Social and Cultural Continuity and Change +

Japan Focus Study

Integrated Concepts:
● Fundamental Course Concepts:
➢ Persons:
We each have our own identity, personality and character as well as our own DNA,
physiology and psychological makeup. In understanding the concept of a person, our
level of social and cultural literacy develops because we become more self – aware
and develop a sense of our own personal, social and cultural identities.

➢ Society:
Society is the context in which we live our lives. Our family, friends, sporting groups,
peers, schools and workplaces all belong to elements of our social world. Its where
we interact with others and have the role and a status in the context of each group.

➢ Culture:
Culture makes up the unseen but defining elements of our way of life. Culture
typically defines our lifestyle. When we speak, we do so in the language of our
culture. This is mostly automatic and not a conscious choice.

➢ Environment:
Our physical setting is a major determinant of our way of life. the surroundings or
conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.

➢ Time:
Time is a construct of our culture, how we understand time is a product of our beliefs
and values.

● Additional Course Concepts:

➢ Power:
The ability or capacity to influence or persuade others to a point of view or action to
which they may not always agree.

➢ Authority:
The right to make decisions and to determine, adjudicate or settle issues and disputes
in society. Authority is best understood as the legitimate use of power. The use of
authority is important in the process of decision making and in initiating change and
maintaining continuity.

➢ Gender:
The socially constructed differences between males and females. Social life –
including family life, roles, work and other activities – is organised around the
dimensions of this difference. Gender also refers to the cultural ideals, identities and
stereotypes of masculinity and femininity and the sexual division of labour in
 institutions and organisations. Gender reflects the value a society places on these
social constructs, which are unique to society.

➢ Identity:
The sense of self, which can be viewed from a personal, social and cultural level.
Identity is formed over a period of time and is the result of interactions in the micro,
meso and macro levels of society. Contributing factors to one’s identity may be
gender, sexuality, family, class, ethnicity, beliefs, social status, group membership
and national pride.

➢ Technologies:
The tools that we use to assist our interactions in society. Technologies can lead to
innovation and can initiate change to micro, meso and macro operations in society.

➢ Globalisation:
The process of integration and sharing of goods, capital labour, services, knowledge,
leisure, sport, ideas and culture between countries. Globalisation is evident in the
emergence of global patterns of consumption and consumerism; the growth of
transnational corporations; global sport; the spread of world tourism.

➢ Social and Cultural Literacy:

A socially and culturally literate person uses concepts to demonstrate that he or she:
- Has a sense of personal, social and cultural identity and understands that
culture underpins one’s behaviour, beliefs and values.
- Is interested in, observes and asks questions about the micro, meso and macro
levels of society.
- Empathises with and appreciate the diverse beliefs and values of different
societies and cultures.
- Researches effectively and ethically, showing critical discernment towards
information and the media.
- Communicates effectively with individuals and groups and works cooperatively
in a cross – cultural setting.
- Applies skills to achieve social inclusion and is aware of the issues of
discrimination and prejudice.
- Avoids making judgements of another culture’s practices using the values of
his or her own culture.
- Has a sense of social responsibility and displays active citizenship by engaging
critically with social issues, and takes considered action for the welfare,
dignity, social justice and human rights of others at local, national and global
levels.
- Is aware of, and sensitive to, major national and global issues such as poverty,
disease and conflict, including armed conflict.
- Considers the impact of globalisation, technologies and rapid change, as well as
continuity and its implications for the future.
● Related Core Study Concepts:
➢ Continuity and Change:
- Continuity:
 The persistence or consistent existence of cultural elements in a society
across time. Continuity can also be referred to as the maintenance of the
traditions and social structures that bring stability to a society.
- Change:
The altercation or modification of cultural elements in a society, change to
society can occur at the micro, meso and macro levels. It can be brought
about by modernisation processes, including technological innovation. This
force results in an altercation to culture.

➢ Modernisation:
Modernisation is the process of change from traditional to modern society. To be a
modernised society, a country would typically have first gone through the process of
industrialisation. Modernisation involves the decline of traditional authority and
practices. A process of social change. Evidence of modernity can also be seen in rates
of urbanisation, technological advancements and developments and changing social
relationships.

➢ Sustainability:
The required development to meet current human needs, whether economic, social or
environmental, without jeopardising the needs of future generations or the health of
the planet for all species depending on it for their existence. Sustainability implies
deliberate, responsible and proactive decision making from the local to the global
level about a more equitable distribution of resources and the minimisation of
negative impacts of humans on the planet.

➢ Tradition:
The body of cultural practices and beliefs that are passed down from generation to
generation, often by word of mouth and behavioural modelling, that are integral to the
socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society and
culture.

➢ Beliefs and Values:

- Beliefs:
A set of opinions or convictions; ideas we believe in as the truth. Beliefs can
come from one’s own experience and reflection, or from what one is told by
others.
- Values:
Deeply held ideas and beliefs that guide our thinking, language and behaviour.
Differences in values exist among groups of people in society and are a part of
one’s culture. Values can be challenged.

➢ Empowerment:
A social process that gives power or authority to people at a micro level, to groups at
a meso level and to institutions at a macro level, allowing them to think, behave, take
action, control and make decisions.
 ➢ Westernisation:
Westernisation describes the process of aspects of the cultures of the UK, Western
Europe and North America. It is a social process where the values, customs and
practices of Western industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural
change.

➢ Cooperation and Conflict:

- Cooperation:
The ability of individual members of a group to work together to achieve a
common goal that is in the group’s interests and that contributes to the continued
existence of the group.
- Conflict:
A perceived incompatibility of goals or actions. Conflict can occur at all levels in
society and its resolution can involve modification to what was previously in
place.

The Nature of Social and Cultural Research Methods:

● Examine the Features of Primary and Secondary Research:
Secondary research and sources (public knowledge) are research that has already been
conducted by others. Answers to research questions are already available online, in academic
databases, the news, published books, journals, etc. Research questions should be used to
guide the researcher as they focus on finding project-specific information. Primary research
and sources are conducted by oneself. The purpose of primary research is to gather
information and answer questions that have not been asked before

● The Nature and Characteristics of Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

- Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic
approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in
their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of
the meanings people bring to them. The aim of qualitative research is to understand the
social reality of individuals, groups and cultures as nearly as possible as its participants
feel it or live it. Types of qualitative methods include questionnaire, content analysis,
interview, focus groups, secondary research, personal reflection, participant
observation, case study.

- Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research gathers data in a numerical form which can be put into categories,
or in rank order, or measured in units of measurement. This type of data can be used to
construct graphs and tables of raw data. Types of quantitative methods include
questionnaire, content analysis, statistical analysis observation.

● The Characteristics, Strength and Weaknesses of the following Research Methods:

➢ Case Study:
Case studies allow individuals to focus on one particular person, group or family and
to gather qualitative data that helps consolidate overall research.
- Strengths:
Provides detailed information.
 - Weaknesses:
Case studies are time – consuming and are difficult to replicate.

➢ Focus Group:
Focus groups are widely used in social research and are an effective interview method
for small groups of people.
- Strength:
Focus groups allow you to gain the thoughts, feelings and opinions of a group of
people at one time.
- Weakness:
The small sample size means the group might not be a good representation of the
larger population.

➢ Non – Participant Observation:

Non – participant observation is when the researcher does not participate in the
observation research process. An example of this could be if the researcher was to
investigate the incidence of smartphone use in a school playground and wanted to
record its frequency. Non – participant observation is more appropriate for this
because the researcher’s subjects may use their phone less if they know the researcher
is around.
- Strength:
Allows the researcher to see what’s going on with their own eyes. The researcher
can be more open minded because they are an outsider looking in and are less
likely to feel sympathy and therefore, produce unbiased data.
- Weakness:
It may be hard to gather accurate information and results as watching from a
distance.

➢ Personal Reflection:
The thoughts and reflections of a researcher is important to be noted down. They must
be recorded because they could be used in the final project.

➢ Secondary Research:
Secondary research and sources (public knowledge) are those that you have been
consulting since you were in primary school. The sources that are found must be
authoritative and must be written by proven experts in a field.
- Strength:
Because it is largely based on already existing data derived from previous
research, secondary research can be conducted more quickly and at a lesser cost.
- Weakness:
The researcher may have difficulty obtaining information specific to his or her
needs. The research may also not be useful.

➢ Content Analysis:
The researcher must analyse content. This content consists of: newspapers, television,
textbooks, films, song, lyrics, cartoons, radio and magazines.
- Strength:
 Content analysis can allow for both quantitative and qualitative data results. It
also looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, hence gets at the
central aspect of social interaction.
- Weakness:
Can be extremely time – consuming.

➢ Interview:
Interviews involve a one-on-one scenario where the researcher prepares a series of
questions that should be constructed around the research topic. The aim of the
interview is so the interviewee can provide the researcher with more detailed
knowledge than you would get from a questionnaire.
- Strength:
Detailed information can be obtained and avoids oversimplifying complex
issues.
- Weakness:
It could be difficult to analyse if the interview is unstructured.

➢ Participant Observation:
Participating in the observation research process would be appropriate if the
researcher’s presence has no or little impact on the chosen group or individual.
- Strength:
It allows the researcher to gain empathy through personal experience. By acting
as a member, researchers can gain insight into meanings, viewpoints, values and
problems.
- Weakness:
There is a risk of getting too involved and therefore giving bias data because they
may begin to sympathise with the group or individual.

➢ Questionnaire:
The questionnaire is the most common research method because it is the easiest way
to gather quantitative data. Simple yes and no answers to questions enable individuals
to build data. In questionnaires, individuals can ask open – ended questions and
closed – ended questions. Open – ended questions allow answers to be more detailed,
giving the responder more time and effort to be qualitative. Closed – ended questions
are ones that require yes and no answers.
- Strength:
Questionnaires are convenient. The researcher does not need to be present and
respondents can mail their responses to the researcher so the respondent can have
more time to think of their responses.
- Weakness:
People may say what they think looks good rather than being honest about what
they think.

➢ Statistical analysis:
Collecting, exploring and presenting large amounts of data to discover underlying
trends and patterns.
The Nature of Social and Cultural Continuity and Change:
● The Nature of continuity and change:
➢ Change is a complex process:
Sociologists believe that social change is non – linear. Social change is not a simple
process because it often involves many facets and contributing forces. There is an
argument that social Darwinism is responsible for change. This argument emerged in the
19thcentury by Charles Darwin. The theory of evolution to societies as a whole. Social
Darwinists proposed that stronger cultures, traits and practices endure because they
dominate the weaker aspects of culture. The different levels in society make change a
complex process. People have an innate desire to thrive, meaning that changes will
almost always benefit one group more than another, creating different power structures
and levels of commitment to a cause.

➢ Evolutionary change:
Evolutionary change describes incremental changes the accumulate over a long period of
time to alter society on a large. Continuity is a significant element in evolutionary change
because of the time it takes for change to take place. Changes may be triggered by
internal factors in a society, such as technological development or westernisation.
Changes may take place at the micro level first and then grow to affect the meso level
and then the macro level. Examples of slow social change include:
- Bureaucratisation:
As society grows, the government and government – administrative bodies put
systems and processes in place in an attempt to manage the huge population that
they interact with and govern.
- Environmentalism:
Advocates for the protection of the environment. This social movement has brought
the concept of ‘sustainability,’ into the psyche of people all over the world.
Decisions made by the government over time has gradually incorporated the ideas of
catering for the needs of modern society without compromising resources of the
environment for future generations.
- Demographic Change:
Demographic change is closely tied to social change. As the structure and
characteristics of the population slowly change, so do the needs and wants of
society.

➢ Transformative change:
Transformative change is more rapid than evolutionary change. Transformative change
takes place in a shorter time frame and is often triggered by technology, strong social
movements, rebellions or revolutions. This type of change occurs concurrently at micro,
meso and macro levels by significantly altering social structures and systems in society
and abruptly shifting people’s values, expectations and actions.

➢ Resistance to change:
Methods of resisting change are almost unlimited. They range from disagreements to
strikes, boycotts, go – slows and human barricades on a meso or macro level. Individuals
and groups may resist social change for a number of reasons:
- The pace of innovation
- Differences in beliefs and values
 - Vested interests
- Tradition
- Fear of the future

Conflict Theory - Main Points:

- Conflicting attitudes/views - causes changes in society
- Struggle for power
- Inequalities exist between social structures and organisations
- Classes exist in society
- The struggle for power and control of resources reaches a breaking point

Evolutionary Theory - Main Points:

- Evolving societies
- Change is a linear process
- Every society develops over time and passes through the process of change

Interactionist Theory - Main Points:

- Organised patterns
- How individuals relate to the society around them
- People look for a pattern of interaction between individuals, people attach meaning and make
sense of their world.
- People adjust their behaviour depending on the actions of others
- People play different roles when interacting and may change their approach depending on the
situation.

Functionalist Theory - Main Points:

- Created by Emilie Durkheim, she argued the division of labour was key to regulating modern
societies. With the division of labour, people contributed to the functioning of the social body
by their individual tasks which helped create a value consensus of shared common goals and
these helped society to function properly. These beliefs help create social order through the
commitment to a shared value consensus sometimes known as ‘collective conscience.’
- The theory states that all aspects of society serve a function and are necessary for the survival
of that society.
- Responding to societal needs
- Non - linear and complex process
- Held together by people and social order
- Social norms and values that include beliefs, customs, rituals and fashions are the rules that
govern social life.
- Society is held together by solidarity and agreement about what is good and worthwhile
- Change comes about by consensus, but social change is hindrance to the development of any
society and is viewed as undesirable.

Applying Functionalist Theory to Japan:

By applying the functionalist theory to social change within Japan we can see how it has occurred due
to a disruption in the balance. This leads to adjustments in other parts of the system and a new
equilibrium level is reached, while balance is restored. During the Tokogawa period equilibrium was
maintained however change occurred through the arrival of the USA and Commodore Perry in the
1800s. This ended Japan's isolation with the introduction of trade. Next the Meiji restoration period
brought about adjustments such as; changed laws, generalized government under emperor, increased
power of the merchant class and dismantling of the caste system.

New balance was obtained during the 1930s and this remained till after WW2. Yet change reoccurred
when Japan lost WW2 and the US initiated restructuring of all institutions. These changes were
evidenced through the introduction of women voting, new constitutions, education no longer based on
class, shift in government causing democratic elections and production changes from agriculture to
industrial production. This restored a new equilibrium up till the 1980s.

Change has occurred again with globalization and increased influence of western ideas and values. yet
a new equilibrium was reached in the 1990s. The effects of these changes are still present with the
influence of female workers, decreased role for the elderly, government providing care for the elderly,
increase in individualism and decrease in identity, changing role of the families and increased media
influence.
Limitations of this have been the focus on changes to institutions and it doesn't take globalisation into
account. The functionalist theory doesn't take globalisation into account as globalisation of a country
would never allow Japan to achieve a true equilibrium.

Focus Study Japan: Gender Roles and the Status of Women and Men:
● Continuity:
Wage differentials between men and women have not disappeared. While there are not large
differences in the initial salaries received by male and female university graduates when they
enter a company, beyond the age of 30 or so, women’s promotions to higher-paying positions
fall greatly behind the promotions given to men. Despite growing dissatisfaction with
traditional gender roles, Japanese perceptions of the family and the position of the wife and
mother in it have been slow to change. Women, particularly those married to white-collar
workers, are still expected to carry much of the responsibility of household management and
child rearing, while the males devote themselves to their office culture. Japanese divorce
rates, though rising, remain low by Western standards, and the stability of the Japanese family
continues to undergird the social system.

● Change:
In December 1996, the Japanese government prepared the Plan for Gender Equality 2000, and
this led to the passing of the Basic Law for a Gender-equal Society in 1999. The five basic
principles covered in this law are: respect for the human rights of women and men,
consideration to social systems or practices, joint participation in planning and deciding
policies, compatibility. The Basic Plan for Gender Equality was approved by the Cabinet in
December 2000. This plan includes the following 11 priority objectives: expand women’s
participation in policy decision-making processes, review social systems and practices and
reform awareness from a gender-equal perspective, secure equal opportunities and treatment
in the field of employment, establish gender equality in rural areas, support the efforts of
women and men to harmonize work with their family and community life, develop conditions
that allow the elderly to live with peace of mind, eliminate all forms of violence against
women, support life-long health for women, respect women’s human rights in the media,
enrich education and learning which promote gender equality and facilitate diversity of
choice, and contribute to the “equality, development, and peace” of the global community. of
activities in family life and other activities, and international cooperation.
In January 2001, the Cabinet Office was created, and the Council for Gender Equality and the
Gender Equality Bureau were placed within the Cabinet Office. As one of the four major
policy councils in the Cabinet Office, the Council for Gender Equality examines and
discusses basic policies and other important matters on gender equality, monitors progress in
achieving gender equality, and surveys the impact of government policy on gender equality
processes. Every year more voices can be heard calling for women’s participation in
government and politics. In 2003 women occupied 26.8% of such seats, and there is a goal to
increase the level to 30% by 2007. In 2004 the House of Representatives included 34 women
(7% of the total) and the House of Councillors 33 women (13.6%), which gives Japan the
lowest percentage of women parliamentarians among G-8 Summit-participant countries.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Law for Men and Women came into effect in April
1986, was revised in June 1997 to speed up measures to counteract male - female
discrimination. The revisions implemented in 1999 prohibit gender-based discrimination in
job recruitment, employment, allocation of specific posts, and job advancement; they also
make employers responsible for the prevention of sexual harassment. The Labor Standards
Law was revised in such a way as to remove special restrictions on work done by women
during holidays, late at night, and during other non-regular working hours, believing that
giving women special treatment is gender - based discimination.

In 2003, 40.8% of all persons employed by all branches of industry in Japan were women. In
1975, the corresponding percentage had been 32.0%, after which time more and more women
found employment, particularly in service and food industries, wholesale and retail outlets,
and electrical equipment manufacturing. The Equal Employment Opportunity Law for Men
and Women revision implemented in 1999 makes it obligatory for employers to make an
effort to prevent sexual harassment. Recent years have seen a number of high-profile court
rulings in favor of women who have pursued lawsuits over cases of sexual harassment. Since
1980 the percentage of households in which both the husband and wife are employed has
been gradually increasing.

The government considers the problem of a declining birthrate to require urgent attention, and
in 1991 it passed the Child Care Law, which stipulated that employers cannot refuse requests
from either men or women to take time off from regular work schedules in order to care for
children less than one year of age. The percentage of women who continue their formal
education after high school is very high. In 2003, 48.3% of women graduating from high
school entered universities or junior colleges, while the percentage for men was 49.6%. The
concept of marriage as a woman’s life objective is becoming less prevalent than in the past.
According to a study by the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research,
unmarried men and women consistently believe that marriage would result in the restriction
of their actions, lifestyle, and relationships with friends, and that it would also add the
psychological burdens involved in having to support a family. In 1980, the percentage of
those who remained unmarried between the ages of 25 and 29 was 55.1% for men and 24.0%
for women. By 2000, these percentages had increased significantly to 69.3% for men and
54.0% for women. A National Institute of Population and Social Security Research report
estimated that among females who are less than 16 years old today, one in seven will remain
unmarried throughout life.