HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System has FOUR FUNCTIONS that enable the body to respond quickly. The
Nervous System:

A. Gathers information both from the outside world and from inside the body.
SENSORY FUNCTION

B. Transmits the information to the processing area of the brain and spinal cord.

C. Processes the information to determine the best response. INTEGRATIVE

FUNCTION

D. Sends information to muscles, glands, and organs (effectors) so they can respond
correctly. Muscular contraction or glandular secretions. MOTOR FUNCTION

The CELLS that Carry Messages Throughout the Nervous System are called
NEURONS. It is the Basic Functional Unit of the Nervous System. Whatever their specific
function, all neurons have the same physical parts: The Cell Body, Dendrites and One Axon.
Messages take the form of ELECTRICAL SIGNALS, and are known as IMPULSES. A
Neuron carries impulses in only ONE direction.

Neurons can be classified into THREE TYPES:

A. SENSORY (RECEPTOR) NEURONS (AFFERENT) - Carry impulses from the

SENSE ORGANS (RECEPTORS) to the Brain and Spinal Cord. Receptors detect external or
internal changes and send the information to the Central Nervous System in the form of
impulses by way of the Afferent Neurons.

B. MOTOR NEURONS (EFFERENT) - Carry impulses from the Brain and Spinal Cord
to MUSCLES or GLANDS. Muscles and Glands are Two Types of Effectors. In response to
impulses, Muscles Contract and Glands Secrete.
 C. INTERNEURONS - Connect Sensory and Motor neurons and carry impulses between
them. They are found entirely within the Central Nervous System.

A Neuron consists of THREE MAIN PARTS:

A. CELL BODY - The largest part, contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm (area
between the nucleus and the cell membrane), most of the metabolic activity of the cell,
including the generation of ATP (Adenine Triphosphate Compound that Stores Energy) and
synthesis of protein.

B. DENDRITES - Short branch extensions spreading out from the cell body. Dendrites
Receive STIMULUS (Action Potentials) and carry IMPULSES from the ENVIRONMENT or
from other NEURONS AND CARRY THEM TOWARD THE CELL BODY.

C. AXON - A Long Fiber that CARRIES IMPULSES AWAY FROM THE CELL
BODY. Each neuron has only ONE AXON. The Axon Ends in a series of small swellings
called AXON TERMINALS.

Neurons may have Dozens or even Hundreds of DENDRITES but usually ONLY ONE
AXON. The Axons of most Neurons are covered with a Lipid Layer known as the MYELIN
SHEATH. The Myelin Sheath both Insulates and Speeds Up transmission of Action
Potentials through the Axon. In the Peripheral Nervous System, Myelin is produced by
SCHWANN CELLS, which surround the Axon. GAPS (NODES) in the Myelin Sheath
along the length of the Axon are known as the NODES OF RANVIER.

Reflex arch:

During a somatic reflex, nerve signals travel along the following pathway:
 1. Somatic receptors in the skin, muscles, and tendons
2. Afferent nerve fibers carry signals from the somatic receptors to the posterior horn of
the spinal cord or to the brainstem
3. An integrating center is the point at which the neurons that compose the gray matter
of the spinal cord or brainstem synapse
4. Efferent nerve fibers carry motor nerve signals to muscles
5. Effector muscle innervated by the efferent nerve
fiber that carries out the response

STEPS:Example of reflex

1.The point of contact at which impulses are passed from

one cell to another are known as THE SYNAPTIC
CLEFT OR SYNAPSE.

The Small Gap or Space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body
on the next neuron is called the Synapse. One importance of the presence of Synapses is
that they ensures one-way transmission of impulses in a living person. A nerve impulse
CANNOT go backward across a Synapse.

2. The Axon Terminals at a Synapse contain tiny vesicles, or sacs. These tiny vesicles are
filled with CHEMICALS known as NEUROTRANSMITTER-mediators (prenášače –
noradrenalin and acetycholin).

A NEUROTRANSMITTER is a chemical substance that is used by one neuron to signal

another. The impulse is changed from and Electrical Impulse to a Chemical Impulse
(Electrochemical Impulses).
The Nervous System has TWO Major Divisions:

1. Central nervous system ( CNS )

2. Peripheral nervous system ( PNS )

The Human Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is made up of the

• spinal cord and

• brain

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is about 45 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter in adults, and is involved in
many important functions of the body.

The spinal cord carries out the following major functions:

1. Electrical communication. Electrical signals are conducted up and down the cord, allowing communication
between different sections of the body and with the brain, since the cord runs through different levels of the
trunk section.
2. Walking (also known as locomotion). During walking, several muscle groups in the legs are coordinated
to contract over and over again. Although the act of putting one foot in front of the other while walking may
seem simple to us, it has to be carefully coordinated by several groups of neurons known as central pattern
generators in the spinal cord! These neurons send signals to the muscles in the legs, causing to the extend or
contract, producing the alternating movements that are involved in walking.
3. Reflexes. These are predictable involuntary responses to stimuli that involve the brain, spinal cord and nerves
of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)..

The functions of spinal cord:

• conducts sensory information from the peripheral nervous system (both somatic and
autonomic) to the brain
• conducts motor information from the brain to our various effectors
o skeletal muscles
 o cardiac muscle
o smooth muscle
o glands
• serves as a minor reflex center

- a) Anterior horn – motoric pathways from spinal cord to muscles – locomotion

- b) Posterior horn – sensitive pathways - pathways from receptors of sense organs, skin,
tendons, muscles –– to spinal cord.

White Matter vs. Gray Matter

Both the spinal cord and the brain consist of

• white matter = bundles of axons each coated with a sheath of myelin

• gray matter = masses of the cell bodies and dendrites — each covered with
synapses.

In the spinal cord, the white matter is at the surface, the gray matter inside.

In the brain, the white mater is inside and the gray mater is at the surface.

Both the spinal cord and brain are covered in three continuous sheets of connective
tissue. These are the:

• dura mater -tvrdá mozgová plena— pressed against the bony surface of the
interior of the vertebrae and the cranium
• the arachnoid – stredná vrstva - pavúčnica
• the pia mater – vnútorná vrstva - cievnatka

The region between the arachnoid and pia mater is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
–mozgovomiechový mok
The Spinal Cord - reflex

Sensory neurons - sends information to the CNS from internal organs or from external
stimuli.
Motor neurons - carries information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands.

- 31 pairs of spinal nerves (8 cervical , 12 thoracical, 5 lumbal 5 sacral 1 pair coccyx) arise
along the spinal cord. These are "mixed" nerves because each contain both sensory and motor
axons. Spinal cord is protected by the spinal column.

The Brain

The brain contains more than 90 percent of the body's neurons. Physically, the brain has
three more or less distinct areas:

- the hindbrain
- the midbrain
- the forebrain.

Three major regions make up the brain stem: medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

• The medulla is the inferior-most region of the brain stem that connects the brain to the
spinal cord. It is a tube very similar structurally to the spinal cord, but is wider and
contains several masses of gray matter internally.
• Superior to the medulla is the pons, which is larger and structurally more complex
than the medulla.
• Finally, the midbrain forms the most superior and most complex region of the brain
stem.
The hindbrain is found in even the most primitive vertebrates. It is made up of the cerebellum, the pons, and the
medulla.

The medulla is a narrow structure nearest the spinal cord; it is the point at which many of the nerves from the
left part of the body cross to the right side of the brain and vice versa. The medulla controls such functions as
breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

The pons, located just above the medulla, connects the top of the brain to the cerebellum. Chemicals produced
in the pons help maintain our sleep-wake cycle.

The cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres and handles certain reflexes, especially those that have to do
with balance. It also coordinates the body's actions.

The midbrain lies between the hindbrain and forebrain and is crucial for hearing and sight.

The forebrain is supported by the brain stem-mozgový kmeň and buds-vyrastá out above it. It consists of the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the cerebral cortex-kôra.

The thalamus relays and translates incoming messages from the sense receptors—except those for smell.

The hypothalamus governs-ovláda motivation and emotion and appears to play a role in coordinating the
responses of the nervous system in times of stress.

SUMMARY TABLE

PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Hindbrain Medulla oblongata Sensory and motor nerves

crossover, connection
between spinal cord and
brain, changing of white
and grye mater,
Nerves control mimics of
face ad speach. Center of
reflexes: unconditioned
reflexes
Control: respiration,
function of the heart and
blood vessels as well as
digestion

Pons Regulation of sleep-wake

cycle,
pathways which connect
spinal cord and brain
the center of V. and VI.
brain nerves

Cerebellum Outher layer grey inner

 layer white – tree design
Informtion from tendons,
muscles, equilibrium center
Reflexes (e.g., balance)
Coordinates movement

Midbrain Center of III. and IV. brain

nerves – inerve eye
muscles, sight, hearing,

Centre of hearing, turning

body , vision relay point
Straight position of human
body

Diencephalon – Thalamus Pain registered,

medzimozog= Information from skin
about cold and heat,
covered by
Connection between
hemispheres cerebral cortex and lower
sections of the CNS,
- gateway of
consciousness

Hypothalamus the highest center of

vegetative control,
manages the activities of
autonomic nerves,
Regulates the activities of
internal organs, all glands,
smooth muscles and blood
vesseles

Forebrain Cerebral Grey mater outher layer -

Hemispheres(right, left): cerebral cortex – form
unterconnected by corpus basal ganglia – coordinate
callosum – svorové teliesko movement
- left handed . right - white mater inner layer
hemisphere dominant
- right handed , left Cerebral cortex 2 parts:
hemisphere dominant - central part of analyzers
- the association part
 It formes memory traces –
it is the seat of
consciousness
- it control deliberate
movements of the motor
movement centers
- in association areas there
is coordination of the
sensory activity functions
with motor area
In frontal part – the center
of speach

4 lobes are formed by

cerebral cortex:

1. Occipital lobe Receives and processes

záhlavný visual information

2. Temporal lobe Complex vision

spánkový Smell
Hearing
Balance and equilibrium-
rovnováha
Emotions and motivations
Some language
comprehension

3. Parietal lobe Sensory projection and

temenný association areas
Visual/spatial abilities

4. Frontal lobe Goal-directed behavior,

čelový concentration
Emotional control and
temperament
Motor projection and
association areas
Coordinate messages from
other lobes
The cerebral hemispheres, located above the thalamus and hypothalamus, take up most of the room inside the
skull. The outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres is known as the cerebral cortex – mozgová kôra. The
cerebral hemispheres are what most people think of when they think of the brain. They are the most recently
evolved portion of the brain, and they regulate the most complex behavior. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided
into four lobes:

The occipital lobe of the cortex, located at the back of the head, receives and processes visual information.

The temporal lobe, located roughly behind the temples-spánky, is important to the sense of smell; it also helps us
perform complex visual tasks, such as recognizing faces.

The parietal lobe, which sits on top of the temporal and occipital lobes, receives sensory information, in the
sensory projection areas, from all over the body and figures in spatial-priestorové abilities. The ability to
comprehend language is concentrated in two areas in the parietal and temporal lobes.
 The frontal lobe is the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for voluntary movement and attention as well as
goal-directed behavior. The frontal lobe may also be linked to emotional temperament.

These four lobes are both physically and functionally distinct. Each lobe contains areas for specific motor
sensory function as well as association areas. The association areas—areas that are free to process all kinds of
information—make up most of the cerebral cortex and enable the brain to produce behaviors requiring the
coordination of many brain areas.

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Deep fissures in the cortex separate these areas or lobes. Also shown are the primary sensory and motor areas.

The PNS – peripheral nervous system has two parts:

The peripheral nervous system is divided into the following sections:

Peripheral Nervous System – according to how they carry information:

• Sensory Nervous System - sends information to the CNS from internal organs or
from external stimuli.
• Motor Nervous System - carries information from the CNS to organs, muscles, and
glands.

According to what types of organs they control:

a) the somatic nervous system
b) the autonomic nervous system.

a) Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal muscle as well as external sensory organs.

b) Autonomic Nervous System - controls involuntary muscles, such as smooth and

cardiac muscle. I tis divided into:

o Sympathetic - controls activities that increase energy expenditures.

o Parasympathetic - controls activities that conserve energy expenditures.
The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, or voluntary nervous system, enables humans to
react consciously to environmental changes. It includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12
pairs of cranial nerves. This system controls movements of skeletal (voluntary) muscles

The names and major functions of these nerves are listed below.

1. Olfactory Nerve: čuchový nerv: Sense of smell

2. Optic Nerve: zrakový nerv: Vision
3. Oculomotor Nerve: okohybný nerv: Eyeball and eyelid movement
4. Trochlear Nerve: kladkový nerv: Eye movement
5. Trigeminal Nerve: trojklanný nerv : This is the largest cranial nerve and is divided
into three branches consisting of the ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular nerves.
Functions controlled include facial sensation and chewing.
6. Abducent Nerve :odťahujúci Eye movement
7. Facial Nerve: tvárový Facial expressions and sense of taste
8. Vestibulocochlear Nerve: polohovosluchový Equilibrium and hearing
9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve: jazykovohltanový Swallowing, sense of taste, and saliva
secretion
10. Vagus Nerve: blúdivý Smooth muscle sensory and motor control in throat, lungs,
heart, and digestive system
11. Accessory Nerve: vedľajší Movement of neck and shoulders
12. Hypoglossal Nerve: podjazykový Movement of tongue, swallowing and speech

The involuntary nervous system - AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM- maintains

homeostasis. As its name implies, this system works automatically and without voluntary
input. Its parts include receptors within internal organs, the afferent nerves that relay the
information to the CNS, and the efferent nerves that relay the action back to the effectors.

The effectors in this system are smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands, all structures that
function without conscious control. An example of autonomic control is movement of food
through the digestive tract during sleep.

The efferent portion of the autonomic system is divided into

- sympathetic
- parasympathetic systems.

- The sympathetic nerves mobilize energy for the 'Fight or Flight' reaction during stress,
causing increased blood pressure, breathing rate, and blood flow to muscles.
- The parasympathetic nerves have a calming effect; they slow the heartbeat and breathing
rate, and promote digestion and elimination. This example of intimate interaction with the
endocrine system is one of many that explain why the two systems are called the
neuroendocrine system.