Lecture Note 1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS MCEN 303
Lecture Note 1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS MCEN 303
Lecture Note 1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS MCEN 303
MCEN303
Materials Technology
Prepared by
DR. A. A. ADEBISI
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic categories: metals, ceramics,
and polymers, based primarily on chemical arrangement and atomic structure. Most materials
categorized into one distinct grouping or another.
In addition, there are composites, which are engineered combinations of two or more
different materials. Another category is advanced materials used in high-technology
applications, such as semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nanoengineered
materials.
Metals
Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminium, copper,
titanium, gold, nickel), and often also non-metallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen)
in relatively small amounts. Atoms in metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly
manner and are relatively dense in comparison to the ceramics and polymers (Fig 3). With
regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff (Fig 4) and strong (Fig
5), yet are ductile (i.e., capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture) and are
resistant to fracture (Fig 6), which accounts for their widespread use in structural
applications.
Fig. 3 Bar chart of room temperature Fig. 4 Bar chart of room temperature
density values for various metals, stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for
ceramics, polymers, and composite various metals, ceramics, polymers, and
materials. composite materials.
Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these
electrons
are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these
electrons. For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity (Fig 7) and heat
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and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In
addition, some of the metals (i.e., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties.
Fig. 7 Bar chart of room temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics,
polymers, and semiconducting materials.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials include
aluminium oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO 2), silicon carbide (SiC),
silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, traditional ceramics which is composed of clay
minerals (e.g., porcelain), as well as cement and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior,
ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong, stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to
those of the metals (Figs 4 and 5). In addition, they are typically very hard. Historically,
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ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness (lack of ductility) and are highly susceptible to
fracture (Fig 6). However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved resistance
to fracture; these materials are used for cookware, cutlery, and even automobile engine parts.
Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity
(i.e., have low electrical conductivities; (Fig 7) and are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than are metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics,
ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque (Fig 2), and some of the oxide ceramics
(e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other non-metallic elements
(i.e., O, N, and Si). Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chainlike in
nature, that often have a backbone of carbon atoms. Some common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS),
and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities (Fig 3), whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to those of the metallic and ceramic
materials. They are not as stiff or strong as other material types (Figs 4 and 5). However, on
the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per-mass basis
are comparable to those of the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are
extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex
shapes.
In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of
environments. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or
decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore,
they have low electrical conductivities (Fig 7) and are nonmagnetic.
CASE STUDY
Carbonated Beverage Containers
One common item that presents some interesting material property requirements is the
container for carbonated beverages. The material used for this application must satisfy the
following constraints:
a. provide a barrier to the passage of carbon dioxide, which is under pressure in the
container.
b. be nontoxic, unreactive with the beverage, and, preferably, recyclable.
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c. be relatively strong and capable of surviving a drop from a height of several feet when
containing the beverage.
d. be inexpensive, including the cost to fabricate the final shape.
e. if optically transparent, retain its optical clarity; and.
f. be capable of being produced in different colors and/or adorned with decorative
labels.
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials that come from the categories
previously mentioned materials: metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a
composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not achievable by any single
material and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials. A
large number of composite types are represented by different combinations of metals,
ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are composites for
example, wood and bone.
One of the most common and familiar composites is fibreglass, in which small glass
fibres are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass
fibres are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is more flexible.
Thus, fibreglass is relatively stiff, strong (Figs 4 and 5), and flexible. In addition, it has a low
density (Fig 3). Another technologically important material is the carbon fibre reinforced
polymer (CFRP) composite carbon fibres that are embedded within a polymer. These
materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fibre reinforced materials (Figs 4 and 5) but more
expensive. CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as
in high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, skis/snowboards)
and recently in automobile bumpers. The new Boeing 787 fuselage is primarily made from
such CFRP composites.
ADVANCED MATERIALS
Materials utilized in high-technology applications are sometimes termed advanced materials.
By high technology, we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively
intricate and sophisticated principles, including electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD
players, etc.), computers, fibre-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.
These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been
enhanced and also newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they may be
of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers) and are normally expensive. Advanced
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materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term materials of the future
(i.e., smart materials and nanoengineered materials). The properties and applications of a
number of these advanced materials for example, materials that are used for lasers, integrated
circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and fibre optics.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between those of electrical
conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics and polymers) see Fig
7. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the
presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be
controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have made possible the advent of
integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries
over the last four decades.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to replace diseased
or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be
compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). All of the
preceding materials: metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors may be
used as biomaterials.
Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials being
developed to have a significant influence on many technologies. The adjective smart implies
that these materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then respond to these
changes in predetermined manners and traits that are also found in living organisms. In
addition, this smart concept is being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of
both smart and traditional materials.
Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (which
detects an input signal) and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function).
Actuators may be called upon to change shape, position, natural frequency, or mechanical
characteristics in response to changes in temperature, electric fields, and/or magnetic fields.
Four types of materials are commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys,
piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and
electrorheological/magnetorheological
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fluids. Shape-memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert to their
original shape when temperature is changed. Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in
response to an applied electric field (or voltage); conversely, they also generate an electric
field
when their dimensions are altered. The behavior of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to
that of the piezoelectrics, except that they are responsive to magnetic fields. Also,
electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are liquids that experience dramatic
changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and magnetic fields, respectively.
Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibres, piezoelectric materials
(including some polymers), and microelectromechanical systems. For example, one type of
smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic cockpit noise created by the
rotating rotor blades. Piezoelectric sensors inserted into the blades monitor blade stresses and
deformations; feedback signals from these sensors are fed into a computer-controlled
adaptive device, which generates noise-canceling antinoise.
Nanomaterials
A new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous technological promise is
the nanomaterials, which may be any one of the four basic types: metals, ceramics, polymers,
or composites. However, unlike these other materials, they are not distinguished on the basis
of their chemistry but rather their size; the nano prefix denotes that the dimensions of these
structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10 −9 m) as a rule, less than 100 nanometers
(nm); (equivalent to approximately 500 atoms).
Prior to the advent of nanomaterials, the general procedure scientists used to
understand the chemistry and physics of materials was to begin by studying large and
complex structures and then investigate the fundamental building blocks of these structures
that are smaller and simpler. This approach is sometimes termed top-down science. However,
with the development of scanning probe microscopes, which permit observation of individual
atoms and molecules, it has become possible to design and build new structures from their
atomic-level constituents, one atom or molecule at a time (i.e., “materials by design”). This
ability to arrange atoms carefully provides opportunities to develop mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, and other properties that are not otherwise possible. We call this the bottom-up
approach, and the study of the properties of these materials is termed nanotechnology.
Some of the physical and chemical characteristics exhibited by matter may experience
dramatic changes as particle size approaches atomic dimensions. For example, materials that
are opaque in the macroscopic domain may become transparent on the nanoscale; some solids
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become liquids, chemically stable materials become combustible, and electrical insulators
become conductors. Furthermore, properties may depend on size in this nanoscale domain.
Some of these effects are quantum mechanical in origin, whereas others are related to surface
phenomena the proportion of atoms located on surface sites of a particle increases
dramatically as its size decreases. Because of these unique and unusual properties,
nanomaterials are finding niches in electronic, biomedical, sporting, energy production, and
other industrial applications.
Whenever a new material is developed, its potential for harmful and toxicological
interactions with humans and animals must be considered. Small nanoparticles have
exceedingly large surface area–to–volume ratios, which can lead to high chemical
reactivities. Although the safety of nanomaterials is relatively unexplored, there are concerns
that they may be absorbed into the body through the skin, lungs, and digestive tract at
relatively high rates, and that some, if present in sufficient concentrations, will pose health
risks such as damage to DNA or promotion of lung cancer.
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