1.

Introduction: lexis, lexicology, word and lexical item

2. Regular patterns in lexis: word formation, irregularities
3. Word formation in English
4. Affixation
4.1. Prefixation
4.2. Suffixation
5. Compounding: types
6. Miscellaneous processes
6.1. Blends
6.2. Reduplicatives
6.3. Back-formation
6.4. Acronyms
7. Conversion
8. Didactic justification
9. Bibliography
This study on English lexis is aimed to know more about the way vocabulary works. It attempts t provide the background
knowledge necessary for the readers to make an informed choice about vocabulary and word formation. In this topic, we are
going to discuss the major issues in the field of lexis and word formation. In order to make my presentation more effective I am
going to divide the topic into 7 different sections. First, we will start defining lexis, lexicology, and word and word formation to
establish the main concepts that are going to be key in this essay. Then, we will continue talking about the regular patterns in
lexis and the processes of word formation, where we can find some such as affixation, and compounding and some others that
will be explained in detail. Then, we will account for lexical implications in the field of language teaching. To end with a brief
conclusion and the bibliography.

This topic includes a discussion of all the systematic processes by which the English language can be formed. These are common
to many other languages and belong to the area of study of lexicology. This area of language concerns the nature, meaning
history and use of the lexemes existing in a language. They can also be labelled as lexical items, and they are defined as words as
they appear in the dictionary.

For example: happier, happiest and happy are different words, as we consider them as forms that occur in a different type of
sentences, even though they are variants of the same lexical item HAPPY. This distinction between word form and lexical items
does not have to be made in all cases, as only certain parts of speech have inflections (nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives).

Apart from this, the notion of the lexical item does not necessarily correspond to the idea of a word in another respect: a bank
can represent two different lexical items since there are two different contents to attach to this form.

Linguistics have spent a great deal of time trying to devise satisfactory criteria for its definition, none of which is entirely
successful. Here we are going to see the most comprehensive criteria and their possible objections:

CRITERION POSSIBLE OBJECTION

A word is an element between potential pauses. The pauses Some people will break up words with more than one syllable.
will tend to fall between words and not within words.

A word is indivisible. If you ask somebody to introduce a new

There are forms such as absoboominglutely.
word, these will be added between them not within.

A word is a minimal free form that can meaningfully stand on

its own. There are items which stand on their own writing, but which
never do in natural speech as “the”.
A word is an element lying between phonetic boundaries
There are too many exceptions.
A word is a semantic unit, that is, a unit of meaning.
There are many exceptions: switch on, has 2 words but one
semantic meaning.
Talking about words, it is key to mention dictionaries and their development from the earliest pieces of evidence of dictionaries
to the phase of standardization in the 18 th c. up to present days. Moreover, we shall review the contributions of well-known
lexicographers who helped the English language be standardized.
Historically speaking the earliest attempt in the development of lexicography was a bilingual lexicology that dated from around
2500B.C., and later on, in medieval times, several compilations of Latin manuscripts were found. In the 17 th c. dictionaries
followed the tradition of lists of "hard-words" of difficult comprehension. However, in the 18 th c. English linguistics attempted to
ascertain, refine and fix the language, according to the rationalistic spirit of the period. With this purpose in mind, the creation of
an English academy was proposed in 1617 by Edmund Bolton, but the project did not succeed. Nevertheless, important
dictionaries and grammar books were composed in order to provide a new standard with the “minimal variation form”, reducing
it to rule and fixing it permanently so that change and corruption did not affect the language.
Dictionaries were evolving and they saw the progressive inclusion of general vocabulary and definitions of common uses in
dictionaries, and gradually incorporated further information on the etymology, grammar and history of each word.
However, we need to mention the importance of a man who change English lexicography, Samuel Johnson, and his work
Dictionary of the English Language, as it soon became a standard reference in 1755. His work was directly related to ascertaining,
refining, and fixing the language. But one of the problems was the absence of pronunciation information.
Finally, regarding contributions in the 21st c., it is worth mentioning the area of computers and the use of corpora in vocabulary
as it has been one of the most significant developments in lexicography or dictionary writing. In recent years, databases of
language have revolutionized the way we view language, particularly because they allow researchers, teachers and learners to
use great amounts of real data in their study of language instead of having to rely on institutions and made-up examples.

The term word has been defined above but we need to consider other facets of knowing a word regarding some grammatical
aspects of vocabulary, namely in morphological terms. Therefore, to talk about word formation we need to talk about
morphemes, morphs and allomorphs.
First of all, Crystal (1985) defines the term morpheme as the smallest bit of language which has a meaning. Current approaches
to morphology conceive of morphemes as rules involving the linguistic context, rather than as isolated pieces of linguistic matter.
They acknowledge that meaning may be directly linked to suprasegmental phonological units such as tone or stress and that the
meaning of a morpheme with a given form may vary depending on its immediate environment (Payne 1995)
When a morpheme is analyzed into constituents, you end up with a sequence of meaningless noises which are combinations of
phonemes or phonetic features, these can be analyzed in phonological terms and they are called morphs. A morph is defined as
the phonetic realization of a morpheme, and three main types are feature: portmanteau morphs (single morph which represents
two underlying morphemes when analyzed, for instance, the Spanish sequences "a+el". , zero morphs, are defined as a kind of
morph with no phonetic form and it is often related to irregular plural forms which have, therefore, no plurality marker (-s,-es).
and allomorphs, are defined as one of two or more complementary morphs in which a morpheme manifests in its different
phonological or morphological environments. This means that an allomorph is a phonetically, lexically or grammatically
conditioned member of a set of morphs representing a particular morpheme since they are derived from phonological rules. .

REGULAR PATTERNS IN LEXIS: WORD FORMATION

Grammar and lexical regularities
Lexicology can determine some regular patterns in the way some lexical items are formed. The area of study of these is word
formation. Regularities of similar nature can be found in both grammar and word formation, and it is even possible to connect
these sets of regularities. However, regularities of word-formation are much more restricted in application than those of
grammar. Its study enables us to go beyond the individuality of items and establish the widespread uniformities that make the
constitution and grammatical distribution of one word similar to those of another.

WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH

A word can show an internal structure that can be recognized by an English speaker. In this term, words can be considered as:

- Complex: comprising several parts as stone-deaf, donkey-like

- Simple: words learnt as arbitrarily contrived units, with no recognizable parts as lion, case.

Complex words may look like a simple linear string of items. For example, the word denationalization may thus be analyzed as a
base word nation, with some suffixes and prefixes.
But some other things are to be considered concerning the word-formation.
 - Many other complex words do not admit this easy type of analysis. For example, the word pious cannot be split into
base, prefix and suffix. That is why we call this instead of word “stem”. The analysis of this stem will depend on
etymological, phonological and semantic connections with other existing words.
- Affixes do not combine freely: we do not have forms such as *denation, *nationization. They are only attached to very
specific units. Here is where comes the necessity of the base form, this base is the unit to which a particular affix is
combined, and they include words and stems.
- The rules of word-formation usually differ from a syntactic rule in one important respect, and their productivity is rather
restricted. That is not all the words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable; they are freely
acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency. Thus, there is a line to be drawn between “English
words as such” and “potential English words”.
- These rules change with time. Seen from a synchronic point of view, they provide a constant “set of models” from
which new words, ephemeral or permanent are created from day to day.

WORD FORMATION PROCESSES IN ENGLISH

We can differentiate four main types of word-formation processes:
- Affixation:
o Prefixation: putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes with but more usually without a change of word-
class ( pre-determine)
o Suffixation: putting a suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually with, a change of word-class
(homeless)
- Compounding: adding one base to another, such that usually the one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes the
one that follows (blackbird)
- Conversion: assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form (carpet the room)

AFFIXATION
Affixes show general features such as productivity and they show plenty of semantic relationships among them, especially
antonymy (pre /post). There is a classification of the different semantic categories in the affixes, and the same affix can belong to
different categories.

PREFIXATION
1. Conversion prefixes
A- To create predicative adj. (asleep) BE- to create intensity (befriend) EN-EM-: endanger, embitter

2. Miscellaneous neo-classical words

AUTO: Self (autosuggestion) EXTRA: exceptionally (extra- NEO: new, revived (neo-classicism)
affectionate)

3. Neo-classical items_ Number prefixes

BI-DI: two (biplane) TRI: three (tripod) MONO- UNI: unisex, monorail

4. Prefixes of time and order

PRE: in advance (pre-school) RE: again (redo) POST: After (post-partum)

5. Locative prefixes
SUB: under (subway) SUPER: above (superstructure) INTER: between (international)

6. Prefixes of orientation and attitude

ANTI: against (anti-social) CONTRA: opposite (contra-indicate) PRO: on the side of (i) (pro-
communist)

7. Prefixes of degree or size

HYPER: extreme (hyperactive) MINI: little (mini-market) OVER: excessive (overestimate)

8. Pejorative prefixes
MAL: badly (malfunction) MIS: wrongly (misunderstand) PSEUDO: false (pseudo-artist)
 9. reversing
DE- (i) Reversative or private prefixes
the action DIS- (i) reversing the action UN- (i) reversing the action
(deconstruct) // (ii) depriving the (disconnect) // (ii) lacking (unlock)// (ii) depriving of (unmask)
action (deforestation) (disinterested)

10. Negative prefixes

A- AN: lacking in (amoral) NON- not (non-smoker) UN- not (unhappy)

SUFFIXATION
Our treatment of suffixes is on a generally grammatical basis. Prefixes primarily affect a semantic modification of the base, while
suffixation has only a semantic role, the primary function of changing the grammatical function. Suffixes are not only associated
with a particular word class but we can group them to the word class that results when they are added to a base, that is NOUN
suffixes, VERB suffixes…
Furthermore, it is important to speak of the suffixes as DENOMINAL SUFFIXES, DE-ADJECTIVAL SUFFIXES.. since particular suffixes
are frequently associated with attachment to bases of particular word classes.

1. Verb suffixes
-IZE/-ISE : modernize -IFY/ -FY: simplify -EN: causative (deafen)

2. Adverb suffixes
-LY: in a manner of (personally) -WARD: direction (onward) WISE: (i) relation to manner
(clockwise) //

3. Adjective- deverbal suffixes(form adjectives from verbs)

-ABLE: related to the passive -IVE: related to the active (attractive)
(translatable)

4. Adjective denominal suffixes (function of forming adjectives from nouns)

First group: retain a native flavour
-ED: having (painted) -LESS: without (homeless) -LIKE: like (childlike)

Second group: foreign origin, the meaning of "having relation to…"

-AL / -IAL/ -ICAL: chemical -IC: specific -OUS/ -IOUS : desirous

5. Noun/adjective suffixes
-ESE: (i) member of (Chinese) -IST: skilled in (violinist) -ITE: (i) adherent to (socialite)

DEVERBAL NOUNS
1. Concrete
-ANT: agential (participant) -EE : object of the verb (employee) -ER/-OR: agential element (driver)

2. Abstract
-MENT : result of (amazement) -ING: result from action (building) -AGE: action of (coverage)

3. De-adjectival nouns
-ITY: neo-classical or French origin -NESS: freely added to any type of
(banality) adjective (meanness)

DENOMINAL NOUNS
1. Concrete
-ESS: feminine (actress) -LET: small (booklet) -EER: skilled in (pamphleteer)

2. Abstract
-OCRACY: government by -FUL: amount contained in -HOOD: neighborhood
(democracy) (spoonful)
COMPOUNDING
The origin of compounding processes traces back to the Old English period, where native words were combined in order to make
self-interpreting words. This practice was not abandoned in Middle English since the influence of other cultures on the English
language promoted the borrowing or readymade foreign words although new words could have been easily formed on the
native model. More recently, compounding has been related to the notion of multiword units, which are said to operate beyond
the level of single words in discourse as single entities and, therefore, act as a single lexeme with a single meaning, as in light-
years ago. It is the categorization of multiword where we find among the most common categories, compound nouns, together
with phrasal verbs, fixed phrases, idioms, proverbs and lexical phrases.
Compounding is a process that produces lexical units. It consists of more than one base, and they function both grammatically
and semantically as a single word. Compounds only comprise two bases only, however internally complex each may be.
In contrast to affixation, compounding associates bases drawn from the whole lexicon in a wide range of semantic relations.
Nonetheless, although both bases in a compound are in principle really open, they are normally in a relationship whereby the
first is modifying the second. In short, compounding can be viewed as prefixation with open-class items.

NOUN COMPOUNDS
Sometimes, a single noun is not clear enough to refer to people or things, and another element is needed in order to make
words more specific, A two-word compound is the most frequent pattern, although we may find more than two words (sister-in-
law). Hence, nouns may be combined mainly with other nouns, adjectives and verbs. They combine different things such as
subjects, verbs, objects, and complements: Boyfriend, air-brake, drinking cup, birth-control, nightfall
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
Compound adjectives are formed when a single adjective is not enough to describe something. The most frequent pattern is that
two or more words are usually hyphenated (well-known). Since adjectives share the same characteristics as single adjectives,
they are combined with other grammatical categories in order to express qualitative and classifying characteristics of the
compound word regarding personality, physical description, color and material among others.
COMPOUND VERBS
Following Adams (1973), verb compounds are mainly formed following three main processes: first, by backformation from a
noun or adjective compounds (air-condition) or also called zero derivation from noun compounds (honeymoon); and third, and
less often liking two words together (bedmaking)
COMBINING-FORM COMPOUNDS
These compounds usually show a first constituent borrowed from Latin or Greek. This constituent does not occur as a separate
noun base in English (Paleography, insecticide)
MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES
 Blends: This is a very productive process consisting of merging elements belonging to two different words to form a new
one (brunch)
 Reduplicatives: Compounds which have two or more constitutes, either identical or only slightly different (wishy-washy,
walkie-talkie) Most of the reduplicatives are informal and familiar, and many belong to the sphere of child-parent talk
(din-din : dinner). This is to imitate sounds (tick-tack), to suggest alternative movements (flip-flop), to suggest instability,
nonsense (hocus-pocus) or to intensify (teeny-weeny)
 Back-formation: There are cases in which a derived word has preceded in time the word it is derived from
thusenthuse entered after enthusiasm.
 Acronyms: They are words formed from the initial letters of words that make up a name. They can be either
pronounced as a sequence of letters (DIY) or as words (WASP)
 Clippings: they are defined as the creation of new words by removing syllables of longer words and shortening them.
This is given in a word of two or more syllables (lab- laboratory)
 Eponyms: They are the creation of new words by converting a proper name into a common name ( sandwich from the
earl of Sandwich).
 Onomatopoeic coinages: they are words that refer to the process by which words are formed following phonological
conventions, that is orthography is drawn from phonology and the actions to be represented are written in the same
way they sound ( boom)
CONVERSION
This is the derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix.
This is unusually important as a word formation process. It is difficult sometimes to make the distinction between the base and
the derived form since one does not have the addition of a suffix as a guide. This difficulty can be overcome by paraphrasing. For
example, radio can be used as a verb in the paraphrase "send by means of radio signals" and also as a noun "radio- an
instrument for radioing". As regards the phenomenon of conversion, some grammars distinguish:
 - Full conversion
- Partial conversion: a word of one class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word class “the poor”
Types of conversion
- Conversion to an adjective: denominal adjectives are those that occur in predicative as well as in attributive position
since the latter is freely available for nouns within the grammar of the noun phrase (a brick garage // the garage is a
brick)
- Conversion to a verb:
o Denominal: to put in/on N (net  to put in a net), to send/go by (to mail), to make… into N (cash)
o De-adjectival: Calm, empty
- Conversion to noun:
o Deverbal: rise, walk, answer..
o De-adjectival: They are running in the final (race)
- Minor categories:
o Conversion to nouns
 Phrases: He is a has-been
 Affixes: too many isms in modern culture
 Closed-class words: too many ifs and buts
o Conversion to verbs
 They downed tools in protest
Thus, now I have dealt with the description of the topic dealing with word formation, I will move into the final section dealing
with the teaching of English as a foreign language. The role of vocabulary in the acquisition of a second language has often been
dealt with only incidentally in the preparation of class material since most attention was paid to other aspects of language, such
as grammar, phonology and discourse analysis. So, this section is aimed to look at present-day approaches to vocabulary from an
educational approach, and therefore, within the framework of a classroom setting. Students are expected to carry out several
communication tasks with specific communicative goals within specific contexts. It is at this specific point that vocabulary gets
relevance at two levels, one is language knowledge and the other is strategic competence. That is to say, learners need to know
a lot about the vocabulary, sound system and spelling of the target language, but they also need to be able to draw on
knowledge effectively for communicative purposes under normal time constraints (Read 2000)
Vocabulary can be acquired through explicit study or incidentally through exposure to words. Our goals as teachers are to
highlight several key principles, such as to build a large sight vocabulary, to integrate new words with old, to provide some
encounters with a word, to promote a deep level of processing, to make new words "real" by connecting them to the student's
world in some say, and above all, to use a variety of techniques in word-formation to encourage independent learning strategies.
In fact, vocabulary acquisition is an incremental process, and teachers must concentrate not only on introducing new words but
also on enhancing learners' knowledge of previously presented words.

As we have seen in this study, in the more than two thousand years of second language instruction, there have been numerous
methodologies, and a common feature is that they did not address vocabulary in any principal way.
Grammatical knowledge of a word can consists of many things, but the present study focused on word-formation and
morphology, where knowledge of suffixes, prefixes and compounding rules are particularly important as this allows learners to
use the different members of a word family. Affixes should be taught in the first place because using word parts is one of three
major strategies that can help students become independent vocabulary learners, that is guessing from context and having
students work with word families instead of just single words. Therefore, an understanding of derivational suffixes makes this
possible, together with knowledge of prefixes and compounding rules.

Read, J. 2000. Assessing Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. 1985. Linguistics. Harmondsworth, England. Penguin Books.
Ley Orgánica 3/2020, de 29 de diciembre, por la que se modifica la Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación (LOMLOE)