INTEGRATION

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. In differentiation, we are given a

function and we are required to its derivative or differential coefficient. In integration the
derivative of some function is given and we are required to find the function. Integration
is sometimes referred to as anti-differentiation or ant-derivative.

An elongated S, denoted as∫ , is used to replace the words ‘the integral of ‘.

(∫ Represents the sum).
Generally, a function F(x) is said to be the anti-derivative of the function f(x) on the
internal [a, b] if
𝑑
[𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) , ∀ 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Thus if [𝐹(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) , then
𝑑𝑥

⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)

Read as integral of (𝑥) 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑥 .

Example 1
𝑑
(8𝑥 3 ) = 24𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

Hence∫ 24𝑥 2 = 8𝑥 3 .
Similarly,
𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Hence ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

However, notice that the differential coefficient of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 9 is also 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , i.e.
𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 9) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥

Therefore, ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥 should also equal 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 9. To allow for the possible presence of
a constant, whenever the process of integration is performed, a constant “C” is added to
the result. Therefore in general;

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶
This implies that different values of C will give different integrals and hence a given
function may have an indefinite number of integrals.
Remarks:
The presence of an indefinite constant C justifies the name indefinite integral.
Thus we conclude that
𝑑
[𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 , where C is the arbitrary constant of integration.

Integrals of the form 𝒂𝒙𝒏 :

In general,
𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛+1)
+ 𝐶 (Sometimes referred to as the power formula).

Note: the power formula is true when n is fractional, zero, or a ± integer, with the
exception of 𝑛 = −1.
Addition and subtraction of integrals:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be two functions of 𝑥, and let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be constants, then

∫ [𝑎𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑏𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= 𝑎∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑏∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
This is referred to as integrating term by term.
Example 2:
4𝑥 4+1 4
i) ∫ 4𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 = 4+1
= 5 𝑥5 + 𝑐

3 5 2 5
3 +1 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥2 5
ii) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 3 = 5 +𝑐 =
2
+𝑐
+1
2 2

2 1
2 − +1 1
1 − 𝑥 3 𝑥3
iii) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝑐 = 1 + 𝑐 = 3𝑥 3 + 𝑐
𝑥3 − +1
3 3

2𝑥 3 −3𝑥
iv) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥
 2𝑥 3 3𝑥
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 4𝑥

𝑥2 3 𝑥2 3
= ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 4 2 4

1 3
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 4

1 𝑥 2+1 3 𝑥 0+1
= ∙ − ∙ +𝐶
2 2+1 4 0+1

1 3 3
= 𝑥 − 𝑥+𝐶
6 4

v) ∫(1 − 𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡

vi) ∫(𝑥 − 3)2 ∙ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 2 −4
vii) ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥

viii) ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2
ix) ∫ 1+𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 6 +1
x) ∫ 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥

Recall:
𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥
(𝑙𝑛 𝑥) = 𝑥
1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐
Standard integrals

1) ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
2) ∫ 𝑘𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐
 𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1 1
3) 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑛+1 ) = 𝑛+1 ∙ (1 + 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛

𝑥 𝑛+1
⟹ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐 , 𝑛 ≠ −1

1
4) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

5) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑎𝑥
6) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑎 + 𝐶 ; 𝑎 > 0 , 𝑎 ≠ 1

1
7) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

1
8) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

1
9) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎

1
10) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑎

1
11) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

1
12) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶

1
13) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1−𝑥 2

1
14) ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

1
15) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

1
16) ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1−𝑥 2

1
17) ∫ − 1+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 +𝐶

1
18) ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 + 𝐶
𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
Examples
Evaluate the following integrals:
a) ∫ 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
= 8 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 8 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 𝐶
3
8
= 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 + 𝐶
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
=∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
c) ∫ 3𝑒 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2 1 2
= 3 ∫ 𝑒 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 3 ∫ 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2 1
= 3 ∙ (− 4) ∙ 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝐶

1
= − 6 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝐶
1
= − 6𝑒 4𝑡 + 𝐶
1
d) ∫ 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√

e) ∫ 𝑒 3𝑙𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 note ; 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑚 𝑙𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑛𝑚

3
f) ∫ √𝑝2 𝑑𝑝

(𝑥+1)2
g) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥
 Examples

a) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

1
b) ∫ √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 ] 2 𝑑𝑥

1
= ∫[ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)2 ]2 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) + 𝐶

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝐶

1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

d) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
Recall; cos2x = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1)
1
⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 + 1)

Proof [𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 2𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥]

Solution
= ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫(2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥
1
= 4 ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑥 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 1 )𝑑𝑥

Integrating term by term we have;

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑥 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑥 + 1)
1 1
⟹ 4 ∫(2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 8𝑥 + 1) + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 1 1 1 3
[16 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑥 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 𝑥 ] = 64 𝑠𝑖𝑛 8𝑥 + 8 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑥 + 8 𝑥 + 𝐶
4