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DERIVATIVES
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Introduction

Observe the following picture:

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Introduction

Observe the following picture:

• The gradient of the line AB:

f (c + h) − f (c)
mAB = .
h
• As h goes to 0, the line AB approaches the
tangent line of the curve at point (c, f (c)).

Therefore, the gradient of the tangent line of the curve at point (c, f (c)) can be obtained from the
gradient of the line AB by making h get closer and closer to 0, that is
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim .
h→0 h
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Derivatives at a point

Given a function f and c ∈ Df .

Definition 5.1
The derivative of f at c, denoted by f ′ (c), is defined by

f (c + h) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim ,
h→0 h
provided the limit exists.

By substituting x = c + h, we obtain that x goes to c if and only if h goes to 0. Therefore, the above
formula can be written as
f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim .
x→c x−c

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An example: derivatives at a point

Example 1
Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 3x at x = 1.

Solution:
f (1 + h) − f (1)
f ′ (1) = lim
h→0 h
((1 + h)2 − 3(1 + h)) − (12 − 3.1)
= lim
h→0 h
(−2 − h + h2 ) − (−2)
= lim
h→0 h
−h + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim −1 + h
h→0
= −1.

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An example: derivatives at a point

Example 2
Find the derivative of f (x) = |x − 2| at x = 2.

Solution:
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→0 h
|h| − |2 − 2|
= lim
h→0 h
|h|
= lim .
h→0 h

|h|
Observe that lim does not exist. Therefore, the derivative of f at x = 2 does not exist.
h→0 h

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Derivatives

Given a function f . Define the following set

Df ′ = {c ∈ Df : f ′ (c) exists}.

Definition 5.2
The mapping f ′ from Df ′ to R, defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim , ∀ x ∈ Df ′ ,
h→0 h
is a function and is known as the derivative of f .

Several notations:
df dy
f′ y′ or .
dx dx

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An example: derivatives

Example 3
Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 3x.

Solution:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
((x + h)2 − 3(x + h)) − (x2 − 3x)
= lim
h→0 h
(x2 + 2xh + h2 − 3x − 3h) − (x2 − 3x)
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 − 3h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 2x + h − 3
h→0
= 2x − 3.

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An example: derivatives

Example 4
Find the derivative of f (x) = |x − 2|.

Solution: Observe that (

x−2 if x ≥ 2
f (x) =
2−x if x < 2.

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An example: derivatives

Example 4
Find the derivative of f (x) = |x − 2|.

Solution: Observe that (

x−2 if x ≥ 2
f (x) =
2−x if x < 2.

• For x > 2,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h − 2) − (x − 2)
= lim
h→0 h
h
= lim
h→0 h
= 1.
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An example: derivatives

Example 4
Find the derivative of f (x) = |x − 2|.

Solution: Observe that (

x−2 if x ≥ 2
f (x) =
2−x if x < 2.

• For x < 2,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
(2 − x − h) − (2 − x)
= lim
h→0 h
−h
= lim
h→0 h
= −1.
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An example: derivatives

Example 4
Find the derivative of f (x) = |x − 2|.

Solution: Observe that (

x−2 if x ≥ 2
f (x) =
2−x if x < 2.
We already know that f ′ (2) does not exists (see Example 5.3). Then the derivative of f is
(
′ 1 if x > 2
f (x) =
−1 if x < 2.

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Properties

Theorem 5.3
If f has a derivative at a, then f is continuous at a.

Proof: Since f has a derivative at a, then

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
x→a x−a
exists. Next,
f (x) − f (a)
lim (f (x) − f (a)) = lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= lim lim (x − a)
x→a x−a x→a

= f ′ (a) · 0 = 0.

Therefore, lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

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Properties

Theorem 5.4
If f is a constant (f (x) = k), then f ′ (x) = 0.

Theorem 5.5
If f (x) = xn where n is a natural number, then f ′ (x) = nxn−1 .

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Properties

Theorem 5.6
u
Let u and v be two functions which have derivatives and k ∈ R. Then u + v, ku, uv, and v
(v ̸= 0)
have derivatives. Furthermore,

1. If f (x) = u(x) + v(x), then f ′ (x) = u′ (x) + v ′ (x).

2. If f (x) = ku(x) with k ∈ R, then f ′ (x) = ku′ (x).
3. If f (x) = u(x)v(x), then
f ′ (x) = u′ (x)v(x) + u(x)v ′ (x).
u(x)
4. If f (x) = , then
v(x)
u′ (x)v(x) − u(x)v ′ (x)
f ′ (x) = .
v(x)2

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Properties

Corollary 5.7
If f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 (polynomial) , then by Theorem 5.8 and Theorem 5.9
we get
f (x) = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x + a1 .

Corollary 5.8
If f (x) = xr with r ∈ Q\{0}, then f ′ (x) = rxr−1 .

Corollary 5.9
If f (x) = xr with r ∈ R\{0}, then f ′ (x) = rxr−1 .

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Properties: Chain Rule

Theorem 5.10
Let f and g have derivatives. If y = f (u) where u = g(x), then y = f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x) has a
derivative which satisfies
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

We can rewrite the above formula as

(f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)).g ′ (x).

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An example: derivatives

Example 5
5
Find the derivative of (x2 − 3x) 2 .

5 5 3 ′
Solution: Let f (x) = x 2 and g(x) = x2 − 3x. Observe that f ′ (x) = x 2 , g (x) = 2x − 3, and
2
5
(x2 − 3x) 2 = f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x).
5
Therefore, the derivative of (x2 − 3x) 2 is
5 2 3
(f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) = (x − 3x) 2 (2x − 3).
2

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Exercises

1. Find f ′ (1) (if exists) for each of the following functions:

a f (x) = 2 − x − x2 .
x
b f (x) = .
( +1
2x
x2 − 3x, x < 1
c f (x) =
−2x, x ≥ 1.
2. Find the derivative of each function below:

√ 1
a f (x) = (x2 − 5x + 2)(x3 − 1). d f (x) = x x + √ .
x2 − 1 x x
b f (x) = . x5 x4 x3
x
√ e f (x) = − + .
2x x + 3x 5√ 4 3
c f (x) = . x
5x2 f f (x) = √ .
x− x

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Exercises

3. Utilizing the chain rule, find the derivative of the following functions:
p s
(a) f (x) = qx4 + 1. 4 x3 + 1
√ (e) f (x) = .
(b) f (x) = x + x. x3 − 1
3  3 !4
x−1 2

1 2
(c) f (x) = x + . (f ) f (x) = +x .
x x+1
 3
1 1
(d) f (x) = − .
x+2 x−2

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Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 5.11
If f (x) = sin x, then f ′ (x) = cos x.

Proof:
f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x
f ′ (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
 
sin x cos h − sin x cos x sin h
= lim +
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x · lim + lim cos x · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= (sin x) · 0 + (cos x) · 1 = cos x.

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Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

We also have
Theorem 5.12
d
• (cos x) = − sin x
dx
d
• (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
• (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx
d
• (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
• (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx

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An example: derivatives of trigonometric function

Example 6
sin x + cos x
Find the derivative of f (x) = .
x2

Solution:
d d
x2 (sin x + cos x) − (sin x + cos x) (x2 )
′
f (x) = dx dx
x4
2
x (cos x − sin x) − 2x(sin x + cos x)
=
x4
x(cos x − sin x) − 2(sin x + cos x)
= .
x3

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Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Theorem 5.13
d 1
• (arcsin x) = √ , −1 < x < 1.
dx 1 − x2
d 1
• (arccos x) = − √ , −1 < x < 1.
dx 1 − x2
d 1
• (arctan x) = .
dx 1 + x2
d 1
• (arcsec x) = √ , |x| > 1.
dx x x2 − 1
d 1
• (arccsc x) = − √ , |x| > 1.
dx x x2 − 1
d 1
• (arccot x) = − .
dx 1 + x2

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An example: derivatives of inverse trigonometric function

Example 7
Find the derivative of arcsin(tan 2x).

1
Solution: Let f (x) = arcsin x and g(x) = tan 2x. Note that f ′ (x) = √ , g ′ (x) = 2 sec2 2x, and
1 − x2
arcsin(tan 2x) = f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x).

Therefore, the derivative of arcsin(tan 2x) is

1 2 sec2 2x
(f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) = p 2 sec2 2x = p .
1 − tan2 (2x) 1 − tan2 (2x)

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The Derivative of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Theorem 5.14

(a) If f (x) = ex , then f ′ (x) = ex .

(b) If f (x) = ax with a > 0, then f ′ (x) = ax ln a.
1
(c) If f (x) = ln x, then f ′ (x) = .
x
1
(d) If f (x) = loga x with a > 1, then f ′ (x) = .
x ln a

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An example: derivatives of exponential function

Example 8
√
2
Find the derivative of e 1−x .
√ 1
Solution: Let f (x) = ex , g(x) = x, and h(x) = 1−x2 . Note that f ′ (x) = ex , g ′ (x) = √ , h′ (x) =
2 x
−2x, and √
2
e 1−x = f (g(h(x))) = (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x).
√
2
Therefore, the derivative of e 1−x is

(f ◦ g ◦ h)′ (x) = f ′ (g(h(x)))g ′ (h(x))h′ (x)

√
2 1
= e 1−x . √ .(−2x)
2 1 − x2
√
x 2
= −√ e 1−x .
1 − x2

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An example: derivatives of logarithmic function

Example 9
x2
Find the derivative of log .
x+1
x2 1 x2 + 2x
Solution: Let f (x) = log x, g(x) = . Note that f ′ (x) = , g ′ (x) = , and
x+1 x ln 10 (x + 1)2
x2
log = f (g(x)) = (f ◦ g)(x).
x+1
x2
Therefore, the derivative of log is
x+1
1 x2 + 2x
(f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x) = x2
x+1
ln 10 (x + 1)2
x + 1 x2 + 2x
= 2
x ln 10 (x + 1)2
x+2
= .
x(x + 1) ln 10
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The Derivative of Certain Functions

In this part, we will discuss about the derivative of the following functions:

(a) Derivative of Inverse Functions

(b) Derivative of Implicit Functions
(c) Derivative of Parametric Functions

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The Derivative of Inverse Functions

Let f be a function and g be the inverse of function f .

Theorem 5.15
If f has a derivative on some open intervals, then g has a derivative on the same interval as well
and it holds
1
g ′ (y) = ′ .
f (x)

We can rewrite the above theorem in this way: If y = f (x) has a derivative and the inverse is x = g(x),
then
dx 1
= .
dy dy
dx

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An example: derivatives of inverse function

Example 10
dx
Find if y = x2 + 1 for x > 0.
dy

Solution: Observe that

dy
= 2x.
dx
Then we have
dx 1 1 1
= dy = = √ .
dy
dx
2x 2 y−1

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The Derivative of Implicit Functions

If a function f is of the form y = f (x), then we said function f is in the explicit form. In general, not
all functions could be expressed in the explicit form but we may express f in the form

F (x, y) = 0

which is of the implicit form.

Example 11
Here we have some implicit function:

(a) xy − 4 = 0.
(b) x2 + y 2 = 1.
(c) exy + y 3 = x2 .

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The Derivative of Implicit Functions

Below we have an algorithm to find the derivative of implicit functions.

Steps:
Given an implicit function where y is a function of x and has a derivative.

(1) Take the derivative of both side of the equations respect to variable x.
(2) Use the chain rule to find the derivative of each term.
dy
(3) Move all term with factor to the left side and the rest to the right side.
dx
dy
(4) At the end, express the equation of the form = G(x, y).
dx

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An example: derivatives of implicit function

Example 12
dy
Find if 3x2 + 4y 2 = 2x.
dx

Solution: Take the derivative for both side with respect to x,

d d
(3x2 + 4y 2 ) = (2x)
dx dx
d d
⇔ (3x2 ) + (4y 2 ) = 2.
dx dx
d
⇔ 6x + 4 (y 2 ) = 2.
dx
dy
⇔ 6x + 4.(2y). = 2.
dx
dy
⇔ (8y). = 2 − 6x.
dx
dy 2 − 6x
⇔ = .
dx 8y

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An example: derivatives of implicit function

Example 13
dy
Find if x3 + y 3 = 3xy.
dx

Solution: Take the derivative for both side with respect to x,

d 3 d
(x + y 3 ) = (3xy)
dx dx   
d 3 d 3 d dy
⇔ (x ) + (y ) = (3x) y + 3x
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
⇔ 3x2 + 3y 2 = 3y + 3x
dx dx
dy dy
⇔ 3y 2 − 3x = 3y − 3x2
dx dx
dy
⇔ (3y 2 − 3x) = 3y − 3x2
dx
dy 3y − 3x2
⇔ = 2 .
dx 3y − 3x
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The Derivative of Parametric Functions

Given a parametric function 

x = f (t)
(1)
x = g(t)

where t is a parameter.
Theorem 5.16
The derivative of implicit function (1) is given by
dx
dy dt f ′ (t)
= = .
dx dx
dt
g ′ (t)

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An example: derivatives of parametric function

Example 14
dy
Find of parametric function: x = cos t and y = sin t, 0 ≤ t < π.
dx

Solution: Note that,

dy dx
= cos t dan = − sin t.
dt dt
Therefore, we obtain
dy cos t
= = − cot t.
dx − sin t
We can write the derivative in terms of x and y, i.e.,
dy cot t x
= =− .
dx − sin t y

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Exercises

dy
1. Find if
dx
√
= −1+tan
2
(a) y x
(k) y = e x −4 
√ sec x
(b) y
= sec x 5 (l) y = ln 1−x
1+x
(c) = tan2 x + cot2 x
y (m) y = ln(x2 + y 2 )
p
(d) y
= csc x cot x (n) y = ln(cos x)
√
(e) = x sin x1
y (o) y = csc(ln x) − esec 2x
x 1 + sin x
(f) y = (p) y =
sin
√ x + cos x 1 − sinp x √
(g) y = 1 − x2 arcsin x2 (q) y = arccos x 1 − x2
√
(h) y = arctan(x − 2
 1 + x ) (r) y = esin x sin(ex )
√
1
(i) y = arctan 1+x2 (s) y = ln 1 + xe−2x
p
(j) y = x arcsin(1 − x2 ) (t) y = ln x + ln(x + ln x).

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Exercises

dy
2. Find if
dx

(a) x2 + y 3 − 3xy = 0 (k) x ln y + y ln x = exy

√ √ √ p
(b) x + y + xy = 6 (l) x sin y + y sin x = cot x2 y
(c) x2 y + xy 2 = x + 1 (m) x arcsin y + y arcsin x = xy
(d) xy + xy = xy (n) arccos xy + arccos xy = 1
2
(e) x2 = y2y−1 (o) xy sin(arccos xy) = xy
arcsin exy = ex+y
p
(f) x2 + y 2 = xy (p)
x−1
(g) y−1 = 1 − xy (q) ex sin y + ey sin x = xy
(h) cos(x + y) = sin(xy) (r) esin x = sin(ex )
(i) ey cos x + e−x sin y = 10 (s) ln(ln(ln x)) = esin y
(j) x2 y 2 = exy (t) sin (exy ) = ln(arctan xy).

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 “If you cannot do great things, do
small things in a great way" ... Napoleon Hill

TERIMA KASIH

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