muea.
- All proper adjectives. Example; Cameroonian food.
- Geographical names (sections of a country). Example, The North, the
Central, the South West Region,.
- Names of organisations. Example, United Nations Organisation.
- Name of government bodies and institutions. Example, The National
Assembly, Ministry of …
- Historical events/periods. Example, Gulf War, Middle Ages.
- Days and months. Example, Monday, January.
- Titles attached to surnames. Example, Captain Lucas, Honourable.
- Special events. Example, Easter Sunday, Labour Day.
- Business enterprise. Example, Guarantee Express, Vatican Shopping Centre.
- Religious Bodies. Example, the Cameroon Baptist Convention.

Handwriting
Good handwriting is one of the ingredients that make a good piece of work
attractive to the eyes. Writing is communication.
Good writing is one that is legible, readable, and respects the norms of the art (such
as correct use of upper case letters, etc).

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Note that Capital letters are not joined to small letters.

Exercise
1. What do you understand by;
a. Scanning a text?
b. Skimming?
2. What is “peak hour”?
3. List 5 punctuation marks.
4. State four instances where a full stop is used.
5. When do we use capital letters? List three instances

Answers
1. See notes on scanning and skimming above.
2. Peak hour is the best time someone can study and understand best.
3. The full stop, comma, semi colon, colon and hyphen.
4. (see section on punctuation marks)
5. (see notes on capitalization)

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CHAPTER SIX
LETTER WRITING

Parts of a Formal Letter


The elements that make up formal letters do not vary, so it is important here to
identify them.

The sender’s address


Includes the full mailing address to which a reply can be sent. It appears at the top
right or left of a page depending on the format you choose. The name of the sender
does not appear in this section, unless in informal letters. The position of the name
is below the signature, i.e. after the complementary close.

The date
It is generally places one space below the sender’s address.

The recipient’s address


It contains the full mailing address of the official who would receive or treat the
letter. If you do not know the recipient’sname, you could use their position, e.g:
The Personnel Manager …, the Managing Director …, etc.

The Salutation
Begin with ‘Dear’, followed by the recipient’s name.If you don’t know the
recipient’s name, use ‘Dear Sir or Madam’. Use ‘Dear Sir/Madam’, if the
recipient’s sex is not known.

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The Subject
It is generally a fragment (not a full sentence) and states the precise purpose of the
letter. Capitalise the first letter of every content word in the subject, and underline.
If the subject is all in capital letters, you do not need to underline it.

The Body
It comprises the content of the letter – the greeting, purpose and conclusion.

The complimentary close


This refers to the words of courtesy that are used at the end of a letter. The closing
appears at the end of the letter, just before the signature. It is always aligned with
the heading (writer’s address), in the indented format. In block and semi block
formats, it is aligned with the recipient’s address.

- Capitalise the first word in the closing and end it with a comma.
- The closing is determined by the salutation. If you salute by title only, then
close with ‘yours faithfully’ but if you use the recipient’s name in the
salutation, close with ‘yours sincerely’.

The signature
It is always placed below the complimentary close. It comes before the writer’s
name, not after.

The sender’s name


It is written below the signature. It is important to leave enough space for the
signature if the letter is typed.

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Attachments/enclosures (optional)
Any supporting documents that are enclosed with a letter have to be mentioned.

Copy (CC)
If you copy any person(s), include the list of persons copied.

Formats
One of the distinguishing characteristics of formal letters is that they are written in
clearly defined formats. Format refers to layout or presentation on a page. Whether
we are writing an application for a job, a complaint, or a request for financial
assistance, the format for presentation does not change. Format generally involves
the position of the key elements we have identified above.

There arethree main formats that are used in most formal correspondence: the full
block, the semi-block, and the indented formats. Each of these is presented below.

Full block format


Sender’s address, date, receivers address, salutation, complimentary close,
signature, and name are aligned to the left margin. This format is recommended for
writing on headed paper. It doesn’t look elegant if handwritten.

Semi block format


The sender’s address and date are aligned to the top right margin; recipient’s
address and salutation are aligned to the left; complimentary close name and
signature are aligned to the left margin.

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Indented format
The sender’s address and date are aligned to the top right margin; recipient’s
address and salutation are aligned to the left; complimentary close, name and
signature are aligned to the right margin. Paragraphs are indented four spaces from
the left margin. This format is recommended for hand written correspondence.

Exercise
1. List five parts of a formal letter.
2. State the three formats of a formal letter.
3. What is the difference between enclosure and carbon copy?

Answers
1. Address, addressee, salutation, topic, body
2. The indented, semi-block and block formats
3. While enclosure deals with the list of documents that accompany a letter,
while carbon copy deals with the list of offices or persons that a copy of a
letter has been forwarded to.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
ADMINISTRATIVE LETTER

Introduction
The main aim here is to improve the quality of written communication is English to meet
international norms and the evolution of administrative writing and oral communication
in English.

The issue at stake us for one too know the key principles, tools and techniques of
administrative letters will be known for students to master and use widely within
governmental and other public sector Organizations in Cameroon.

Key issues/principles of communication


The ability to communicate effectively is an essential management skill.
There are 3 key principles:

a) Be clear about the message you are seeking to communicate: think before you
write. Make sure you know the purpose and what you want the recipient to do.
Study the dossier, get to grips with the subject and make sure you know the main
facts. Never write anything you yourself do not understand.
b) Identify the target audience as precisely as you can . Put yourself in the shoes of
the person or organisation you are communicating with. Think about how much
they already know about the subject, how much interest they have in it and what
concerns they are likely to have. Adjust the language to suit the audience.
c) Keep it short and simple (KISS): put the message across as clearly, simply and
succinctly as you can. The longer and more complex the message, the less likely it
is to be remembered.

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NB: Communication is a two way process. Make it easy for the recipient to react by
giving contact details. Whether + or -. Feedback helps to ensure that the message has
been received and understood.

Tips, tools and techniques for clear and concise writing


- Use short concrete words.
- Use short sentences (15 to 20 words)
- Keep paragraphs short and use plenty of white space
- Avoid repetition and words that do not add anything to the meaning.
- Use clear headings in bold
- Prefer the active (simple and more direct) to the passive. (more personal and long-
winded), but sometimes the passive is useful (e.g. to emphasise the object rather
than the subject of the sentence, to be less blunt, to avoid responsibility).
- Avoid nominalisation (wherever you can, use a verb rather than a noun)
- Omit unnecessary details.
- for statistics, consider an annex (and/or a graph, tabled or bar-chart).
- Be consistent (e.g. in layout, typeface, tense, spellings)
- Get someone else to proof read.
- put it away for a day or two and then look at it again.

The administrative practice has been inherited from the French system (since, 1972).
Many administrative documents used in Cameroon are not used in the UK and have no
English equivalents. So, the titles, layout and content of many types of administrative
documents cannot easily be translated into English.

Exercise
1. State the three key principles to note when writing administrative letters.
- Know the message you are seeking to communicate.

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- Know your target audience as precisely as you can.
- Keep it short and simple
2. List five points to note when writing administrative letters.
(see lecture notes above on tips and tools to note when writing administrative
letters)

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CHAPTER EIGHT
WRITING INVITATIONS
An invitation is a call requesting the presence of someone or people to be present
at a particular place at a particular date and time. And invitation has five main
parts. These are;
1. Who (the sender of the invitation)
It helps the recipient to know the source of the letter, so as to know how to
appear before the person(s) who requested for his presence.
2. Whom (the recipient)
It helps the recipient to know that it is his presence that is requested and no
other person. This also helps him know there is no case of mistaken identity.
3. Why (the purpose of the invitation)
The purpose helps the recipient to know how to prepare himself before
appearing before the sender.
4. Where (the venue)
This makes the recipient not to miss out on the location and go to a different
place. It helps to guide his direction.
5. When (the date and time)
The recipient is able to prepare well ahead of time, so that he or she knows
when to take off and when to arrive the destination and in/on time.

If the recipient is to play a particular role or appear in a particular dressing, it is


necessary to specify it in the letter in order for him not to be embarrassed at the
venue. For instance, if the person is invited to a fund raising ceremony, and he is to
chair the occasion, it is better you specify it so that he knows how to prepare

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himself. If it is an annual cultural festival, and he is supposed to chair the occasion
and appear in the traditional regalia, it is good to inform him in the invitation.

N.B. A sample invitation will be made available in class during lectures.

REPLYING TO AN INVITATION
When you receive an invitation, it is necessary to send back a reply. Whether
positive or negative, feedback helps the sender to understand that the letter was
received, read and understood.
In replying to an invitation, you must restate all the five main points that must be in
the invitation; who, whom, why, where and when. If you are to play a peculiar role
at the occasion (in case of an occasion), you need to restate it in the reply. Then tell
them if you will be there or not (in case of an occasion).

If on the other hand you will not be able to make it, it is polite to inform them and
give the reason that prevents you from being present to that occasion. This makes
the sender to know well ahead of time and do some further adjustments.

N.B. see in-class lecture notes for samples of letters.

Exercise
1. What is an invitation?
(see introductory notes above)
2. List the five main points that must be found in an invitation.
(see answer above)

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CHAPTER NINE
Writing Résumé/Curriculum Vitae (CV)
When you compose a résumé and write an accompanying letter of application, you
must rely on your writing to persuade a potential employer that your qualifications,
personality and interest make you the best candidate for the job.
It is a summary of your experience and qualifications. Sometimes called a vita (the
Latin word for life), lists chronologically the activities of your life that qualifies you for a
job. A very essential part in job application.

Format
- CV has no standard format
- Format might change with respect to context
- Résumé should be easy to follow and attractive both structurally and content wise.
- Headings and subheadings should be underlined
- Leave wide margins and sufficient white space between the major sections of your
résumé.
- No needless detail
- A CV should contain four main things:
i) your life history
ii) your job history
iii) your achievements
iv) your skills

Content
Personal Details
- full names
- current address
- phone number

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- occupation
- date of birth
- place of birth
- nationality

Education and Experience


- List items in reverse chronological order, with accurate dates
- End with names phone numbers and addresses of the referees.
- Do not include personal information like height, weight, or marital status, unless it
has a direct bearing on the job you are applying for.
- Education, qualification and training
- Education
- Qualification
- Training
- Career history – descending chronological order
- Subsidiary skills
- Computer knowledge
- Knowledge of language
- Membership of professional associations
- Research and publications
- International conferences and seminars attended
- Hobbies
- Names and addresses of references
Signature
Name
Date

Exercise
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Draw up your curriculum vitae and submit to the lecturer.
CHAPTER TEN
MINUTES
Definitions

Minutes: summarises the proceedings at a meeting.

Agenda: List of points to be discussed at a meeting, in the order in which they shall be
handled.

AOB: (Any other business) or other matters points that are discussed which were not
stated on the agenda. AOB comes after the points on the agenda have been exhausted.

A Quorum: Minimum number of association members to be present before a meeting


can begin. It can be a simple majority, i.e. half + 1.

Adoption: Accepting minutes as binding on the association. When minutes have been
corrected, they are adopted which makes them official records of an association.

Matters arising: points read from the minutes but require further discussions

To adjourn: to suspend deliberations/proceedings.

A motion: a formal proposal for some course of action to be taken. It means moving a
motion.

A resolution: is the course for action agreed on (decision taken) after deliberations of a
motion. Several motions could be moved on an issue, but only one resolution is generally
reached.

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Chief Whips: these are the persons in charge of maintaining order and discipline in the
association. They are also in charge of arranging the meeting halls and sharing of
anything that needs to be shared at the meeting.
Format/Structure
There is no strict format. This is a good guide
a) Title: Name of association, date of meeting, venue, e.g
b) Opening: It deals with rituals such as opening remarks, prayers, roll call, apologies
for absence, etc.
c) Presentation of Agenda: (adopted, if no amendments)
d) Reading of previous minutes: (followed by corrections and adoption)
e) Matters Arising:
f) New matters
g) AOB
h) Closing: closing rituals such as closing remarks, the date/venue of the next
meeting.

Language
Tense, voice, pronouns, should be noted.

Tense: Past tense (simple past, past perfect and past progressive) e.g. had received, was
preparing etc.

Voice: Passive voice is preferred though the active is equally used.

NB:
We use the active voice when the actor is clearly identified. If not use the passive,
e.g. the president observed that the financial secretary has misappropriated association
funds (active).

Pronouns: 3rd person pronoun forms as best for they are more impersonal.
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- Reported speech should be used rather than direct speech.

Contents
- Follow the agenda
- Take important points
- Pause the meeting and ask for clarity when confuse on what resolution to put
down.
- For each point, sum the discussion relating to it and state the resolution if any.
Draw the attention of the chair if confused.

Layout
- Separate each point, i.e. present each point in a separate paragraph, or underline
each point.

Adhoc/extraordinary meetings
- Unplanned meetings
- Held to address a specific issue(s).
- Minutes differ from normal ones, for there is not reading of previous minutes.
NB: Opening, agenda, AOB, closing (depending on the issue)

The title: it contains the full name of the association, the date, venue and
time the meeting started.

Exercise
State and define five terms used in minutes of meetings.
(see notes above on definition of terms)

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CHAPTER ELEVEN

WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS


Definitions
A report is a true and accurate account of an event or activity of what has
happened somewhere or the state of a given situation or thing, presented by a person or
group of persons to another person or group of persons.
The writer must be objective in his presentation since the report is meant to reflect
what actually happened or is happening.
The passive voice is used and the 3rd person (he/she or the director) is used.

NB: A report should have a writer, audiences and purpose.

A report must be:


1) Factual
2) Objective (unbiased)
3) Informative
It must serve as a referential document, gotten from the event or activity itself.

N.B.2: A report has no standard formats. It depends/differs on the institution,


organization, etc
Before you engage into writing a report, there are important aspects to note in
order to prepare a report.
1) The provision of a title – clear objective
2) The provision of sub-titles
3) Appropriate tenses, i.e. past tense, present perfect and past perfect.
4) Name of writer, position he holds
5) It must be dated and signed

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Reports could be persuasive where the writer aims at convincing his employer/manager
to implement solutions. Others could be explanatory.
A good report must consider:
- The audience
- The purpose
Here, the writer presents the relevant facts, analyses the situation and makes proposals on
a possible course of action.

Types of Reports
- Committee reports
- Feasibility study reports
- Financial reports
- Individual performance appraisal reports – written by one’s immediate boss, to
determining if an employee is due promotion
- Project reports (states the progress of a project, the possible date of completion
and problems, etc)
- Research reports
- Visit reports (field trips, etc)

Format of a Report
- Short reports contain – title, summary, intro, body and conclusions.
- It should be consistent
- Wide margins and sufficient white space
- Use bullets and other forms of highlighting the note key point s
- Clear and easy to read
- Bold headings and subheadings

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Steps for a Simple Report
a) Define the purpose
b) Identify the target audience
c) Collect the information you need
d) Sort out the information (selecting main issues, categorizing)
e) Decide on the structure of the document (how many sections and subsections to
make)
f) Write the document
g) Read over the report (also give someone to)

Language and Style


- Avoid – 1st person pronouns
- Be as short and concise as possible; use plain English (jargons)
- Leave out superfluous words and expressions (e.g. as a matter of fact, etc)
- Avoid jargon or acronyms the reader may not understand.
- Watch the grammar of your sentences (subject-verb agreements, pronouns and
their antecedents. Avoid fragments).

Focus and organization of a report


1) The solution one has selected as preferable to a particular problem.
2) A recommendation about implementation. Implementation specifies who will
carry out the solution, at what time and how.
Thus, there must be specific solution and concrete recommendation.
The writer needs to examine the problems of the organization carefully, to pinpoint
the precise nature of the problems.

Components of a Report
1) Title page, table of contents, list of illustration (if needed)
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Guides especially for busy readers of long reports who may not want to read the
whole report.
In a case where the report is under 750 words, the above is not needed. The report
is done in the form of a memorandum with appropriate headings, as
Date: (fill the date of the report)
To: (fill the recipient’s names and title)
From: (fill your name and job title or position)
Subject: (state the general topic of the report)

2) A concise introduction
This introduction should contain:
- A brief statement of the problem
- A recommendation/solution
- A method of implementation
The above constitute your focus.
The introduction is a summary of the most important section of the report. It is
important for the busy recipients, who need to know only the most important things.

3) Overview
This should describe
- The purpose of the report
- The problem to be examined
- The scope of the report, which is an enumeration of the alternative solutions to be
discussed later. The overview expands on materials outlined in the introduction.

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4) Criteria
It is the statement used to evaluate alternatives. The audience needs to know the
grounds on which you will choose your solution. This section is usually short since the
actual application of the criteria is in the next section.

5) Discussion of alternative solution in Relation the Criteria


This is the lengthiest section of the report. It is the technical and it presents an
account of whatever research went into selecting the solution.

6) Recommendations
This is a reiteration of the solution and the statement that reiterates the
implementation is made here.

Exercise
1. What is a report?
It is a true and accurate account of an event that has happened or is
happening.
2. When is a report considered long?
It is considered long when the words exceed 750.
3. What must a good report consider?
The audience, and purpose.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
WRITING PROJECTS
What is Project Writing?
 The language of projects
 The language is a salient factor in any writing. One needs to note on the elements
of language such as:

a) Tense
The time in which a project is written is of utmost importance. The researcher
should mostly employ the past tense. Here, the researcher is analyzing the data collected.
So, he writes on what was gathered, e.g. It was realized that …..
But when principles are to be explained, the simple present tense is used.
For instance:
The …. Principle holds that _____ is not _____. The reported speech is also
employed and not the direct speech,

b) Voice
Here, we are dealing with the Passive and Active voice. The passive voice is
preferable here. This is to avoid focusing on who did what. But rather focus is on what
was done. e.g. you don’t say ‘I discovered that …’ Rather, you say ‘It was discovered
that malaria is prevalent in the Littoral Region’.

NB:
The active voice should be used in describing technical situations.
Always try too distant the personality. e.g. Research was done on …..
You don’t say:
I went to the villages where malaria is prevalent.
Rather, you say:
Villages where malaria is prevalent were visited. Go back to those exercises on
passives.
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN

Technical Instructions
These are directives dished out for someone to follow strictly.
It is often written in the simple present tense and takes the forms of commands and
directives.
- Be short and precise
- Instruction speak for themselves

Diction
Your choice of words is conditional by the effect you want.
Here, you use scientific terms. So, you must watch your choice of words.

How to write instructions


- Prefix the instructions to help you to write
- Prefix the instruction with a clear heading that summarizes the task.
- Start each instruction with a verb that tells the reader to do something.
e.g. ‘open the valve … etc’
- Use a numbered list when the order is important. Use a bulleted list when the order
is not important (e.g. when the reader can choose between options).
- Put notes and warnings at the start of the instruction or before the list item to
which they refer.
- Specify conditions before the primary part of the instructions e.g. at step 6, of
some stock taking instructions, do not write, ‘before you start the stock, make sure
that you put on gloves/glasses.
- Don’t mix instructions with conceptual informative. Give the necessary
background information before the instruction.
- Write for your audience and use a level of detail that is suitable to their skill level.

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- Avoid lists of more than, say 10 steps. If possible, divide as long list of
instructions into 2 or more different tasks.
- Specify what the reader does when the task is complete
If the reader asks ‘now what?’ The instruction is not complete

EXERCISE

1. What are instructions?

(see definition above)

2. State five points to note when writing instructions.

(see lecture notes above on how to write instructions)

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CHAPTER FOURTEEN

SUMMARIZING DOCUMENTS
To summarize means to abridge, to condense, to abstracts, to epitomize and to
encapsulate. This involves making a synopsis, or giving a gist. Summary deals with key
points of a text and must be clear, coherent and compact so that anyone who reads it will
get the substance in the original text. Here, vagueness, verbosity and unnecessary
rambling is avoided.

Why it is important
- It helps retain important information that can be useful in examinations
- Helps to save time for a busy boss who has no time or opportunity to read the
original
- Thus, it helps for academic and professional success.

How to summarize
 Differentiate between relevant and irrelevant points

1) Read the passage two times


First reading, get a grasp of your general impression of the text, central idea(s);
thesis statement and topic sentence.
Second reading:
Use a pencil to underline the main arguments, numbering them in the margin.
Identify the topic in each paragraph. Not irony, sarcasm, which might convey quite
the opposite of what they seem to imply.
Read a third time, occasionally glancing the arguments in the margins to see how
these can provide clues to a title.

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2) Give a title
Read the main points you have underlined in the first two readings to figure out a
possible title. It should be very brief.

3) Prepare an outline
This requires that the main ideas be selected from the body of the text and written
down, crossing out irrelevant expressions.

4) Make a rough draft


Make a rough draft based on the notes you scrawled but separate from the original.
This requires the connection of the arguments into one paragraph, called a rough version.
Even though slower, it is effective and gives room for correction, addition and
improvement.
Notice how the writer of the original text arranges his points.
- Do not use words like ‘for example, for instance’ summary states points, examples
support main ideas.
- Use general words to replace specific words by asking yourself what is common
among the words used, e.g. chairs, tables, stools, wood stands – furniture
- Goats, pigs, antelopes, etc – fauna/flora
- Grass, flowers, trees etc – fauna/flora

5) Write the final version


Cross the draft
Use the past tense and the third person. Compare the rough draft with the original
passage to ensure the inclusion of the essential points.
- Then, check the word limit to ensure that it conforms yo prescription. If no word
limit is set, reduce the text to one third of the original.
- Avoid using very tiny hand writing with the intention of cramming your work.

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- Next check to ensure that you have NOT USED: questions, direct speech and
figures of speech.
Finally, read your final version once more, this time checking the errors in English
and making sure your work makes sense.

Exercise

1. What does the term, summarize, mean?

It means to reduce the original form of a text to a short size.

2. Why do we summarize?

(see notes above)

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