Continuation of integration by substitution

Examples:
a) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

Let 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 so that 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⟹ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑢

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑢
∴ tan ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ∙ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑢
1
= − ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= − ln|𝑢| + 𝑐 = − ln | cos 𝑥| + 𝑐
= − ln|𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥| + 𝑐
𝜋
1
b) Evaluate ∫𝜋3 2 cot 2 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
6

since cot 2 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1

⟹ cot 2 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝜃 − 1
𝜋 𝜋
31 2 31
∴ ∫ 𝜋 cot 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜋 (cosec 2 2𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃
2 2
6 6

𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 3
= 2 [− − 𝜃] 𝜋
2
6
= 0.0269
Remarks:
When a power of a cosine is multiplied by a sine of power 1, or vise versa, the
following holds;
𝜃
1) ∫ cos 𝑛 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − cos𝑛+1 𝑛+1 + 𝑐

𝜃
2) ∫ sin𝑛 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = sin𝑛+1 𝑛+1 + 𝑐

1
Example
𝜋
Evaluate ∫0 sin2 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

𝜋
= ∫02 sin2 𝑥 ∙ cos2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
= ∫02 sin2 𝑥(1 − sin2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
= ∫02 (sin2 𝑥 − sin4 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
= ∫02 sin2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫02 sin4 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
sin3 𝑥 sin5 𝑥 2
=[ − ]
3 5 0
2
= 15 or 0.1333

Find the integral of the following

1
a) ∫ √𝑎2 2 𝑑𝑥
−𝑥

Let 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 , so that 𝑑𝑥 = acos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 1
∴ ∫ √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑎2 ∙ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
−(𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2

1
=∫ ∙ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑎2 (1−sin2 𝜃)

1
= ∫ 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑 𝜃

= ∫ 1𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃
But 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
⟹ sin 𝜃 = 𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
𝑎 𝑎
1 𝑥
∴ ∫ √𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐

1
b) Find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 +4

Let 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃 , so that 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 and

√𝑥 2 + 4 = √4(tan2 𝜃 + 1) = √4 sec 2 𝜃 = 2| sec 𝜃| = 2 sec 𝜃

2
 Thus we have:
1 ∫ 2 sec2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 sec2 𝜃
∫ 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 4 tan2 𝜃∙2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = 4 ∫ tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 sec2 𝜃 1 1
⟹ 4 ∫ tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=4 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 , let 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , so that 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
sin2 𝜃

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑑𝑢
Then ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = 4 𝑢2
4 sin2 𝜃

1 1 1 1
= (− ) + 𝑐 = (− )+𝑐
4 𝑢 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

But 𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝑥
⟹ tan 𝜃 = 2

√𝑥 2 + 4
𝑥
𝜃
2

𝑥 1 √𝑥2 +4
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ⟹ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 =
√𝑥 2 +4 𝑥

Therefore:

𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 4
∫ =− +𝑐
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 4 4𝑥
𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (can use 𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)
√𝑥 2 +4

But direct substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 4 is simpler, because 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
and ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ∙
√𝑥 2 +4 √𝑢 2𝑥
1 1
= 2
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = √𝑢 + 𝑐
√

= √𝑥 2 + 4 + 𝑐

3
Note: even when trig substitutions are possible, they may not give the easiest solution.
We should look for a simpler method first.
Exercise
Evaluate
𝑑𝑥
a) ∫ √𝑥 2 −𝑎2
, where 𝑎 > 0 (let 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃) Ans: ln|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝑐
𝑥
(𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎 cosh 𝑡) or cosh−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐

13√3
𝑥3 3 3
b) ∫0 2
3 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 and 𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 Ans: 32
(4𝑥 2 +9)2

𝑥
c) ∫ √3−2𝑥−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 (compare the square under the root sign to have 4 − (𝑥 + 1)2 )
Then let 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑥2 𝑥+1
d) ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 Ans: −√3 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − sin−1 ( )+𝑐
(𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2 2

a) By trig substitution
b) By hyperbolic substitution 𝑥 = asinh 𝑡

Integration by partial fractions

To illustrate, we have;
2 1 1(𝑥−1) 𝑥+5
− 𝑥+2 = 2(𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥−1)∙(𝑋+2) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2
𝑥−1

Reversing the procedure, we have;

𝑥+5 2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥+2

= 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐

4
Recall the following forms of partial fractions below

Form of rational fraction form of the partial fraction

𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
1. (𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥−𝑏)
, 𝑎≠𝑏 + 𝑥−𝑏
𝑥−𝑎

𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝐴 𝐵
2. (𝑥−𝑏)2
+ (𝑥−𝑏)2
𝑥−𝑏

𝑝𝑥 2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
3. (𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥−𝑏)(𝑥−𝑐)
+ 𝑥−𝑏 + 𝑥−𝑐
𝑥−𝑎

𝑝𝑥 2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
4. (𝑥−𝑎)2 (𝑥−𝑏)
+ (𝑥−𝑎)2 + 𝑥−𝑏
𝑥−𝑎

𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝐴𝑥+𝐵
5. 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

𝑝𝑥 2 +𝑞𝑥+𝑟 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷

6. (𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2
+ (𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2
(𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)

Example

Evaluate the following

𝑥 3 +𝑥
a) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

Since the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator, we
first perform long division.

5
 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
𝑥−1 𝑥3 + 𝑥
−𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2
𝑥2 + 𝑥
−𝑥 2 − 𝑥
2𝑥
−2𝑥 − 2
2

𝑥 3 +𝑥 2
∴ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

𝑥3 𝑥2
= + + 2𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑐
3 2

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 (no need to divide)
2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −2𝑥

We factor the denominator as;

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

Thus the partial fraction decomposition of the integral has the form;

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥−1 + 𝑥+2
𝑥(2𝑥−1)(𝑥+2)

⟹ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)

Solving we have;
1 1 1
𝐴 = 2 , 𝐵 = 5 , 𝐶 = − 10 and so

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2 ∙ 𝑥 + 5 ∙ 2𝑥−1 − 10 ∙ 𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 −2𝑥

6
 1 1 1
ln|𝑥| + 10 ln|2𝑥 − 1| − 10 ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
2

𝑑𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 , when 𝑎 ≠ 0.
𝑥 2 −𝑎2

1 1 𝐴 𝐵
= (𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥+𝑎) = 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑥+𝑎 and therefore
𝑥 2 −𝑎2

1 1
𝐴(𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 𝑎) = 1 ⟹ 𝐴 = ,𝐵 = −
2𝑎 2𝑎

Thus;

𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 ∫ (𝑥−𝑎 − 𝑥+𝑎) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −𝑎2

1 1 𝑥−𝑎
= 2𝑎 [ln|𝑥 − 𝑎| − ln |𝑥 + 𝑎|] + 𝑐 = 2𝑎 ln |𝑥+𝑎| + 𝑐

𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

The first step is to divide: the result of long division is:

𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1 4𝑥
= 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

Then factoring the denominator we have:

𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)

Thus the partial fraction decomposition is:

4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)

This gives
𝐴 = 1 , 𝐵 = 2 , 𝐶 = −1 , so

𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1 1 2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [𝑥 + 1 + (𝑥−1) + (𝑥−1)2 − (𝑥+1)] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 −𝑥+1

7
 𝑥2 2
= + 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| − 𝑥−1 − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐
2

𝑥2 2 𝑥−1
= +𝑥− + ln | |+𝑐
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1

2𝑥 2 −𝑥+4
e) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 +4𝑥

Since 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 4) cant be factored further,

We write

2𝑥 2 −𝑥+4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +4
𝑥 3 +4𝑥

⟹ 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)

Which gives
𝐴 = 1 , 𝐵 = 1 and 𝑐 = −1 and so

2𝑥 2 −𝑥+4 1 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +4) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 +4𝑥

1 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 +4 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 +4 𝑑𝑥

1 1 𝑥
= ln|𝑥| + 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 4| − 2 tan−1 (2) + 𝑐

4𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
f) ∫ 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥

We first divide to get:

4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
2
=1+ 2
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
Notice that 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 is irreducible because 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −32 < 0
Thus it cant be factored. But completing the square we have:
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = (2𝑥 − 1)2 + 2
1
Now let 𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1 , so that 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 = 2 (𝑢 + 1),

8
 4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
⟹∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
1
(𝑢+1)−1 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑥 + ∫2 ∙
𝑢2 +2 2

1 𝑢−1
= 𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑢2 +2 𝑑𝑢

1 𝑢 1 1
= 𝑥 + 4 ∫ 𝑢2 +2 𝑑𝑢 − 4 ∫ 𝑢2 +2 𝑑𝑢
1 1 1 𝑢
= 𝑥 + 8 ln(𝑢2 + 2) − 4 ∙ tan−1 ( ) + 𝑐
√2 √2

1 1 2𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + 8 ln(4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 − 4√2 tan−1 ( )+𝑐
√2

1−𝑥+2𝑥 2 −𝑥 3
g) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)2

1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + +
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)2 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 + 1)2

⟹ 𝐴 = 1 , 𝐵 = −1 , 𝐶 = −1 , 𝐷 = 1 and 𝐸 = 0

Thus

1−𝑥+2𝑥 2 −𝑥 3 1 𝑥+1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑥 2 +1 + (𝑥 2 +1)2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)2

1 𝑥 1 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2 +1)2 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ln|𝑥| − 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − tan−1 𝑥 − 2(𝑥 2 +1)2 + 𝑐