BEGINNERS GUIDE TO DATA

VISUALIZATION
HOW TO UNDERSTAND, DESIGN, AND OPTIMIZE OVER 40
DIFFERENT CHARTS

ELIZABETH CLARKE
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 TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Introduction

1. Fundamentals of Data Visualization

Visual Processing
Visual Variables
Principles for Effective Visualizations
Four Basic Principles to Follow
2. Change Over Time
Line Charts
Fan Charts
Slope Charts
Area Charts
Connected Scatterplot
Gantt Chart
3. Comparison
Bar Graphs
Diverging Bar
Bubble Chart
Waterfall Chart
Sankey Diagram
Marimekko Chart
Bullet Chart
Dumbbell Plots
4. Distribution
Histogram
Dot Plot
Ridgeline Plot
Box Plot
Candlestick Plot
Violin Plot
Population Pyramid
Strip Plot
Beeswarm Plot
5. Part-to-whole
Pie Chart
Tree Map
Sunburst Chart
 Nightingale Rose Chart
6. Relationship
Scatter Plot
Radar Chart
Chord Diagram
Network Diagram
Tree Diagram
Parallel coordinates plot
7. Geographical
Choropleth
Proportional Symbol Map
Flow Map
Radial Flow Maps
Network Flow Maps
Distributive Flow Maps
8. Tables and Pictograms
Tables - When and How to Use Them
All About Pictograms
Infographics
9. Fundamentals of Design
7 Principles for Transforming Data into Stunning, Informative Visuals
Optimizing Chart Elements
A Guide to Color
A Guide to Using Color Palettes on Different Types of Charts
10. Chart Redesigns

Conclusion
Appendix - Tools for Data Visualization
References
 INTRODUCTION

Whether you say it d-ay-ta or d-ah-ta, data has been around for a long, long
time. In fact, the history books have records of data collection tools dating
back as far as 19,000 BC. This came in the form of an Ishango bone, which
was used as a tally stick. The Ishango bone was a primitive brown bone tool
consisting of a length of bone with a sharp object like a piece of quartz on
one end. Before what we know as modern mathematics or libraries were
ever invented, human beings were already interacting with data.
Of course, as humans have evolved, so has how we collect and store data.
Naturally, how we display data in visual form has also moved with the
times.
Before the Industrial Revolution in the mid-19th century, the main forms of
data visualization were maps, which we used as displays of resources, land
markers, roads, and cities. But now… Line charts, area charts, histograms,
heat maps, pie charts, bar charts… I really can go on and on. There is no
shortage of ways that data can be presented in a visual format, and, of
course, this variety makes it so that any type of data can be given a visual
skin. We really have come a long way in the last 200 years because such
formats would have been totally foreign to someone of that time viewing
the visualization.
But why was this evolution of data visualization necessary?
The short answer? The sheer amount of data we amass in this modern age
makes it necessary to find mediums to present that information in a visual
context that is easy for us to understand and gain insight from at a glance.
After all, approximately 80 zettabytes (ZB) of data, with 1 ZB totaling 1
billion terabytes, was collected in 2021. Every day, more and more data is
being collected and stored on social media, via retail outlets, in small and
large businesses… You name it and this entity is collecting data. Even on an
individual front, we collect and store data. With the increasing global
population and consumption, data volume is exploding. In fact, data volume
is expected to more than double the 2021 figure by the time we get around
to 2025. Can you imagine the accumulation after that time? It truly boggles
my mind to contemplate. Data visualization allows us to easily identify
trends, patterns, and outliers from such large data sets. It also makes it so
that we can present these data sets to audiences that might not be as
knowledgeable as us in a clear, concise, and easily interpretable way.
But data visualization is not just important because it allows us to digest
visual information quickly. It allows for faster and more efficient decision-
making. It jumpstarts the crucial decisions to improve an organization, such
as business productivity, product performance, better services and whatever
else pushes a business forward. It increases the probability that people in
and out of an organization can share helpful insights and develop solutions
to solve whatever problem that makes the need for data collection
necessary. It allows for acting on solutions quickly so that success is more
likely and fewer mistakes are made. Because of these and more benefits,
data visualization can be used in all sectors and niches such as politics,
healthcare, sciences, sales, marketing, finance, banking, logistics, and more.
However, despite the many benefits of using data visualization, many
people do not understand how to use it to maximum effectiveness. Whether
you are a beginner at data visualization or looking for a way to enhance
your current data visualization toolkit, this book was written to showcase
the many different charts that can be used, what they are good for, and how
you can maximize that usage.
Data visualization can seem quite complex and daunting, but I have
organized this book in a manner that is simple to understand and utilize.
The information has been compiled into four main sections to ensure your
toolkit has all it needs to successfully create effective data visualizations.
They are:
Section 1: Fundamentals of Data Visualization
Section 2: All about Charts and How to Use them to Your Advantage
Section 3: Fundamentals of Design
Section 4: Case Study and Redesigns
Appendix: Tools for Creating Data Visualizations

To summarize, by the time you read the last word of this book, you will
understand the essentials of any data visualization, how to pick the right
charts and how to design them for maximum effectiveness.
Project managers, data scientists, marketers, social media analysts, product
managers… All these professionals and more would have a far easier time
relaying information and insights if they learned the art of telling stories
through data visualization. My passion has led me to create a series of
books to give you the tools to tell captivating stories with data.
I won't waste any more of your time, lets get right to the good stuff!
 1
F U N D A M E N TA L S O F D ATA V I S U A L I Z AT I O N

E ven though the visualizations that we see as typical, like line graphs
and pie charts in this day and age, are relatively new constructs of the
late 18th to mid-19th century, data visualization itself is not new. In
fact, it has been around for thousands of years in the form of maps. “X
marks the spot,” is a pirate phrase that has been passed down throughout the
ages and is a great example of how we used to visualize information before.
What we know as modern data visualization was created by William
Playfair, who was a Scottish political economist. He invented line charts,
area charts, and bar charts and shared his invention with the world in 1786
in his publication called The Commercial and Political Atlas; Representing,
by Means of Stained Copper-Plate Charts, the Exports, Imports, and
General Trade of England, at a Single View. To which are Added, Charts of
the Revenue and Debts of Ireland, Done in the Same Manner by James
Correy.
FIGURE 1.1: One of his many charts. Source: The Commercial and Political Atlas, 1786
(3th ed. edition 1801)

He highlighted statistical information in a visual form. Even though the

science of how we process information visually had not been anywhere near
as advanced as it is today, Playfair understood that this information would
be more insightful presented this way compared to it simply being written.
His methodology allowed us to convey and digest important and expanding
information. From then, more data visualization tools popped up, but it was
with a greater understanding of psychology that these tools were fine-tuned
to allow audiences to gain a better understanding of the information that
was being presented.

VISUAL PROCESSING
There are several ways that the brain processes the world around us. It does
this via our 5 senses (touch, hearing, taste, smell, and sight). The
information it receives via our senses is turned into electrical and chemical
signals that it uses to make interpretations.
No matter what sense the brain receives this information, most of this
process happens outside your conscious awareness. The process whereby
the brain subconsciously accumulates information about your environment
is known as pre-attentive processing. The brain then filters and processes
what it deems important from the received information. Can you imagine if
you noticed every single thing, such as how a blade of grass blew in the
wind and the lint that landed on your shoe every single second of the day?
Your brain would constantly be on the verge of overheating. The brain
recognizes this is not a desired state of affairs and therefore, only gives
attentiveness to things it deems essential. But how does it make the
selection of what is important and discard what is not?
Let’s answer this question now. The information received from our senses is
given different levels of priority for processing in the brain. As part of our
cognitive awareness, taste has the lowest priority. This is followed by
hearing and smell and then touch. Finally, the highest priority is given to the
information received from sight. You are far more likely to notice
something you see compared to what you are tasting under normal
circumstances. More than 50% of the information our brains process is
gained from what we see around us. This process is called visual
processing. It describes how the brain perceives and then processes
information gained from what we see. This information may seem boring to
some, but whoever masters it will never leave an audience uninspired again.
Cognitive awareness is handled by the part of the brain called the cerebral
cortex. This part is responsible for our reasoning. While it is pretty nifty at
sifting through the information, it is hindered by the process of evolution.
Or rather, evolution has not caught up to it yet because it is a comparatively
new structure in the brain. Therefore, it is slower to interpret the
information it receives. We would resemble lagging computers at times if
we relied on this part of the brain to process the sheer amount of visual
input received every minute of the day. However, this part of the brain is
quite equipped to handle functions like thinking, understanding language,
and perceptions. It also interprets information received from other senses
like touch and hearing quite well.
On the other hand, the brain processes the raw visualizations it receives in
another part of the brain called the thalamus. It is older than the cerebral
cortex on the human evolutionary scale and can process visual information
in a few hundred milliseconds. This is much less taxing on the brain and
allows pre-attentive processing to occur. As long as your eyes are open, it
receives input, but we are unaware of most of this intake. That is not until
an element of a visual catches the brain's attention and goes through the
cognitive tunnels of the thalamus.

VISUAL VARIABLES
The differences in elements of items received by the human eye for visual
processing and analysis are called visual variables or pre-attentive
attributes. As you see below, many of these elements you've probably seen
in graphs before and they can work wonders when it comes to highlighting
insights.
 FIGURE 1.2: Pre-attentive attributes

Position
This variable describes the way that the element has been situated relative
to other elements. It is where the object is placed in its environment. This
also goes by the name location. This can be given in absolute or relative
terms
Size
This indicates the dimensions of the objects in sight. The size of a visual
variable can affect how other visual variables are seen. For example, a large
element can cause another item to seem smaller than it is by comparison.
Shape
This quality describes the parameter of the objects in sight. Examples of
shapes include points, lines, and flat and 3-D figures.
Hue
This variable has two dimensions, which are the hue and the lightness.
These can also be counted as individual visual variables as well. The hue is
often simply referred to as the color. It describes the name of the color, such
as blue, green, pink, purple, or red. Lightness, also called value, describes
how dark or how light a hue is. So, while shades of blue or green might
have the same hue, they can have different values of lightness or darkness.
So, sky blue and navy blue have different lightnesses even though they have
the same hue, which could then represent high figures and low figures.
Orientation
This describes elements relative to each other or specific positions.
Orientation can create perceptions of likeness or groupings.
Curvature
Utilizing curves in your data visualizations can showcase the flow of the
data. Often, this is populated automatically in cases such as a line graph.
When a bar chart is necessary, you can add a supporting trend line to show
the flow of the data. Another case would be to visualize smaller instead of
larger time intervals. Instead of quarters or years, you can show months or
days to see a microscopic view of the data and how it trends over time.
Length
People can easily distinguish the length between separate things. This is
why bar charts tend to triumph over pie charts. When a bar is noticeably
longer than the other, it is perceived as a more significant value very
quickly. We will cover this theory more later.
Width
Width can be used to determine the size difference between various
categories. This can be done through a Marimekko chart or stacked area
chart, as each category's value is showcased by its width. We will, of
course, go in-depth on these later as they are great charts to have in your
tool belt
Added Marks
A great way to show separate groups within data. For example, data plotted
on a scatter plot. This can also be effective when presenting to someone
who is colorblind and separating the groups by color won't be as effective.
Enclosure
Enclosure allows you to quickly determine groupings based on borders or
enclosed values. Using too many lines or borders can also add clutter, so
keep this in mind.
Color saturation
This relates to the intensity of the color of an element. The more saturated a
color, the richer it appears. At 100% saturation, a color has no gray added to
it. The less intense the color, the paler it appears. At 0% saturation, a color
will appear gray no matter the hue.
Grouping
This describes the layout of predetermined elements. It helps establish
relationships between elements as well as appearance to achieve an overall
visual flow. This means that a particular eye movement will be prescribed
to these elements.

Contrast
This variable describes how an element stands out from another—
potentially a different tone or lightness than the others or its transparency
level. Another example would be hot and cold, where colors over a
spectrum gradually change to a different value.

U NDERSTANDING these attributes will allow you to choose, design, and

present your charts far more effectively. The key to data visualization is for
the audience to understand the significant insights as quickly as possible.
Focusing on the science behind how an audience perceives information will
form a strong foundation for all your future presentations.

PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTI VE VISUALIZATION S

The brain would crash and burn just like an overheated computer if it were
just bombarded with visuals and no ordered way of processing that data.
Since self-destructing is certainly not the desired option, the brain’s
structure has evolved into seeing patterns, logic, and structures in the things
that we see. If such mechanisms were not in place, we would not make
sense of the world. The world would simply be a place of color and shapes
with no identity. We would not note patterns, nuances in appearance, and
how things related to each other in any one environment. Gestalt principles
were developed in the 1920s to help explain how the brain processes the
complex images that it receives by subconsciously organizing the individual
parts to create full imagery. This happens even if these individual parts do
not relate in a collection of items. For example, the brain will note that a
mountain is shaped like a triangle even if there are gaps in your vision, like
the presence of trees obstructing your view. The brain does this so that there
is order and logic to the world around you.
To settle the confusion, pre-attentive attributes or pre-attentive processing
are essential to attention and focus. The sorting of visual information to
quickly make sense of what we are seeing on a smaller scale. It's a process.
While with Gestalt Principles, we see the meaningful result of a purposeful
collection of elements.
Pre-Attentive Attributes: Drawing attention
Gestalt Principles: Seeing the overall result
Help bring order and logic to your data visualization by applying these
principles. Or, in some cases, the data will do it for you. When working
with large data sets, highlight the patterns purposefully. These principles are
as follows:
Law of proximity
This law refers to how closely different visual elements are positioned in
relation to each other. Items that are close to each other are perceived as a
group. This will naturally appear when potting many data points in a scatter
plot. From there, you can highlight specific groups and their significance.

FIGURE 1.3: Law of proximity

Law of closure
This law refers to how the brain simplifies complex arrangements of visual
elements by organizing those elements into recognizable patterns. The brain
will fill in incomplete images to make the visualization makes sense based
on this law. As the presenter, you need to be mindful of this law and ensure
that your data visualizations are as complete so that your audience grasps as
accurate information from the data as possible. Therefore, a broken line in a
line chart can unwittingly confuse your audience because the image is
incomplete. On the other hand, a continued line displaying the same
information on a line chart gives more information so that the brain gets a
clearer picture. If you look below you can see the missing value and what
the value actually looks like. The missing point is unclear as to what the
data was doing in that specific time frame and could be misconstrued.
FIGURE 1.4: Law of closure

Law of similarity
This law describes the brain's tendency to group like things together.
Therefore, the brain will perceive things with similar shapes, sizes, colors,
orientations, or textures as belonging to the same group. Use this law to
help your audience more readily identify patterns based on your data. You
can also use this law to ensure that your audience more easily perceives
different groups by using dissimilar elements such as color to make that
differentiation.

FIGURE 1.5: Law of similarity

Law of enclosure
The brain also identifies visual items as grouped together based on them
being enclosed in a particular group. That is the basis of this law, which is
also sometimes referred to as the Common Region Gestalt principle.

FIGURE 1.6: Law of closure

Law of continuity
This law is based on the fact that the human eye tends to follow lines and
perceives direction based on the curvature of that line. Use this law in your
data visualization by arranging visual objects in lines to simplify
comparisons and create groupings. For example, your audience will more
readily digest the data being portrayed in a bar chart that moves figures
from highest to lowest or vice versa in a straight line compared to a bar
chart that has scattered figures and varying heights of bars.

FIGURE 1.7 Law of continuity

Law of figure-ground
The brain places objects either in the background or foreground of your
vision without conscious effort. That is the basis of this law. Items placed in
the foreground of your vision are moved from pre-attentive processing to
visual processing. They are given higher priority compared to those in the
background. Foreground elements are noticeable because they contain a
visual variable that catches the eye more readily. Make your data
visualizations more credible by giving contrast to foreground and
background elements. Contrast can be created by using color and contrasts
that move your audience along the line of data. On the other hand, using too
many colors and too much contrast can overload your audience’s senses and
thus, create confusion. A good example of this law in action is the use of a
color gradient moving from blue to yellow to orange to red to show rising
temperatures in a bar chart with a white background. The shift in color
variation of the bars brings these to the forefront while the white scale of
the chart is in the background.
Law of symmetry
This law states that visual elements with symmetry are perceived as a
uniform group by the brain. Symmetry refers to similar parts that face each
other or are ordered similarly around an axis. This gives the sense that
things are in balance and as they should be. On the other hand, asymmetric
(the opposite of symmetric) visual elements give the sense that something is
missing or that there are differences between the visual elements. You can
use both states in your data visualizations to show similarities with
symmetric elements and differences with asymmetric elements.

T HE QUESTION REMAINS - how can these laws guide you to creating

visualizations that allow your audiences to note patterns and see the insights
pertinent to that presentation? To answer that you must keep in mind the
goals that must be accomplished every time you create data visualizations:

1. Tell a story in a graphic way.

2. Establish and maintain your credibility at all times.
FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW
There are 4 basic principles of ensuring that your charts always conform to
these goals:
Honesty is a must
It is unfortunate that it needs to be said but your charts must portray the
truth at all times. But there is a disparity that happens to many who
unwittingly deceive their audience with a few common mistakes. Some of
those include:
First and foremost, never omit the baseline of your chart. The baseline of
any chart is the horizontal line that conveys the basic measurement of the
variables of that scale. Most often, the basic measurement is zero (0) but
this is data/chart specific and is not always the case. Incorrectly determining
your baseline will result in a biased view of the data, making differences
seem more significant than they actually are.

FIGURE 1.8:

The second most common mistake is going against conventions like using
larger areas to indicate higher number values. Audiences are typically
familiar with conventions and going against that grain can leave them with
the wrong impression.
Lastly, do not cherry-pick data to place in your charts. Your audience needs
a whole picture of what the data represents to make informed decisions and
showing only a few data points can mislead and, thus, deceive your
audience. For example, you can present a data set from the last 6 months as
an upward trend.

FIGURE 1.9

Although this is true, if you look at the past year, premium subscriptions
have been steadily declining.
FIGURE 1.10

The more significant insight is why it's on the decline and will it continue
even after this minor spike is over. Always showcase the full picture.
Know your audience
We use data visualizations to communicate with others – the audience. Even
though the message might be the same, how we communicate with a group
is more important than what is said in conveying the right message. You
need to create your visualizations in a way that your audience wants to see
and can understand. Therefore, before you picture a type of chart or the
colors that will be used on that chart, you need to study and understand who
you will be presenting to. Based on what your research says about your
audience, you can cater to their method of communication. Items that affect
the audience’s communication style include their job position. Typically,
higher levels of management need more of a helicopter view to see what is
going on, without as many details. If they are requesting the details,
multiple charts will be in order. While department-specific employees will
need more details for better and more accurate decision-making. Technical
literacy is also a factor that determines how data should be presented. The
more knowledgeable the audience is about the statistics and niche-specific
items, the more complicated the charts can be without losing insight. The
opposite is true for less knowledgeable audiences.
How much background knowledge the audience has on the topic is also
important. The more they know, the fewer details that need to be given
upfront. On the other hand, if the audience does not have any prior
knowledge of the subject matter, then your charts need to include
information that will get them up to speed. It's always good to have some
extra charts that go into detail on some points just in case a few people need
more insight.
Presenting a detailed story to high-level executives is a challenge on its
own. Check out my book “How to Win With Your Data Visualizations” if
you want a more in depth view of presenting data. Here, I go deeper into
understanding your audience and how to present effectively to different
people. Scan the QR below to check it out! (or once you’ve finished this
book.)

Make the key insights the feature

Key insights are the most important facts that summarize the data being
presented. They are the star of the visualization and as such, it is only fitting
that you put the spotlight on them.
FIGURE 1.11

How to do that? It is no hard feat. Start by eliminating distractions. Of

course, choosing the right chart to deliver your key points is a must. But
going hand in hand with that is also being strategic about the colors and text
that enhance those points. All visual elements must serve a purpose in your
charts. Use uniform color schemes and easily readable fonts that ensure
your core messages are easily understood.
Next, get rid of any element that is not essential to highlighting the insights
of your charts. Examples of elements that might not serve to enhance your
message include gridlines, labels, and bright colors. It is a must that you
examine each addition to your chart to ensure it belongs and makes your
message clearer and better understandable. If it does not? Discard without
mercy.
Lastly, use visual variables to highlight significant data points. Such
variables can be colors or shades. Use them to draw your audience’s eyes to
the most important facts.
Insights before aesthetics
The 4th and final principle is insight before aesthetics. How your graphics
look is mighty important when you present data but there is something that
deserves an even higher priority than that. You must get the point across to
the audience. There is, after all a reason why this data visualization’s
creation was necessary. Do not get caught up in the aesthetics and forget
that point. Your visuals (and all these laws and principles that you learned
above) will become worthless if you neglect the core message of the data.
Your visualizations need to support your information, not detract from it.
Incorrect, untruthful, or badly portrayed data certainly do not convey your
message accurately. For maximum effect, always keep the goals of creating
your visualizations in mind then apply the principles described above.

S IGHT IS HOW WE , as a human race, learn most effectively. It is what

allowed us to survive the stone age and what allowed us to sail the high sea
while still making it safely back to land. So, it only makes sense that we
would convey data in such a way to make for an easier understanding of
complex and often large volumes of data. That is the basis of using data
visualizations. Ever since the modern era of publishing charts to visually
present information began in the 1780s, we have not looked back and we
continue to fine-tune processes that make it easier and easier to break down
complex matters into understandable points through graphics.
However, there is a natural ebb and flow to the way we process what we
see. This chapter was written to get in touch with what the brain does with
the images that it receives from our eyes and how you can use that
psychology to make better visualizations. The visual variables used in your
charts allow your audience to visually process the most key insights and
levels of perceptions and bring them into states of cognitive awareness.
Take advantage of the Gestalt principles so that your audience will
subconsciously organize the imagery that you are delivering to them to
create a whole picture of the data.
We have taken a brief delve into biology in this chapter but the science
gives you a sound foundation of how to approach your data visualization
development. You must note though, that no matter how well you learn to
apply these principles and laws, always keep sight of what truly matters –
telling a data story while establishing your credibility. Know what your
audience wants from you and deliver that message truthfully while making
the key insights clear.
With that knowledge in your bag, let’s get into the fun stuff – the different
types of charts at your disposal and when you should use them. Just as
plumbers, carpenters, mechanics, and electricians have those specialized
tools they only bring out once and a while, we, as data professionals, can
benefit from the same strategy. Having an arsenal of chart knowledge
allows us to bring out the most in our data when it is absolutely essential.
Let's build up our tool belt.
 2
C H A N G E OV E R T I M E

A s mentioned before, you can’t randomly choose charts to portray

data. The basis for your chart selection is based on the type of data
you want to display and what insights you want to gain from it. To
start your education, we will cover charts showing change over time.
Change over time is a display of how trends in data move across time
values. These time values can be as short, like a 24-hour period, or they can
be long such as trends over months or even years. Time is displayed on the
chart's horizontal axis (Y-axis) and moves from left to right. The variable or
trend being studied over that time interval is displayed on the chart's
vertical axis (X-axis). Examples of types of data that can be displayed with
such charts include:

A retail store’s sales revenue over the last year

Stock price movements
A product’s launch performance in the first few days
Website visitors over the 1 st quarter of the year

While time is the common denominator that links the types of charts we
will discuss in this chapter, it is important to note that the appropriate time
must be displayed. Otherwise, you risk confusing your audience. They need
to have the proper context of the time movement, so this is one of the first
things you need to nail down before developing data visualizations.
There are many options when visualizing change over time. The chart that
you choose will depend on 2 factors:

1. The type of data being presented

2. The end goal of presenting this data to your audience.

With these two factors in mind, we will discuss 5 of the most widely used
change-over-time charts next.

LINE CHARTS

FIGURE 2.1: Basic line chart

A personal favorite. A line chart is one of the first charts that come to mind
for most people when they hear data visualization, but what is a line chart
exactly? Also called a line graph or a line plot, a line chart is a graphical
representation of data that uses points connected by line segments to
demonstrate the change in volume. This demonstration moves from left to
right. As usual, with charts that illustrate change over time, the horizontal
axis represents a continuous progression of time from left to right and the
vertical axis reports the values that change along that progression.
The most common use of line charts is to emphasize the change in variable
values represented on the vertical axis against the continuous values noted
in time intervals like hours, weeks, months, and years plotted on the
horizontal axis. The plotted line will allow for changes in patterns and
trends as it slopes up or down. Single and multiple lines can be plotted on a
line chart. Multiple lines are used to compare trends of different variables
and subgroups with a data set.
Even though the components of a line chart are quite simple, here are a few
practices that be used to make these devices pop out as your audience and,
of course, be effective at bringing your point across:
Use appropriate measurement intervals on the horizontal axis
Using time measurements that are too short can create a rather busy-looking
line graph when using time intervals that are too far apart means that it is
harder to follow the trend being depicted by the data. You must find a
healthy medium between these two extremes for your line chart to be a
credible source to your audience. Do so by testing out different intervals to
get a feel of one representing the data to its highest potential. This could be
made simpler by your knowledge of the data. If you find out the data cannot
be accurately represented by one line, it is possible to use a second line. The
first can highlight the marginal differences in the time interval and the
second line can serve to highlight the overall trend with a rolling window. A
rolling window refers to noting trends in a subset of the data. It does not
represent the data entirely but rather a sub-series of the full set.
Refrain from plotting too many lines
Technically speaking, you can place as many lines on a single-line chart as
you would like. However, not because you can means you should. Too
many plotlines can make your line graph harder to interpret. Try to stick to
plotting 5 lines or less if multiple trends need to be noted on the
visualization. As you can see, too many lines clutter the visual and hide any
insights.
FIGURE 2.2: Cluttered line chart

In instances where more lines need to be used, use attention-grabbing

attributes to highlight the important information. Always ensure that the key
points are easily identifiable in your visualization and not hidden by noise.
Also, ensure that plot lines are well separated so that each change in value
is easy to track. A useful strategy when plotting multiple lines is to show
the overplotted chart for an overall view of all the data, then show a second
chart with only significant points highlighted in color.
FIGURE 2.3: Highlighting specific information

Ensure gaps between points are identified

In instances where there is missing information between plotted points,
ensure these missing values are labeled for easy identification. This can be
done using a dotted line or a gap to highlight the absent value. Sometimes a
missing value can be of use. Why was it missing? Has it always been
missing? Missing values can bring insights of their own.
FIGURE 2.4: Always showcase missing data

Use the appropriate baseline

While using zero (0) baselines is necessary for charts like histograms and
bar charts, it is not a strict requirement for use in line charts. In
visualizations such as bar charts, using a non-zero baseline skews the
relative difference between the bar heights and can therefore mislead the
audience.
On the other hand, a line chart shows increases and decreases of the
variable represented on the vertical axis over time. The rate at which this
variable changes is relative to the horizontal axis and therefore, its distance
from zero (0) does not skew the audience's perception of what the data
represents. There may even be instances where the use of a zero baseline
can mislead the audience when used in line charts. This happens in cases
where the rate of change from zero to the first instance where the line
slopes upward or downward is entirely flat.
FIGURE 2.5

As you can see, there is a serious issue with the visualization when setting a
zero baseline. Let's change the baseline for a better result.

FIGURE 2.6

We now have a better view of how the data changes over time. Normally
decimal points don't warrant a significant change and shouldn't be
exaggerated. However, when it comes to currency exchange rates, a matter
of cents makes a big difference and it's essential to see the fluctuation. Look
at the data you're presenting before you determine your axis values.
Whether or not you use a zero baseline or a non-zero baseline in your line
chart is dependent on the data at hand. As a rule of thumb, zero baselines
are not a strict requirement with statistical summaries for accurate
interpretation by the audience.
Avoid a smooth line
On a typical line chart, each plot point is connected with a straight line
moving from left to right. Another common mistake to avoid is linking
points with a smooth curve rather than a straight line going through each
point one by one. Using curved lines distorts the perception of the trends
represented in the data. A straight line lets us quickly note drops and spikes
and when exactly they took place. Always remember; insights before
aesthetics!

FIGURE 2.7
D UAL - AXIS LINE CHARTS lead to skewed information
While using a dual vertical axis on a line chart can serve to highlight
different trends on one chart, this practice can easily lead to
misinterpretation depending on how each axis is scaled. The same
information can look entirely different with a few changes on each axis. To
lessen the chances of this happening, ensure that the lines plotted are
separated with appropriate scales on each vertical axis. The audience is less
likely to make false comparisons between the variables being noted. As you
can see below, this is the same set of data with different axis’. This is just an
example. It can be skewed in many ways to make it appear however you
want. People who know nothing about the dataset will indeed be misled.

FIGURE 2.8
FAN CHARTS
A relatively uncommon visual is a fan chart. It joins a line graph that
observes data from the past with a range area chart that determines future
predictions. As forecasts become uncertain, the fan chart fades wider and
becomes more transparent. They are often used to predict exchanges tares
or inflation but can essentially be used to display any data with an uncertain
future value.

FIGURE 2.9

SLOPE CHARTS
At the risk of sounding obvious, I state this - slope charts are composed of
slopes. A slope is a mathematical measurement of how steep a straight line
is when plotted against a pair of coordinated axes like time intervals. The
steepness is indicative of how that line increases or decreases in value. An
increase in the steepness of the slope indicates a positive value change for
the variable being displayed, while the opposite is true for a decrease in the
steepness of the slope. A zero value in the slope means it aligns with the
horizontal axis. Slope charts make use of these conventions to show
comparisons between two variables, such as countries, locations, and
regions. It also shows how trends develop over time in addition to rankings,
transitions, and absolute values. Examples of when to use a slope chart is to
display the number of customers who signed up for a monthly subscription
between 2010 and 2023, or a comparison in the employment rate between
men and women. These simple charts can give an effective picture of before
and after scenarios while allowing audiences to visualize changes in
variables such as sales, costs, prices, revenues, losses, profits, and any
crucial aspect over specific amounts of time. They are often used by upper-
level management to gain simple yet powerful insights.

FIGURE 2.10
You can improve the insights gained from a slope chart by including a table
alongside it. This is particularly useful in situations where the variable on
the vertical axis portrays ranking order. Adding a table will allow the
audience to note the values in order in addition to seeing the visual change
in the form of the degree of the slope.
Other ways that you can make a slope chart a more effective storytelling
device include using specific attributes that grab attention so that the
audience better understands the values. For example, you may choose to use
blue or green to indicate rising slopes while using orange or red to highlight
falling slopes. Additionally, you can also increase the thickness of lines that
indicate a great degree of change while making lines that show a lesser
degree of change with thinner lines. Both uses of visual variables draw the
audience's attention to the important trends indicated by the chart. On the
other hand, you must ensure that your slope chart does not become too busy
by adding several intersecting lines.
A great alternative to a slope chart is the bump chart. This chart shows the
change in ranking over time. In particular, the bump chart helps an audience
visualize how different variables change in rank over time. They differ from
slope charts in that they can highlight multiple time intervals along the
horizontal axis. With slope charts, the goal is to show the change in the
value of the slope value. With bump charts, the aim is to highlight how the
positions in rank change over time.
FIGURE 2.11

You can also easily highlight specific items for a better view.

FIGURE 2.12

To create a bump chart In Excel, we can use a ranking system based on the
categories' values. Lets say between 1 and 4. The lowest figure being 1 and
the highest figure being 4. For the example above, we did this for shoe sales
from every month throughout the year—an efficient way to see the best
performers and the best-performing months per category.

AREA CHARTS
If there ever was a marriage between a bar chart and a line chart, you would
get an area chart. This chart displays how at least one set of numeric values
changes over time. This progression is indicated by a line that moves from
left to right but the difference between a line chart and an area is that the
space between the line and the baseline is shaded. Area charts are most
commonly used to show how multiple groups of values compare to each
other. Therefore, such cases will have multiple lines as part of the makeup
of the chart.
There are different types of area charts and each has a specific purpose.
Stacked area chart
This is the type of area chart that is generally implied when the term ‘area
chart’ is used. Unlike the overlapping area chart, stacked area charts use
lines that are plotted one on top of the other with the most recently plotted
line serving as the baseline for the next line to be plotted.
FIGURE 2.13

The highest line serves as the total of the values when they are summed up.
As such, providing the total value is one of the functions of this type of
chart. It also provides a breakdown of each group of values in addition to
allowing for comparison between these groups via each shaded part. To
summarize, the audience gets a general idea of how each group of values
performs when stacked against each other and how they contribute to the
total.
Get the most from your area charts but following the next few guidelines:
Add transparency to better compare
When working with an overlapping area chart, you can add transparency to
see how the figures compare to each other a lot easier.
FIGURE 2.14

Use a zero baseline

Because of the shading in this type of chart, a zero baseline becomes a
necessary addition. Just like with a bar chart, this ensures that the heights of
the shaded areas are not distorted and misleading.
Ponder the number of groups in overlapping area charts
The more groups of values that need to be represented in an overlapping
area chart, the more colors are required for shading. This can make the
charts busy and difficult for the audience to interpret. As a rule of thumb,
limit the number of groups to be portrayed in an overlapping area chart to 3.
Any more than that and consider using a line chart instead for an easier
comparison of the groups of values.
Consider the order of lines in stacked area charts
The sum of groups will be the same no matter how you stack them, but the
order must be strategic to avoid confusion. It is best to put the largest or the
least variable groups at the bottom of the stacked area chart. The smallest or
more variable groups should be placed at the top of the stack. Unless the
data sets need to be in a specific order, this trick can make it a lot more
readable and clear.
Avoid using an area chart for a single group of values
As mentioned before, area charts are used to show comparisons between
groups of values. Therefore, they are not suitable for displaying single sets
of values. In such cases, it is better to use a line chart to show the
progression of the values over time.

FIGURE 2.15

An area chart in this scenario doesn’t add any value. A line chart is
essentially the same thing with less visual noise.
FIGURE 2.16

Lets look at another great area chart. In this case, one showing the
distribution of C02 emissions since 1860.
FIGURE 2.17

Consider creating an interactive area chart to showcase individual sections

easily. You can run your cursor along and see the data from each point.

FIGURE 2.18
As an alternative to an area chart, you can use a steam graph. It is most
closely related to the stacked area chart, but while the stacked area chart
features the baseline at the bottom of the stack of values, the steam graph
features the baseline running through the center of the chart. The values are
symmetrically assembled around the baseline. As a result, the steam graph
is not ideal if you would like to note an overall value or even the precise
values of each group, especially in comparison to each other. This chart is,
however, great for inviting interactivity from a wide audience. The
members can play with the chart to note findings and the level of interplay
can serve to make the presentation more memorable and educational to
some audiences.

FIGURE 2.9

CONNECTED SCAT TERPLOT

This type of chart is one used to display the progressive development of a
numeric variable over time. The plotted points are represented by dots and
connected by straight-line segments. You can think of connected scatter
plots as line charts with highlights to make the individual plotted points
more visible. One drawback of using line charts is that it is not always easy
to note the breaks in the line of plot points. A connected scatter plot allows
you to get around that problem. In particular, connected scatter plots are
great for showing the timeline progression of information, such as how
stock prices change throughout the day. You can easily hover over each
point to highlight the specific value for that time frame.

FIGURE 2.20

To use this type of chart with maximum effectiveness, follow the same
advice outlined for line charts. Also, it is not necessary to use a zero
baseline with this type of chart due to the lack of shading of any other
construct that might distort the values.

GANT T CHART
This type of chart is great for project management as it shows a project’s
schedule and the task and events that occur in that lifecycle.
FIGURE 2.21

The specific nature of the Gantt chart allows it to be used to:

Build complex project schedules

Manage complex project schedules
Monitor the tasks dependencies of the project
Keep track of a project’s progress

Because of these functionalities, the Gantt chart is great for mapping out
marketing campaigns, outlining the deliverables for a client, planning a
product launch, and similar items.

FIGURE 2.22
W E OFTEN HAVE to look to the past to formulate a plan to achieve our goals
in the future. The same holds true for businesses and organizations. Change
over time charts allow you to streamline that planning process by noting
how past variables have changed as time passes. They educate audiences
about trends and thus, invite investigation into why these trends progress in
the way they do over time. The findings of such investigation allow for
developing solutions to maximize these trends when they are favorable or
turning the situation around when they are not.
These charts also allow for noting comparisons and even totals. We have
outlined several changes over time charts in this chapter with the aim of
showing you which are best used under particular circumstances.
 3
C O M PA R I S O N

M ore often, at least two groups of data need to be displayed and

compared to each other. Comparison charts are the go-to data
visualization tool in these cases. They help highlight the differences
and similarities between sets of values.
But do not disregard them as tools that can be used to display single
variables. Even in single sets of data, there can be multiple categories and
these types of charts come in handy to showcase the differences and
similarities between these subsets.
There are many, many types of comparison charts. This chapter highlights
several of the most common with definitions of what they are, when to use
them, and how to maximize their use.

BAR GRAPHS
You can’t study the topic of data visualization without coming across the
infamous bar chart. Also called a column chart or a bar graph, the bar chart
is used to plot numeric values featuring categories represented by a bar.
Each numeric value is represented by one bar and the length of that bar
corresponds to one axis while the values of these bars are plotted on a
common baseline. This commonality allows for each comparison of values
portrayed by the levels of the bars.
FIGURE 3.1

Bar charts are the go-to when the distribution of data points across multiple
categories is being plotted. These categories can be across multiple sets of
data of multiple categories within one group of values. The length of the
bars gives insight into the most common or highest groups or subgroups
and how other groups or subgroups weigh against these.
Get the most out of your bar charts with the following tips:
Avoid 3D
3-D effects can be difficult to align the bar with the baseline and can be a
major readability issue. I also stay away from 3D charts as they do more
harm than good.
FIGURE 3.2

If you see here, the 3D effect just takes away from the insights and the chart
is immediately harder to read.

FIGURE 3.3
This rendition is a lot easier on the eyes.
Be mindful of how you order the categories
Ensure good visual flow by first sorting the bars with the largest values first
and gradually progressing to the smaller value. This makes the bar length
move from longest to shortest. Your audience will appreciate making easy
comparisons between the bars. The only time you should deviate from this
practice is when categories are labeled in a particular order. This order takes
precedence.
Use color effectively
Color can be your friend or your enemy when it comes to designing bar
charts. Use color sparingly and only to draw attention to key insights. When
it comes to color, don't reinvent the wheel. Keep the overall color usage
neutral to ensure unwanted biases, like red for loss and green for gain. I like
to start with a bar graph with no color and ask myself what needs to be
highlighted. We will cover color in more detail in our design chapter.
Include value annotations as necessary
Annotations, or data labels help explain parts of the chart that might not be
immediately clear from a glance. Even though a good bar chart allows the
audience to compare the lengths of the bars and make approximations of
their values, the exact figures might be unclear. The use of annotations
makes values clear when it is important that they be noted. Use these when
necessary by adding them in the middle or at the end of the bar.

T HERE ARE a few common mistakes that are made when developing bar
charts. These mistakes and how to avoid them include:
Using images to replace bars
The aesthetic of such a practice can be tempting but remember that
understandability comes before visual appeal when it comes to data
visualization. Images can make it hard to derive key insights into the data.
Any visual variable that distracts the audience from the core message must
be avoided. Stick to using rectangular bars to present the data.
Using dark gridlines
Gridlines are the light gray lines that run across the axes, carrying the value
to line up with the plotted data points. They can be placed vertically or
horizontally and help the audience differentiate between the specific
insights being depicted. The key word here is light. You might be tempted
to darken the lines for visual appeal, but the practice will likely distract
your audience. Always keep visual clutter to a minimum. If gridlines are
not a necessary addition to your charts, bar charts, or otherwise, do not use
them. In cases where they help educate the audience, keep them faint to
maintain a good visual flow of the chart.
Great alternative versions to your standard column chart include:
Horizontal bar graphs
FIGURE 3.4

When thinking of a bar chart, we typically think of a vertical column chart,

but you can switch things up with horizontal bars instead. Horizontal bars
can be particularly useful in situations where the labels are long. The layout
makes them easier to read.
FIGURE 3.5

It also can be organized in more of a hierarchical order. Where the highest

figure is on top, and the lowest underneath, which makes for an easy
understanding. Like we have done below.
FIGURE 3.6

S TACKED bar Chart

Another common variation. Instead of having the bars either horizontal or
beside each other, the categories are stacked upward. Although effective in
some scenarios, it makes it more challenging to compare specific
categories.
FIGURE 3.7

In this case, a regular column chart might be more effective.

FIGURE 3.8
When creating a stacked bar, I prefer to use it horizontally like the one
shown above. It makes it a bit easier to compare insights, and the data
labels add key information.

L OLLIPOP CHART

These charts use different forms of aesthetics to deliver the same

information. Lines topped with dots that resemble lollipops are used instead
of bars. These types of charts are useful when lots of categories are close
together. It allows the audience to focus on the data values and, thus,
increasing readability.

FIGURE 3.9
FIGURE 3.10

DIVERGING BAR
To diverge means to move apart or separate. When the data values between
groups or subgroups indicate an increasing difference, diverging bars are
the appropriate visualization tool to use. As such, they make a great
resource to compare two alternatives and display results from surveys and
questionnaires. They make it easy to visualize opposing responses and
compare them.
 FIGURE 3.11

Diverging bars emphasize variations, one positive (+) and one negative (-)
from a fixed reference point. The scale normally starts at 0, but this is not
always the case. It can be a target or long-term average. Two horizontal bars
are aligned on this scale, with one running to the left and the other to the
right, starting at the common vertical baseline. The length of the bars
corresponds to their numerical value.
A similar chart that can be used in place of a diverging bar is the diverging
stacked bar. It features an additional vertical baseline with horizontal
rectangle bars stacked on one to the next. The values these correspond to
can be percentages or absolute values.
FIGURE 3.12

Maximize the use of diverging bars by:

Use different colors or color contrasts to distinguish each side of

the baseline.
Place the responses in increasing or decreasing order to ensure a
good visual flow.

BUBBLE CHART
Also called a bubble plot, the bubble chart is a relative of the scatter plot,
which uses dots to show the values corresponding to three numeric
variables. Each dot on the bubble chart represents a single point of data.
The value of that point is indicated by the size of the dot as well as its
position on both the horizontal and vertical axis. This chart makes it
possible for you to combine and compare three groups of data on the same
chart and show their relationship through comparison. Examples of points
of data that can be displayed on a bubble chart include a sports teams
average points per game on the horizontal axis (Y axis), the average points
scored by each team on the vertical (X axis), and the number of wins each
team has (the size of each bubble). Larger bubbles would show more wins
and the opposite would be true for smaller bubbles.

FIGURE 3.13

To afford your audience the most value from your bubble charts, use the
following tips to maximize their effectiveness.

Ensure the bubble sizes are relevant to the value of the data.
Therefore, a bubble with a value of 50 should be half the size of a
bubble with a value of 100. Do not skew the sizes of the bubbles,
as this is misleading. As we covered in chapter 1, your brain
subconsciously categorizes items based on size. Accuracy is key.
Limit the number of data points on your bubble charts. Typically,
bubble charts use transparency. As a result, there will be
 overlapping between the dots. The more overlapping there is, the
harder it is to distinguish between values. If you have lots of points
to plot, make the points transparent while bolding the outlines of
the circles.
Include a legend. A legend is a key that describes the parts of a
chart based on visual variables like color and size. Ensure that your
audience understands what the bubble sizes represent by using a
legend.
Make sure you're showcasing a clear trend. The bubble chart is the
tool you are using to help the audience visualize this trend.
If your data contains negative values, use transparent dots or
distinct colors to highlight this characteristic.

If you have a lot of values that need to be displayed, you may consider
using a bubble cloud as an alternative to the bubble chart. However, note
that while it makes easy to observe relationships, it is hard to determine the
exact figure or difference between metrics with this type of chart.
 FIGURE 3.14

Another alternative could be a nested bubble to distinguish the largest to

smallest categories easily.
 FIGURE 3.15

WATERFALL CHART
Also called a cascade chart or a bridge chart, this chart displays how initial
values increase and decrease before leading to a final value. Before this
final value is arrived at, the chart will display the intermediate values that
raised the initial number up and down. This data visualization tool is widely
used in the finance section to show how net values are reached by outlining
the starting values and the positive and negative contributions of the
intermediate values such as expenses and costs.
FIGURE 3.16

The waterfall chart can be used for quantitative analysis of:

Inventory level fluctuations over a period of time

Sales over a period of time
Profit and loss statements
Comparison of product earnings

SANKEY DIAGRAM
This is a chart with a very specific use. It allows for highlighting the flow of
assets. Therefore, how a company’s sources, the uses of, and even the costs
of these resources can be noted by looking at these visualizations. Many
organizations use such charts to make decisions on how to expend resources
like time, money, and energy because the chart simplifies the complex
process that goes into managing that one resource. A bird’s eye view can be
obtained in addition to getting specific details. As a result, the highest
contributors or dominant consumer base stand out, so the areas with largest
opportunities can be spotted.
FIGURE 3.17

When we put the same data in a bar chart, it's a lot harder to visualize where
our resources are going.

FIGURE 3.18

When developing a Sankey chart there are a few considerations that must
be made. You must ask the tough questions like:

Are you using the chart for exploratory analysis?

Are you trying to tell a story? Trying to change someone’s mind?
Perhaps promoting the desire to take a specific action?
 What is your audience's experience level with the data?
What will your audience be looking for or need to be convinced of
to take action? Are they looking for a return on investments (ROI)
to improve effectiveness, gain profitability, make regional
comparisons, etc.?

Asking and answering such questions allows you to solidify the purpose of
creating this chart and develop the key takeaways it must deliver.
But what does this chart look like? The chart uses rectangular or connector
lines with proportional widths to represent the significance of values so that
flow quantity can be visualized. These values are highlighted by the flow
lines' width, color, saturation, length, and shape. Some flows will have
smaller widths than others. Consider cutting them and combing their values
in an ‘other’ category to limit clutter.
A great place to start creating sankey diagrams with no code required is
Flourish.

MARIMEKKO CHART
This chart can be considered a stacked bar chart with bars that vary in
height and width. Both of this chart’s axes are completely stacked in a 2-D
effect. The chart is used to showcase 2 numerical values for each category.
FIGURE 3.19

The nature of this chart makes it great for:

Highlighting parts of a whole

Allowing the evaluation of hierarchical data. This is particularly
useful for data with parent-child relationships.
Giving a general overview of data that will be further dissected to
give a deeper explanation, whether this is for one or both of the
segments used in the chart.
Showing the interaction between two categories. For example, the
relationship between marketing and sales data can be noted with a
Marimekko chart.
Displaying categorical values like products, regions, sectors, and
more
Displaying numerical variables like sales, profits, costs, margins,
growth rates, and more

BULLET CHART
Also known as a bullet graph, this chart allows you to perform three
activities in one go. These functions are:

Feature a single value variable

Compare that value to a target value
Indicate if the featured value has fallen short of the target value or
measured up it.

An example of where this chart might be useful includes a hotel projecting

how many rooms it will fill during the peak season months, then comparing
the actual to the target. It is an easy and efficient way to indicate the year's
performance.

FIGURE 3.20

The bullet chart is a cousin of the bar graph appearance-wise. The featured
value is represented by a rectangular bar and a vertical line represents the
target value. If the rectangular bar fails to meet the position of the vertical
line, then the featured value is less than the target value. The featured value
has met or is greater than the target value if the horizontal bar touches or
reaches past the vertical line. The chart can be oriented both horizontally
and vertically.
While a bullet graph features a primary value for comparison, it also
includes other measured values to enhance the visual display and to provide
more information for analysis. So, while the primary featured value of a
bullet chart might be the end-of-year revenue of a company, the chart can
also feature the end-of-year revenue for previous years or projected
forecasts for the future. The primary featured value must stand out on the
chart though and this is why it has a stronger color and bold lines to
differentiate from the other values.
A good bullet features 5 main characteristics:

1. Text labels

These are captions that state what the chart is displaying and the unit of
measurement for the values.

1. A quantitative scale

This shows the linear progress of the measure of the metric values. In other
words, it shows the start and end points of the featured and target
measurements.

1. A featured measure

This is a measure of the actual performance of the variable.

1. A comparative measure

This highlights the target metric that the featured value is being compared
to.
 1. A qualitative scale

This is a background fill that shows ranges like good, satisfactory, and bad
to define how the featured value compares to the target value.
When designing bullet charts for maximum effectiveness, use a color
coding system. In addition to using a strong, clear color for the featured
value, you should further highlight its measure by using softer colors for the
comparative values. Also, use a scale from dark to light to show the
qualitative scales. The darker colors will represent the lower, less favorable
values, while lighter hues will showcase the higher, more favorable values.
Limit the number of variables added as well. Because so much is going on
in one chart, the sight can be confusing at the initial glance to a new viewer.
Make sure to explain further so they understand the chart and limit the
number of values displayed as much as possible.
Additional tips for maximizing the use of bullet chart include:

Redesign the chart for values that require low numbers, like costs
and expenses.
Ensure qualitative scale (background fill) is in sync with values
being displayed.
When reversing the qualitative scale, keep your audience in mind.
Will they quickly glance at the chart and determine the low results?
Consider reversing the direction of the quantitative scale if not.

Bullet graphs have a wide range of useful applications like:

Allowing marketers to note the performance of their campaigns

compared to others
Showing charities how they are progressing toward a fundraising
goal
Depicting business analysis to allow departments or teams to see if
they are meeting their goals
Allowing manufacturers to note production levels and the if output
is on par
You should not fall into the trap of using them for the following
applications:

Comparing the performance of the several categories. So while a

bullet chart might show the production levels of a manufacturer in
one country, it should not be used to compare the performance of
production across regions.
Using sets of data that are not measured using the same length of
time. Therefore, one value type cannot be measured in months
while the other is measured in years.

DUMBBELL PLOTS
Also called connected dot plots, gap plots, range plots or arrow plots,
dumbbell plots showcase 2 or more related series of data on the same axis
through the use of connected dots linked by straight lines. These charts are
great for showing the range between the minimum and maximum values of
categorical data. They are called dumbbell charts because they imitate their
namesake with dots at either end of a straight-line.
FIGURE 3.21

All these ‘dumbbells’ are plotted on the same charts, making efficient use
of the graph space designed with multiple data variables being highlighted.
One axis of the chart shows the range of values or the categories that the
data points have been grouped. The second axis highlights the number of
data points in each category. The chart can be plotted either vertically and
horizontally, whichever works best for readability in the particular instance
of the data set.
The values are normally quantitative in nature. They are a great alternative
to using line charts or grouped bar charts. They can be used to represent up
to 1000 data points but note that the chart can get cluttered the more data
points that are added.
FIGURE 3.22

While dumbbell plots should not be used to plot large data set due to this
possible clutter, advantages to using these charts include:

They allow for representing proportions and frequencies easily.

They allow for showcasing outlets and density distribution easily.
They allow for plotting small to medium-sized data sets.

Dumbbell plots are such a great comparison chart because, at a glance, the
audience can note the trend that the data is taking as well as any skewness
suggesting anomalies. They are used often by financial institutions in
instances like expressing interest rate projections and in scientific research
to highlight the similarities and differences between variables.

C OMPARISON CHARTS ALLOW audiences to note and analyze the progress of

different groups of data and how these progressions relate to each other. Are
they similar or different? Which group of data is most prominent and how
does it stand out against the rest? What measures of action should be
implemented because of these notations? All of these questions and more
can be answered by using such charts.
While the data they present is complex, the insights do not have to be.
Comparison charts give a helicopter view of these findings for easier
analysis and thus, more informed decision-making.
 4
DISTRIBUTION

T he name says it all. Distribution charts allow for visualizing how data
values are distributed or spread out on a grid. They let the audience
know how frequently these values occur and how uniformly or
disbursed they occur. Several groups of data can be compared in such charts
as a result.
Let’s get right into noting the different types of charts that fall under this
bracket and when and how you should use them for maximum
effectiveness.

HISTOGRAM
This is a common chart that most people are familiar with. It is most
frequently used to show statistical distributions as it plots the dispersion of
a numeric variable’s values as a series of bars. The numeric values are
grouped into classes that occur in equal-sized intervals. Classes are also
called bins. This feature allows the audience to understand the approximate
probability of the quantity occurring. The bars can adopt either a horizontal
or vertical orientation. Each bar normally covers a class. Thus, a bar’s
height indicates the rate at which data points occur within the corresponding
bin.
FIGURE 4.1

Because of the structure of the histogram, it can be noted if the distribution

is spread out, the peaks of distribution, if the data is skewed in one direction
with extremes or symmetrical, or if there are outliers. Outliers represent
data points that are not typical for the dataset. They are either much bigger
or smaller than the nearest data point. There is 6 main outcomes of a
histogram to look out for, they are:
 FIGURE 4.2

While the appearance of the histogram is reminiscent of a bar chart, do not

confuse the two charts. They have different functions in the data
visualization community. The bar chart compares values of categorical data.
On the other hand, the histogram notes how many times continuous values
that are grouped into ranges occur. Visually, they are also different as there
are typically larger spaces between the bars of a bar chart, while histograms
are more crammed together as the separate bars make up one dataset.
Additionally, while the bar chart consists of bars of equal widths, in some
cases, the bars in a histogram are not.
To maximize the effectiveness of your histogram:

Use a zero-baseline to ensure the visual is not skewed

Select an appropriate number of bins. The larger the bins, the fewer
bins that will occur over the range of data being displayed. The
opposite is true for smaller bin sizes. If there are too many bins, the
 data will be hard to read. If there are too few bins, the histogram
will seem to lack enough detail. Choose a healthy medium between
these two extremes.
Select bin boundaries that are easy to interpret. Add labels to
define these boundaries to best inform the audience where it is
applicable.

DOT PLOT
This chart is sometimes shrouded in confusion because it is often mistaken
for others like icon bars, scatter plots, dumbbell charts, and beeswarms. But
we will list the features and what this chart is used for to ensure you do
suffer the same fate.
A standard dot plot is a statistical chart that shows at least one quantitative
value for each category by plotting one or more dots on a numerical axis.
This data is represented by filled-in circles. Unlike the histogram that
displays distribution on a range, the dot plot displays the distribution of
individual values along the X axis. The dots show the frequency at which
these individual values occur along the Y axis. As a result, dot plots are
particularly useful for showing specific values and how they compare to
different categories with similar values. Such a comparison may be hard to
note on a bar chart since the end of the bars are difficult to compare to each
other.
FIGURE 4.3

Color is an instrumental part of this chart. You can use color in various
ways to maximize the chart's effectiveness. Such techniques include:

Highlighting the numeric value of dots with darker and lighter hues
to emphasize that value.
Color coordinating dots according to their category. This should be
a consideration when there are multiple categories with the same
values. Color coordination makes it easy to distinguish these
categories.
Symbolizing time periods to show the past and present through
chronological values.
Changing the opacity of the dots if there are slight overlaps to
make it easier to read or highlight higher or lower values.

RIDGELINE PLOT
Also goes by joy plot, a ridgeline plot is a chart highlighting how numeric
values across several data groups that overlap are distributed. The chart's
name comes from the fact that it resembles an overlapping range of
mountains. As a rule of thumb, use this chart when you need to highlight
the distribution of at least 6 groups of data. You will find many cases with
large volumes of data featuring time displayed in such a chart. An example
would be a measure of the rainfall in a particular region over the last 20
years. The chart would give insight into the values of each year and allow
for noting the trends that have developed in that timeframe. Comparing
temperature averages between separate years is also a common dataset for
this chart.

FIGURE 4.4

Ridgeline plots are great when you want to quickly see data distribution
over a specified period. This allows you to easily see where the spikes and
dips are and compare them to different categories. They are a creative chart
you don't always see used, but they’re worth experimenting with to create a
memorable visual.

FIGURE 4.5

BOX PLOT
This chart utilizes lines and boxes to show the distribution of values of at
least one dataset.

FIGURE 4.6

B OX PLOTS SHOWCASE data in quartiles. This means that the values of a

dataset are divided into equal fourths. Jutting from either side of the box are
lines representing the dataset's min and maximum values. The left side (or
bottom) of the box represents the lower quartile (Q1) and the right side (or
top) represents the upper quartile (Q3), with the median line marking the
center point of the data. The first quartile is greater than 25% of the data but
less than the other 75% of the data. The third quartile is larger than 75% of
the data but smaller than the remaining 25%. The range between Q1 and Q3
is called the interquartile range (IQR).

FIGURE 4.7

The IQR determines how long the lines extend on either end of the box. The
most that either line can extend is 1.5 times the IQR. If the extension
exceeds that, this is marked by dots representing outliers. Box plots can be
effective when you're looking for outliers in your data, as you can set the
parameters and they will appear as a separate dot outside the plot.
Use this type of chart when comparing the distribution of the values
between multiple groups of data as they provide several details at a glance.
Such details include:

Data symmetry
The level of skewness
Any variance
Outliers

FIGURE 4.8

T HE DATA IS SUMMARIZED EFFECTIVELY and shows the difference in the

positions of values. This chart also allows for visually noting high and low
values, unlike a histogram.
Make the most out of box plots by arranging the values in an order that
highlights the specific patterns. This makes insights clearer.

FIGURE 4.9

CANDLESTICK PLOT
Stock, derivatives, currency, cryptocurrency, bonds, commodities... If you
plan to or already invest in or trade any of these assets (and others), you
will use and analyze candlestick plots. Invented in Japan over 100 years ago
by a man called Munehisa Homma, they are used to analyze the price
movements of assets over time. While the invention was made to show the
link between the price of rice and its supply and demand, in this day and
age, their use is being applied to a wider variety of resources and their price
variations.
FIGURE 4.10

Let’s start with what this chart looks like. It gets its name because it features
multiple bars with lines that look like wicks on both ends that look like
candlesticks. These candlesticks give a visual representation of how the
asset’s price changed over a given amount of time. This time period can be
as little as a few minutes or as long as years.

FIGURE 4.11

Each “candlestick” on the chart provides traders and investors with several
sets of important information. First, the bar's color indicates the price
increases or decreases. An increase in an asset’s price is represented by
green or white. This candle is referred to as bullish and shows that the
asset's value closed for that period of time at a higher price than it opened
with. The opening price is at the bottom of the bar while the closing price is
at the top.
A decrease in an asset’s price is represented by red or black. This candle is
deemed a bearish one and shows that the asset's value closed at a lower
price than it opened during that time frame. The opening price is indicated
at the top of the bar, while the closing price is at the bottom. Opposite of the
bullish candlestick.
The difference between the price the asset closed with and opened with is
represented by the length of the bar between the wicks. Longer lengths
indicate a larger change in price. Shorter lengths indicate smaller price
changes.
The wicks also serve a purpose. The upper wick shows the highest price of
the assets traded during the specified time, while the lower wick shows the
lowest price.
Candlestick plots are useful for quickly determining whether an asset’s
value went up or down and if this movement is peculiar or part of a trend.
Time is money for traders and investors. Waiting too long can mean they
miss out on potential buying opportunities. Therefore, this fast analysis is
key to staying ahead of the game with quick decision-making.

VIOLIN PLOT
Similar to a box plot, the violin plot highlights the distribution of the
numeric data for at least one group using density curves. The box plot and
violin charts are so closely related that they typically accompany each other
when presenting to provide supplementary information. A violin plot
includes all the features found on a box plot, such as the median, outliers,
quartiles, and the spread, but the difference is that the violin plot also shows
the probability of data occurring at different values.

FIGURE 4.12

Each density curve is made up of peaks, valleys, and tails. The density
curve also goes by the name kernel density estimator (KDE). Each data
point of the KDE contributes a small area to the true, overall value of the
data. The distribution of these points determines the shape of the curve.
This shape is called the kernel function and can vary from triangular to bell-
shaped. The final shape of the density curve is determined by stacking all
the data points together to form a whole. Density curves are developed
around a center line instead of a baseline but follow the same convention of
construct and interpretation.
Violin plots are especially useful for showing the distribution of value
between multiple data groups so that comparisons can be made by noting
the differences and similarities between each group's peaks, valleys, and
tails.

POPUL ATION PYRAMID

The alias of this chart gives away what it is used for. Also called the age-
sex pyramid, this chart displays how age and sex are distributed within a
stated population. This information is highlighted with the use of horizontal
bars stacked one on top of the other. If the final look of stacked bars is that
of a triangle with equal sides, this is an indication that the population is
distributed with more young people than older people. The opposite is true
if the shape is reminiscent of an inverted triangle. If the stacked bars are
square-shaped, the age groups of the population are about the same size.
Short bars indicate that an age group forms a smaller part of the population,
while bars that jut out mean that this age group forms a larger part of the
population.

FIGURE 4.13

Apart from measuring the spread of a specified population by age and

gender, population charts are great for visualizing a region’s projected
growth and encouraging the exploration of factors that determine
populations' economic outlook by working-age distribution. They also
allow for noting life expectancy and birth rates.
You must adjust your expectations to get the most out of your population
pyramids. Data involving populations are not perfect. Therefore, you will
not get perfect data. It is better to focus on the averages in that data set.
Organize these by age ranges and sort them by descending value to make an
easy-to-interpret appearance. Also, ensure that your age groups are
consistent. For example, using the age ranges 0-5, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20, and
21-25 works to ensure that the chart's appearance is straightforward. On the
other hand, using age ranges like 0-5 and 6-25 will distort the shape of the
pyramid. Consistency is key.

STRIP PLOT
This chart is similar to a scatter plot but is used to express the value of 1
variable per column. Strip plots can be effective when raw data is important
because they simply show the data with no added trend lines or design
features. Wherever the data points fall, you can easily analyze them. This
also makes it easy to spot outliers in the data.

FIGURE 4.14

A strip plot features dots stacked in a row either vertically or horizontally.

With this orientation, the dots tend to overlap. To increase readability,
Adding transparency to the dots and bolding the borders can be effective.
This makes the chart more legible as the individual dots are more easily
distinguished.

FIGURE 4.15

Due to the high concentration of the dots that is possible with this type of
chart, legibility decreases with increasing dot numbers. Don’t trash your
strip plot if that happens. Instead, use a technique called jittering. All you
have to do is disperse the data points across the X-axis to increase
readability. You can also convert to a beeswarm plot, essentially the same
concept.

BEESWARM PLOT
Think of this chart as a strip plot thats easier to read. A beeswarm plot has
the same functionality as a strip plot, simply showing the data exactly
where it lies. It has a slight advantage as the points are spread apart by
improving on the jittering effect, which reduces overlap. Because of this,
beeswarm plots are great for displaying the distribution of dense data sets.

FIGURE 4.16
T HE NAME COMES from the fact that the slightly spread-out nature of the
dots looks like bees buzzing around a hive. Improve the chart's readability
by adding labels to make outliers clearer to identify. A good data analyst
visualizes data beautifully. A great one does the same thing, except
highlights the key insights.

FIGURE 4.17

D ISTRIBUTION CHARTS ALLOW for noting when trends develop and when
unusual values (outliers) occur over a given period. To select the right
distribution chart for your audience, you need to ask yourself a few
questions:

How many sets of data need to be expressed?

What is the nature of the values that will be expressed? Is it
categorical? Is it statistical? Is it numeric?
How many data points need to be plotted?

Answering these answers will give you a clear picture of what you are
trying to accomplish by developing distribution data visualizations. The list
of charts outlined above is by no means all that can be used to show the
spread of values in data sets but they are a good foundation that allows you
to express the disbursement of several types of data.
 5
PA R T-T O -W H O L E

O ften in business, we run into scenarios where we need to compare a

value to its significance to the whole. Whether the regions our
customers are coming from or which products perform the best, Part-
to-a-whole charts are the go-to in such cases. They show how a variable is
divided and how those divisions relate and are totaled.
This chapter delves into such charts and the more specific circumstances
where each of them can be applied.

PIE CHART
Pie charts are the data visualizations that typically come to mind when
talking about part-to-whole comparisons. Therefore, it is only fitting that
we start our exploration of these chart types here. Just as the name suggests,
a pie chart takes on the form of a circle and even if you are not hungry, it is
quite reminiscent of a pie. The entire ‘pie’ represents the total value of the
data set (100%). The ‘pie’ is sliced into radial portions that present the
categorical variables of the subsets that make up the total. The sizes (AKA
the arc length and area) of those portions showcase the proportion of the
whole they take up.
FIGURE 5.1

The use of pie charts is quite effective in certain situations. In scenario 1, it

shows a simple part to whole analysis with few values that are easily
interpreted. In scenario 2, it allows for emphasizing 1 or 2 values that make
up a majority of the whole. Such instances are highlighted in the definition
of what a pie chart is. The primary objective is to compare a category’s
distribution to the total value instead of each other. To use pie charts
effectively, you must know the whole value of the data set.For example,
you may use a pie chart to show which product performs better or which
advertising campaign converts more.
 FIGURE 5.2

But using a pie chart correctly is crucial, otherwise, you're doing more harm
than good. Would I use a pie chart to showcase a neck-and-neck race
between 5+ political parties? Absolutely not. There will be no significance
or uniqueness to the information. I would use it to compare the top two
parties, so you can easily see who has the majority of the whole. A quick
but effective way to visualize this type of data. A pie chart with too many
slices shouldn't be a pie chart to begin with.
FIGURE 5.3

In this case, you could use a bar chart or lollipop chart since the values are
very similar.

FIGURE 5.4
T O GET the most value from a pie chart, only use it to highlight a few values
that can easily be distinguished. A pie chart filled with lots of figures with
similar values will essentially not show you anything. You need to be able
to easily distinguish the contribution of each value. noting the highest and
lowest from a glance. Or any significance in the data.
A great practice that will maximize the use of pie charts includes using
color appropriately. Do not use highly distracting colors, and keep those
colors consistent throughout the presentation. Ensure that these colors
reflect the theme of the data. You can be sparse with your use of color by
only adding color to the main insights that are being showcased and leaving
the rest of the slices gray. This is a great practice as it allows the audience to
decipher the important parts and can be effective if you have many
categories.
Since exact proportions can be difficult to interpret by looking at a pie
chart, you can consider using annotations to the chart. In fact, the addition
of annotations to pie charts is standard. They can be in the form of fractions
or percentages with the category name started.
An alternative to using a pie chart is the use of a donut chart. Also known as
a donut plot, visualize this as a pie chart with the center removed. There is
no significant difference in its readability.
 FIGURE 5.5

TREE MAP
Pie charts are the go-to when it comes to comparing the different elements
of a single entity. However, they can be difficult to use effectively. That is
why there are other options such as this one, the tree map, that can be alot
more effective.
FIGURE 5.6

The tree map, in many ways, is thought to be a better version of a pie chart
by data visualization experts. It represents hierarchical data in a tree-like
structure with sub-branches of the data being represented using rectangles
called nodes. Each node allows for the showcase of 2 quantitative values.
This structure makes it easier to spot trends like the bestselling items
bought by new customers in the current year and the growth rate from the
previous year. Even better is that data can be drilled down into an infinite
number of levels while still maintaining the distinguishability of the
categories at a glance. They are often populated in a hierarchical order,
showing the highest value first and down the ladder to the lowest. They can
even be made interactive with certain software so the reader can take their
time and go through each point if all of the data is significant.
FIGURE 5.7

Unlike pie charts, tree maps allow a larger amount of data input. More
categories can be highlighted within a smaller space. To be more exact,
treemaps can be used to plot tens of thousands of data points! So, why pick
this hierarchical chart over others like a multi-level pie chart? Treemaps
have the advantage of allowing the plotting of these many, many data points
in limited space. Even a multi-level pie chart is circular, so the space
available is limited to the diameter of that space. Only so many data points
can be added to the structure.
On the other hand, treemaps are plotted in a linear fashion. This space
offers far more possibilities. Do note that the deeper we delve into the level
of a tree map readability decreases. Therefore, this advantage can turn
against you if you are not careful with its use. In some cases removing data
points to create a smaller dataset will remove critical insights. In this case,
It can be an effective practice to make the chart interactive and send it out
to the team, so they can easily zoom in on details and categories no matter
how big or small the chart is.
The structure of tree maps also allows for easy identification of trends and
patterns as the nodes are proportional to the amount of data they represent.
The similarities can be summarized within a category and its components or
between multiple categories. This functionality is allowed because the
different datasets are assigned different colors. Anomalies can be sighted as
well because of this feature. This is allowed through the use of node
dimensions and colors of the nodes. These are derived from the numerical
values of the nodes.
Use a data set with a distinct hierarchy to get the most out of your tree map.
Ensure that the highest level of the hierarchy is obvious. Also, ensure this
data set has distinct numerical values. They can also be useful when a quick
presentation isn't necessary and the executives want to take their time
reviewing the data in an interactive way like we stated above..
This chart is not appropriate to use if you have similar values as the nodes
will be similar in size and hard to distinguish. In such a case, the better
alternative would be using a bar chart with the data arranged from the
highest to the smallest value.

SUNBURST CHART
This chart goes by other names, including radial tree map and ring chart. It
is also used to visualize hierarchical data sets. Unlike the tree map, which
uses a linear structure, the sunburst chart uses a series of concentric rings to
highlight hierarchy. Every ring coincides with a level within the hierarchy.
The details of that data set are recorded with the segmented rings. The part-
to-whole relationship between the subsets of data that is noted within each
ring respective to its parent ring.
FIGURE 5.8

The radial layout on the sunburst chart gives an immersive experience and
is easy for the eye to follow. The center of the charts is the first level of the
hierarchy. The parent rings are found there. From there, rings representing
subcategories within the parent rings are plotted from the categories that
contain the highest value within that hierarchy to the lowest value. This
must be applied at every level of the hierarchy. Moving away from the
center of the chart means moving down the hierarchy.
FIGURE 5.9

This chart is often compared to a tree map but this chart has an advantage
over the tree map. The categories are noted in an outwardly expanding
circle, so noting the plotted categories as we go down the hierarchy
becomes easier because of that expansion. If you have a lot of space to
work with, this chart can trump a tree map to get a full picture of
hierarchical data.
Another advantage to using a sunburst chart is that because it is visually
similar to a pie chart, most audiences can more readily follow the flow of
information it offers.
The disadvantages to using a sunburst chart include the limitation of the
level that can be plotted based on its structure. Just like a pie chart, the
number of categories that can be included in the circle space is fewer than
in a linear structure. Also, angular recordings and smaller proportional
segments might be difficult for the audience to read.
Circumstances, where you can play on the advantages while minimizing the
disadvantages, include:

In website development to outline the landing and navigation paths

of a website.
To provide a visual aid of the file sizes within the different
modules contained within software packages.
To break down the revenue sources of a business.
To break down the expenses of a business.
So that the world population can be broken down into categories
such as continent, country, region, state, and cities.

NIGHTINGALE ROSE CHART

This chart was made famous by Florence Nightingale, the English
statistician, social reformer and the founder of nursing training and theory
as we know it today. Born in 1820, she used the Nightingale Rose chart to
highlight how many soldiers died on hospital beds during the Crimean war,
which was waged from 1853 to 1856. She broke down these deaths based
on battle wounds, disease and other causes. The chart was divided into 12
segments that highlight the months of the year from April 1854 and March
1855.
FIGURE 5.10: Source: Florence Nightingale, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Also called the coxcomb chart or the polar area diagram, this chart gave her
this ability by combining components of a column chart and those of a radar
chart and so, this chart was presented to the world in 1858. Plotting occurs
in proportional areas in a polar coordinate grid system. These areas
(categories) are equally divided into segments with the same angle.
The funny thing about the dataset she visualized is other chart options
probably would've been better for the data. But this rendition stuck within
the data community until today and will for years to come. When you want
a memorable visual to enhance your story is exactly when you would use a
nightingale rose chart.
FIGURE 5.11

The most notable features of the Nightingale Rose chart include it is used to
plot multiple data series. They are represented by rings that radiate from the
center of the chart, hence why this chart looks similar to a pie chart. They
represent the cardinal points North, East, South, West and the points in
between or the degrees of a circle. The data values are recorded on these
circles and divided into proportional slices representing the quantity. The
value is highlighted by how far the segment extends from the center.
FIGURE 5.12

This chart is highly used in the scientific field to highlight statistics. For
example, they are used by meteorologists to note and thus analyze
quantities and direction for items such as wind direction, strength and
frequency. That is why the chart is referred to as the wind rose in the field.
It is used as a reference to discern the cardinal and ordinate direction of
winds.
As great of a statistical tool this chart is, it has a major disadvantage. The
other chart segments are larger, so their size draws more attention. This
disproportionately represents an increase in value when this is not the case.
The value is represented by the area and not the segment's radius. This can
be unintentionally misleading to audiences.

T HE FREQUENCY with which we work with different data sets makes it easy
to forget that we also need to understand the interconnectivity and
differences between the subgroups within individual data sets. This chapter
highlighted that importance and gave you a variety of chart options to act
on that understanding.
 6
R E L AT I O N S H I P

A lso called correlation charts, relationship charts are visual

representations of how different sets or subsets of data are connected
or affiliated with each other. Relationship charts use links on the
chart structure and other visual elements like color and size to highlight the
connection between different variables. Audiences from all businesses can
use such charts to note the complexity of such links for better decision-
making.
There is quite a range of charts that allow you to pick on the links that
connect these data variables. This chapter highlights several situations
where they are best used.

SCAT TER PLOT

Scatter plots use dots to represent the value of 2 numeric variables. These
values are highlighted by where the dots are positioned on the horizontal
and vertical axis. An example of where you might use a scatter plot is to
showcase housing prices based on square footage. The vertical axis displays
the price while the horizontal axis indicates the home's square footage. Each
dot plotted on this chart will represent a house for sale or that has been sold.
FIGURE 6.1

As seen with the example above, scatter plots are used primarily to note
relationships between 2 quantitative variables. They note not only data
points but the patterns of the data as a whole as well. For example, the chart
explained above may show a concentration of dots representing the
majority of home sales based on size. By looking at how the dots are
concentrated, you can determine how the relationship between the variables
can be described. Is the relationship weak or strong? Is it positive or
negative? Is it linear or nonlinear? You will make this determination by
examination of how the axes affect each other.
Additionally, scatter plots can be used to identify unexpected gaps or
outliers in the data. These will stand out quite a bit when they are removed
from the concentration of the other dots.
While a scatter plot is quite useful in showing the relationships between 2
data variables, that functionality will be lost if they are not used correctly.
The don'ts of scatter plots include:
Overplotting
As with other charts that utilize dots as the visual representation of data, too
many plotted items can lead to overlapping. The high density of data points
occurs when there are many dots in one location. The chart becomes hard to
understand as the points are hard to distinguish. As a result, the
relationships these points signify will also be hard to distinguish.
Luckily, if you find yourself in such a situation with your scatter plot, there
are 2 easy ways to resolve this. They are:

1. Sampling only a subset of data points. Do this by selecting a

random set of points that showcase the general idea of the trends in
the full data.
2. Change the visual format of dots by making them transparent.
Transparency allows overlaps to be visible. Alternatively, you may
reduce the size of the points so that fewer overlaps occur.

FIGURE 6.2
Although overplotting can be redundant in scatter plots, it can also be their
strength. Scatter plots can be effective when working with very large sets of
data. It allows you to easily see the trend or trajectory of the data and look
at it as a whole instead of individual points. Adjust your scatter plot
accordingly based on your needs.
Interpret correlation as causation
Noting the relationship between 2 variables of data does not mean that the
causation is understood. This serves as a lesson in real life and when using
scatter plots. While this point is more geared toward the issue regarding
observation and not the creation of a scatter plot, you as the designer must
understand this. You may need to also include data that supports
highlighting the causation of trends noted in these charts. Always remember
that a change in one variable is not necessarily responsible for or linked to
changes in another. The observed relationship between these 2 variables can
be driven by a third variable affecting both plotted variables. With the
housing price example above, there is no way to know if square footage and
price affect each other unless data is noted outside the chart to support this.
The pattern can be purely coincidental. Looking at other factors like
location and the year the house was built might bring a lot of insights to
light. A newer home closer to downtown might have much less square
footage but be at a much higher price than one further from downtown and
potentially built some time ago.
Properly observing the data is a must when it comes to scatter plots. Some
data sets may be harder to understand than others. It's important to consider
all factors before drastic changes are made based on the insights.
To maximize the use of scatter plots, you can:
Add a trend line
A trend line or regression line is a line added to a chart to indicate the
general trajectory the data takes. This can help your audience better
understand what is going on. Remember, you've been staring at these
spreadsheets and creating this visual for quite some time. Your audience has
been looking at it for 5 minutes. Don't assume they know what you know.
In fact, it is a common practice for this addition to be made to show the
strength of the relationship between the two variables. The presence of this
line also makes it more apparent if there are outliers. They may affect the
trend indicated by the line.

FIGURE 6.3

Add a third categorical variable

You are not limited to plotting just two variables on a scatter plot. A third
variable may be added. In this case, the addition is categorical rather than
numeric. Examples of such categories include gender or region. This
addition is done using different colored dots. The addition may also be done
using different shapes as this might make distinguishing data variables
easier. For example, separate dots representing apartment sales can be
added to compare to home sales and see if the same patterns exist based on
the square footage.

RADAR CHART
Also called a spider chart, web chart, or radial chart, a radar chart displays
quantitative multiple data variables. This is plotted starting from the same
center point. The general shape of the final layout of data resembles that of
a web.

FIGURE 6.4
Radar charts are used when there are large numbers of variables. These can
be plotted on a bar chart but such a situation tends to make a bar chart look
cluttered and the data is hard to understand. Radar charts also make it easier
to review multiple performance metrics of a single subject area.
One niche where radar charts are commonly used is in employee
performance reviews. You may have seen it labeled as an Employee Chart
outlining the employee’s ratings in different skillset areas like punctuality
and technical knowledge. This is useful in such an arena because radar
charts make commonalities and outliers strikingly obvious.
FIGURE 6.5

You can maximize the use of radar charts with a few practices that include:

Limiting the data groups plotted to no more than 4.

Limiting the data variables plotted to less than 15.
Using different colors to represent different variables. Make these
variable representations as visible as possible by adding
transparency.
You may find that your radar charts become cluttered when more data
groups and variables are added. You can take the small multiple approaches
to rectify this. Make this work for you by segregating information based on
quantity and plotting these on multiple radar charts that highly the data for
individual variables. The actual value is compared to the average value.
This is easier for the audience to mentally digest as they can note the
relative variables compared to an average instead of being confronted by an
overly cluttered graph. This can be done in the employee skillset chart.
Have each employee have their own radar chart. A lot easier to analyze
each individual person.

CHORD DIAGRAM
This type of chart highlights the connections or flow of information
between several data variables called nodes. With chord diagrams, these
connections are represented by fragments of a larger circle. Arcs are used to
connect the nodes. The size of the arcs highlights the strength of the
connections.
FIGURE 6.6

Such charts are used in circumstances where:

There is a need to visualize weighted relationships between data

variables.
Simple representation to highlight interconnections between large
sets of data.
There is a need to quickly identify dominating categories.
The flow of resources between departments or places is necessary
to visualize.

This chart is particularly useful when the visual appeal of the data presented
is important. Therefore, you might find information like immigration flow
from one country to the next represented by a chord diagram.
FIGURE 6.7

To maximize your use of chord diagrams, note the following practices:

Consider adding a second visual and highlighting specific points if

many arcs are needed. A broad overview and a highlighted insight
work well together as two charts.
FIGURE 6.8

Use aesthetic colors with levels of transparency to make the arcs

clearer to understand.
Consider using colors to identify key insights while keeping the
rest of the chart gray or transparent.

NETWORK DIAGRAM
Like a chord diagram, network diagrams show interconnections between
data variables with nodes representing each entity and connections between
these nodes with links.
FIGURE 6.9

Network diagrams are typically used with larger, more complex sets of data
and most data analysts will rarely see one in their career. It shows a broad
overview with the ability to zoom in and view specific relationships.
 FIGURE 6.10

There are 4 types of network diagrams to choose from. Which one you
choose to use depends on the method of data input. Let’s highlight the
specifics for each input method:
Undirected and unweighted
This input type shows that the entities are connected but there is no
direction and no weight. An example would be to plot the data points that
show Jim, Linda, and Lauren live in the same house.
Undirected and weighted
With this input type, the data points are connected and give information
based on the weight of the relationship. To illustrate, let’s say that these
people above are connected if they published a blog together. The weight of
the line is the number of blogs they have published together. The more
pieces of work they have published together will determine the strength of
the relationship.
Directed and unweighted
Let’s say Josh reads Amanda’s, Ella’s, and Isabella’s blogs. But only
Isabella reads Josh’s blogs. Ella and Amanda read each other's blogs, and
Amanda reads Isabella's blogs. The connections are unweighted. They are
either connected or not.
Directed and Weighted
People migrate from one country to another. The weight of the line
determines the number of immigrants. Direction is the destination.
Network diagrams can be quite complex to develop, so we use more
advanced platforms and software to create them. For the advanced analysts,
Depending on the algorithm you use, your network diagram will take a
specific form based on the built-in layouts. This form is important as
finding an optimal position for each node highly impacts the output your
audience will view. Network diagrams also have the ability to be
interactive, and you can select a node and drag it around to better view the
relationships. Several algorithms have been developed for different
scenarios, including:

Circle
Sphere
Fruchterman
Reingold
Random

Whatever scenario is relevant to your data output, ensure that your links
overlap as little as possible and that there is minimum crossing at the edges.
You can choose to make the lengths of the edges uniform or not. Depending
on your data, you don't always have the freedom to change the overlap. The
data does what it does, but smaller sets showcased in different visuals can
help simplify large data sets.
FIGURE 6.11

These algorithms can be customized via the shape and color specifications
of each node to add more insights to the data. You can also customize these
charts by creating a series of network diagrams over a long time span so
values that have changed over time can be compared. We will keep network
diagrams brief in this book, but if it is something you're interested in, I
would recommend expanding your knowledge on them.

TREE DIAGRAM
This chart also goes by the names linkage tree and organizational chart. It
helps audiences note data hierarchy in a tree-like structure. This structure
consists of the following elements:

Root node, which is a member that has no superior or parent.

Nodes. They are linked with line connections. These connections
are called branches. They represent the relationships between the
 variables.
Leaf nodes. These are also called end nodes. They are components
with no children or child nodes.

FIGURE 6.12

Tree diagrams are used to make strategic decisions for calculating

probabilities and making market valuations. As a result, tree diagrams are
used to:

Show family connections and descent.

Categorize data such as breaking down the world into continents,
then countries, and then regions.
Showcase supply chain breakdown
Highlight evolutionary science like classification.
Show managerial purposes in business and organizations.
FIGURE 6.13

PARALLEL COORDINATES PLOT

This chart shows the relationships between multiple numerical data
variables indicated by lines. In other words, several individual observations
are compared on a set of numeric variables. Each variable is given its own
axis. All the axes are parallel to each other. Each axis can have its own
scale. As the plotted line moves across the chart, it highlights changes based
on the axis and the value to indicate that variable. Because several lines are
plotted on the same chart, parallel coordinates allow the comparison of
many quantitative variables on one screen. It also allows for easily
identifying relationships between these variables.
One of the best features of this type of chart is that the variables can have
different ranges and different units. A parallel coordinates plot may be
developed to show the anatomy of certain flower species. Each species is
mapped as a line and each variable (sepal length, sepal width, etc.) is
represented by a point on the line.
FIGURE 6.14

It can also effectively showcase sales throughout the year and determine the
item's overall sales volume. Usually, you would use a line chart or a bar
chart, but a parallel coordinates plot adds a refreshing spin to the data. It
also allows you to add an extra variable to categorizing the data, in this
case, determining if the sales volume was average, high, or low.
 FIGURE 6.15

O N THE OTHER HAND , something like the scale of different attributes of

emerald jewels can be plotted. The attributes (variables) can be the prices,
hardness, refractive index and more can be plotted. The scale for these may
be good, great, premium and ideal. The scale allows for comparing the
different variables.
To get the most of these charts, here are a few tips:

The order of the variables determines any trend line. Make these
trends clear by ordering variables accordingly to showcase certain
insights. Try different scaling to note which works best to suit your
data.
Parallel coordinates plots can become cluttered and even illegible
quickly since so many variables can be compared on one chart.
You can avoid this clutter and keep insights clear by using the
technique called brushing. The technique highlights and isolates a
selected line/s and fades out the others. This makes for easy
interpretation of specific data. This can also be done interactively
as you present, selecting separate lines showcasing their insights.
FIGURE 6.16

Further, decrease possible clutter with axis order. Moving just one
variable position on an axis can minimize the number of times
lines cross. Do not sort variables on the X axis as it causes line
crosses.

D ATA SETS OFTEN OVERLAP and mingle with each other. So do subsets in
groups of data. We need to highlight how these variables interact with each
other as they can and do sometimes affect each other. Relationship charts
allow us to dissect those connections.
 7
GEOGRAPHICAL

Q uite a number of us have trouble giving and following verbal

directions. The availability of a map makes things much easier
because we now have a visual aid. However, think of geographical
charts as serving the same function on a more advanced level. To be more
precise, geographical data visualization allows the representation of
location data in a visual format so that trends, patterns and relationships can
be deduced. Note that they also go by the names geo charts and map charts
so do not be surprised if you come across such terminologies in reference to
them.
Location is a tricky data matrix to communicate to an audience in a tabular
or textual format. Giving such data even poses a challenge for most data
graphics. For example, where you might be able to use a bar chart to
convey not only comparison but also relationships, geographical charts are
unique in that no other chart can replace the precision with which they
convey that specific type of data.
Let’s have a look at some export data on a horizontal bar graph.
FIGURE 7.1
The audience is left without a visual aid. Geographical charts come to the
rescue and provide a better understanding of location-based data. The best
geographical charts allow information to be understood without the need for
further explanation. However, this does not mean that your audience needs
some geographical skills to understand the patterns, trends and correlations
that are needed to draw educated conclusions. Let's see the same data but on
a map.

FIGURE 7.2

It might be worth showcasing the two charts together. The geographical

chart gives them a visual representation they would understand, and the bar
chart can go into detail regarding values. Geographical charts provide
context to data that highlights the function of population or of regional
statistics. For example, the population of the United States by state can be
displayed in such a chart with densely populated areas highlighted in darker
colors and more sparsely populated areas highlighted in lighter shades.
Highlighting the population for 50 states can become difficult and hard to
interpret through other mediums such as a bar chart.
Geographical charts can also be used to display data such as the number of
facilities like parks and schools in an area, the changing wildlife population
in a region over time, the rate at which the forest is being depleted in certain
areas and so much more. These charts are even useful in the business arena.
For example, a coffee company can analyze which regions enjoy specific
blends or consume the most coffee.
Let's get into some different types of maps.

CHOROPLETH
This type of geographical map displays divided geographical areas or
regions. This display is facilitated by shaded or colored sections based on
the numeric value. Choropleths are great for showing clear regional patterns
in data. For example, unusually high crime rates in a particular
neighborhood in contrast to its adjacent city could be illustrated using a
choropleth.

FIGURE 7.3
These types of maps allow you to see the big picture but they are not great
at allowing your audience to see the subtle differences. Using chloropleths
as a birds-eye view and then another chart for a zoomed-in insight can be an
effective strategy to get the visual representation from a map and a
memorable insight from a more detailed view.
Another downside is that intervals between colors do not equate to the same
interval between your data values. While these charts are great for
highlighting patterns, they do not make a great tool for comparing exact
values between regions. If exact values are needed for decision-making,
using a zoomed-in view or another chart in collaboration with this chart can
be effective.
With Choropleth maps, color is your best friend and worst enemy. Being
strategic is important for the effective representation of the data. Some
things you can do to maximize your color are:
Use the right color scheme
Use lightness to highlight the difference in sequential and diverging color
schemes. Color gradients from light to dark to help the audience spot high,
low and mid values because that is the natural inclination of the brain. That
is the practice for sequential color schemes. On the other hand, with
diverging color schemes, the extremes need to have the darkest colors and
the lightest colors should be in the center.
Use fewer colors in qualitative color schemes
The more colors on your map, the harder it will be to note their various
meanings. Make it easy for your audience to make that recollection by
limiting it to 3 colors when using qualitative color schemes. This will
ensure that your audience does not have to constantly refer to the key to
familiarize themselves with what these colors represent.
Ensure the audience sees the difference in data
Show the difference in data values with different colors. Use the brightest
and darkest colors to show extremes. Make use of stops. These are equally
sized parts of the color palette. These can initiate low and high values.
Using stops highlights the contrast between these extreme values. Do not
use stops too much as this will cause too much contrast.
Consider using a continuous color scheme over a discrete color scheme
This ensures a smooth visual gradient or eye flow. Continuous color
schemes allow for comparing neighboring regions with one color used in
different shades. On the other hand, discrete color schemes assign distinct
colors to different values. Subtle differences are not very noticeable with
such a scheme, even though these do allow the audience to note the range
that these values fall in quickly.
Create an accurate color legend
Ensure that your key is immediately readable to your audience. With a
sequential color scheme, layer the scheme from lowest to highest value with
the 2 to 4 other values in between. These are placed in equally spaced
intervals like 50, 100 and 150. With divergent color schemes follow the
same logic with a display of the center values.
Use labels for relevant insights
Highlight pertinent information with the use of labels.

PROPORTIONAL SYMBOL M AP
Typically making use of circles and squares, this chart proportionally scales
the size of simple symbols so that data volume based on location can be
visualized. The premise supporting the development of such a chart is
simple: the larger the size of the symbol, the larger the data of volume that
exists in that particular location and vice versa. The smaller the size of the
symbol, the smaller the data volume recorded for that particular location.
This is because the symbols are scaled directly proportionate to the data.
So, if the data volume for Florida is twice as large as New York's, then the
symbols (mainly circles) highlighting that volume will be twice as large.
FIGURE 7.4

This data can be grouped into categories or numerical ranges. From this,
graduated symbol maps can be created. This allows you to reduce clutter by
reducing the number of symbol sizes corresponding to different categories.
Proportional symbol maps are useful in a variety of circumstances. First,
they allow for showcasing or comparing the relevance of data value based
on a region. The audience is given a clear insight into the significance of a
region's data. There may be times when smaller regions have more
significant data. They can quickly get lost in the sea of larger regions in
other types of charts but not with this one. The more significant the data
noted in a region, no matter its size compared to others, the bigger the
symbol overtop. Data will not go unnoticed no matter the location.
Proportional symbol maps are also great for highlighting the risks or
chances of something happening in or to a geographical area.
Proportional symbol maps allow great flexibility because they can represent
numerical data like age but also ordered categorical data like low, medium
or high data variables. That flexibility also extends into these charts having
the function to highlight geographical points such as exact locations as well
as geographical areas such as countries over a world map. Large circles will
be easily noticeable and can be immediately understood as a country with a
high value. A great option for a birds-eye view to see the best performing
regions.
Examples of effective uses could be highlighting the total population of the
10 largest cities in the world or the location and magnitude of earthquakes
in Japan over the last 100 years.
Symbols tend to overlap if large variations or several data locations are near
to each other. Overlapping prevents proper analysis of the data. But you can
still make this chart work for its intended purpose by using various
elements such as size, transparency and exact color to improve the
audience's ability to interpret different values of the map. These visual
elements allow for separating the symbols.
Another way to bypass this problem is to move the symbols so that they
have a bit more room to breathe and thus, be clearer to the audience. Be
careful with this practice, though, as you risk removing the symbol from its
factual location. This can lead to misinterpretation of data.
More ways to maximize the use of proportional symbol maps include:

Ensure the size of symbols are relevant to data. If one continent has
double the population of another, its circle or square should be
exactly double the size of the other continent.
Provide context of the scale in a legend so the audience
understands the rough difference between a small and big symbol.
Highlight specific points that are relevant to your presentation.
FIGURE 7.5

FLOW MAP
This type of geographical chart shows the movement of information or
objects from one location to another. This chart also highlights the value of
these motions. Think of flow maps as a combination of a map and a flow
diagram. The most common use of flow maps is to show the amount and
magnitude of the migrations of items like people, animals, or products in a
single line. Even the flow of money and vehicular traffic can be highlighted
in this way. This relative amount is showcased in the thickness of the lines
in some cases. As a result, flow maps help highlight the distribution of these
data variables geographically. To sum it up, flow maps have four functions.
They show distribution, volume, movement and location.
Flow maps have unique anatomy. The lines start at the point of origin on the
map and branch out in flow lines. The movement is indicated by an arrow.
The arrowhead lands on the destination. These parts come together to show
the contrasts in the qualities that make up the spread over territories of the
items illustrated.
There are three categories of flow maps:

RADIAL FLOW MAPS

FIGURE 7.6

These types of flow maps showcase the relationship between one source of
an item and its many destinations and uses. This is highlighted by several
lines coming from the origin and radiating out to show the movement. The
accuracy of the route is not the main focus. Rather, the general direction is.
Radial flow maps are commonly used to show the volume of goods being
traded on a global scale. Getting products delivered to your home from
across the sea is facilitated by charts such as these.

NETWORK FLOW MAPS

These are used to highlight the flow of quantities over existing networks
such as supplier to the distributor, and distributor to customers.

FIGURE 7.7

DISTRIBUTIVE FLOW MAPS

This type of flow map operates much like a radial or network flow map but
instead shows a schematic path from one origin to many destinations with
thicker single lines. The size of the lines determines the number of goods.
They also have smaller flow lines with diversions from the destination
points. This is often used for the spread of disease, worldwide trade, and in
this case, coffee suppliers.
FIGURE 7.8

N O MATTER THE type of flow map you used, there are a few universal
strategies that can be used to maximize their function:

If many lines go to the same location, merge the edges to reduce

the visual clutter.
Employ intelligent routing by ensuring flows do not cut directly
across other objects. Route arrows aesthetically so every flow is
visible. Do this by creating a wide route along the edge of the map
or curving lines.
Choose the correct width of flow to best showcase the data if this
becomes necessary.

G EOGRAPHICAL CHARTS ARE in a class of their own. There are often times
when we might work with data covering regions or even worldwide. In
many cases, the amount of categories that make up this data far exceeds the
comfortable amount for your standard chart. Geographical maps are an
excellent way to visualize regional or national data with many categories
and make it easy to interpret.
 8
TA B L E S A N D P I C T O G R A M S

C harts are wonderful for many reasons. These pictorial depictions of

information help simplify complicated data so that it can be
understood at a glance. This is particularly helpful for visual learners
and allows the presenter to waylay the need to provide much explanation.
Charts help streamline meetings and business gatherings so that the
audience gets a helicopter view of the data and the problems that need
addressing. Charts make it easy to identify trends.
However, another side to the scale is the possible disadvantages of using
charts. One such downside is that charts may oversimplify data, thus
unintentionally misleading the audience as critical issues are missed. You
may try to fix this issue but this can lead to them overcomplicating the
view. Also, with the many options available for picturizing data, it can be
difficult to choose the right one, especially if inexperienced in the world of
data. Although I do hope by this point in the book, you will have a better
understanding of chart selection. Adding too many charts can either bore
the audience or, worse, confuse them, especially if irrelevant information is
added or there is a lack of clarity.
So, how do you offset these disadvantages of using charts in some
scenarios? The use of charts is not the only way that data can be presented
to an audience. This chapter explores alternative methods, namely the use
of tables and pictograms, that allow you to offset the possible drawbacks
and showcase pure data in its true form.
TABLES - WHEN AND HOW TO USE THE M
Tables are databases that maintain information in categorized rows and
columns. Every row is a unique data record and each column stands for a
field of similar records. To be clear, tables do not allow data to be
visualized. An audience will not be able to look at a table and gain a clear
view of the big picture of what is represented in an instance like a data
visualization would. The audience needs to study the data and be familiar
with the context for that to happen. But if done correctly, tables can be
extremely effective for showcasing data and highlighting insights and
trends.

FIGURE 8.1

Tables are a powerful tool for communication when used correctly and
under the right circumstances. They fight that under simplified view of
some charts as they convey a significant amount of information. They are
best used when highlighting data relating to benefits versus risks to the
audiences. This is possible because of the simple yet flexible nature of the
table structure. They can be easily adapted to allow the audience to gain fast
yet efficient readability across rows and columns. Tables can provide
consistency and clarity, both features needed for informed decision-making.
An appropriately designed table allows the audience to quickly extract the
required information, decreasing the cognitive burden placed on the
audience.
When to Use Tables
Instances where using tables makes sense include to:
Allow the audience to look up particular points of information
Often, an audience will not find it pertinent to peruse all the data in a table,
especially since tables tend to be jam-packed with a high volume of data.
The audience will only seek out the data that is relevant to them and the
problem that they are trying to solve. We are naturally attuned to sifting
through data to only focus on what is applicable to the situation.

FIGURE 8.2
Take advantage of this tendency to look up only what is relevant by
structuring your table in such a way that the information of interest to your
audience is not embedded in a block of data. Instead, make the data visible
by laying it out in a way that is natural for the eye to follow and ordered
appropriately. We will cover more of this in the “create better tables”
section
Highlight precise numbers if they apply to the data presentation
Tables and charts can be used in tandem. It may be hard for the audience to
note figures of interest in charts because they focus on the relationship
between data sets and categories within data variables. But using tables
along with charts allows for more clarity of specific figures such as the best
price to list a product or the best interest rate for the highest rate of return
10 years down the line.

FIGURE 8.3

Highlighting numbers with tables is particularly useful to audiences that

intend to act urgently using the data presented. They want the information
to initiate effective decision-making.
Allow the audience to compare data variables going in two directions
Let’s consider that a data presenter needs to highlight the sales for the stores
of a particular region for the last 12 months and not just the last month. This
is a case where the audience’s decision-making process after that
presentation is influenced by data that moves in more than one direction. In
such a case, visualization could be confused compared to simply being
presented with the data in table format. Be sure to make the comparison of
values moving in these different directions easy for the audience with the
table's structure.
Creating Better Tables - What You Need to Know
To ensure the readability of tables, here are a few tips:

Emphasize the desired reading direction by adding shading (color)

that does not overshadow the information. Vertical shading of
columns emphasizes reading from top to bottom, while horizontal
shading emphasizes reading from left to right.
Further, help the audience navigate your table with the use of color
by considering using different colors for different categories or
coloring highest to lowest values within columns. Do not
overwhelm the audience with this use of color. Be strategic. Use
bright colors when coloring text so that they stand out against
white space. However, use a pastel background when highlighting
entire rows, columns, or cells.
Ensure that information is aligned within columns. Be mindful that
different types of alignment can be used in one table. For example,
text in one column can be left justified while numbers in other
columns can be centered or right aligned to keep higher readability
levels.
Keep the typeface and numbering styles consistent.
Sort your table based on what information is most relevant rather
than the first inclination of doing so alphabetically (Unless
Necessary). Always sort your data to bring the most interesting
information to the top.
Consider making your table sortable and searchable so that
different readers can more easily access the information that is
relevant to them.
Keep the table as simple as possible by using a condensed font to
keep the data compact. This also ensures that the table is easy to
scan. More ways to keep the structure of the table simple include
not using hyphenation, icons, shorter number formats and
abbreviating details when it is possible. Simplify information so
 the audience is not confronted with a screen full of text and
numbers.
Narrow down the number of columns used to what is vital.
Consider which categories can be combined to form one column
rather than multiple. You might also consider swapping rows and
columns so the audience can visually scan through the information
vertically rather than horizontally.
If you cannot scale down the number of columns in the table,
consider using light gray shading every second row to increase the
readability. This is called zebra shading.
Consider structuring your data so that your table has more rows
than columns. This is easier to read with the human tendency to
read from left to right. Consider adjusting the row height to the
number of rows. More rows might mean lowering the row height
so more information is condensed within view, allowing the
audience to peruse more data quicker. The opposite might be a
consideration with fewer rows.
Consider using pagination when using long tables where all the
data will not fit onto the screen. This will allow the audience to
realize that the data continues below what has been presented
currently and thus, pursue that information.
Consider adding an element of visualization to your tables with the
use of heatmaps. Make the background of higher numbers darker
or saturated compared to their counterparts. Use more than one
color gradient for columns that have the same measurement. Also,
use different color gradients to separate different heat maps used in
a singular table.

FIGURE 8.4
 Another way of adding a dimension of visualization to your table is
to show development over time. This is facilitated by a tool known
as sparklines. These are mini-line charts at the end of a row that
show the development between the time points. The general trend
is highlighted by each sparkline. It is an easy way to make your
char more visual and insightful.

FIGURE 8.5

We have addressed how to use tables for the best communication with your
audience. Experiment and try out new techniques. Tables can be more
effective than you think.
Next, let’s discuss the appropriate circumstances for using pictograms and
how you can optimize them.

ALL ABOUT PICTOGRAMS

If you want your data to be memorable, easy to internalize and look great,
pictograms are the medium of choice. Pictograms are simple to develop and
simple in how they translate visually, yet their use is wildly popular in data
visualization. They use a series of repeated icons and images to visualize
data. The icons or images are arranged in a grid or a single line, with each
icon or image standing for a particular unit. So, 1 icon might stand for a unit
of 10, 100, 1000, or any other number. In other words, pictograms show the
frequency at which a data point occurs in a set. They showcase one specific
insight through bold text or a guage.
 FIGURE 8.6

Advantages of pictograms include:

Allowing large data sets to be expressed in a simple form or

insight.
Being easy to read as all the information is expressed in a format
meant to be digested at a glance.
Not requiring an explanation as pictograms are a universal tool for
simple data expression

Creating a pictogram is not complicated. Here is the outline of a simple

process for doing so:
Gather the data
The relevant data is collected and compiled into a list or table.
Select the icons or images
Pick a relevant symbol to represent the data. For example, if you want to
represent data outlining rainfall for different islands in the Caribbean, you
may use water droplets or cloud images. Both of these are relevant to the
information at hand. You would not use something completely unrelated
like cat icons.

FIGURE 8.7

C REATE a key
The key is a tool that highlights the values assigned to each icon or image
used in the pictogram. To illustrate, you may use dog icons to show the
number of stray canines roaming a particular city and in need of a good
home. You may denote a value of 100 for each icon. Another use would be
many small human icons representing 100% of your customer base, and a
percentage of them are filled in with color signifying said percentage are
returning customers.

FIGURE 8.8

Create the pictogram

Two columns that represent the data and categories will be created. The
icons or images will be added to show the frequency of the data. If the
frequency is not a whole number, fractions of icons or images can be used.
When to Use Pictograms
Pictograms also go by other names such as icon charts, picture charts,
pictographs and pictorial unit charts. They are used to transform data into a
simple and clear insight for quick consumption. The specific instances
where the use of pictograms are applicable include:
Show ratings, scores, or changes over time
We see examples of pictograms being used in this way all the time. The 5-
star ratings of products and services on websites like Amazon and eBay.
These ratings show proportions and percentages of simple data. Presenting
such figures in tables or charts can add unnecessary complications. As a
result, pictograms are a good medium for their expression.
Indicate progress to a goal in a project status report
We see pictographs used in items like product roadmaps, project status
reports and project plans. Anyone can use pictograms to highlight the
progress of any project visually. However, on a higher scale, pictograms
allow businesses and organizations to note the status and progress of items
like budgets, schedules and scopes of multiple items relating to the different
aspects of a project.
Color is the most common visual element used to show progress in this
way. Darker colors are used to show the progress thus far. Lighter colors are
used to indicate the work in progress and what remains undone or
unfinished. This can also be done through a gauge that is full or empty. An
easy visual everyone understands.
Large Sets of Data
An effective pictogram can be in the form of a word map. When using
regional or worldwide data, a word map can easily express which regions
make up the majority of the data. This is also good when you have many
rows of data as it can be paired with a table, so the audience gets a visual
representation but can easily look deeper within the data.
FIGURE 8.9

Elaborate on a simple chart for extra impact

If your data can be compiled into a simple chart like a bar chart or a pie
chart, use a pictogram to make the presentation of this data more
compelling with the visual interest that these tools generate.
Visually tally and summarize survey results
This is supremely useful in presenting the results of surveys. You can
simply show the compilation of these results in spreadsheets and tables but
you risk boring your audience or making them feel intimidated by large
amounts of data. Since we always want to avoid these situations, using
pictographs to tally results, give a summary and highlight key insights is a
better choice.
How to Maximize the Use of Pictograms
We expect pictographs to be simple to understand but many beginners make
them overly complicated and thus, they give up the advantage of using
them. This section describes how you can make the most effective use of
pictographs by creating them in the proper way. Here are these useful tips:

Use straightforward icons to make information clear. Remember to

make these icons relevant and related to the topic at hand.
Avoid contrasting colors for proportions and percentages. Do not
use too many colors in one pictograph at one time. Doing so
defeats the purpose of simple yet effective information. Too much
detail distracts the audience from the information that needs to be
in the spotlight.
Before using color combinations like red and green or blue and
yellow, be mindful of color-blind audiences. More on color
blindness relating to data visualization in the next chapter.
Do not be afraid of negative space in your pictograph. Use an
appropriate denoted value for each icon so that the space becomes
filled with them.

INFOGRAPHICS
Infographics are information packages that compile a collection of data
visualizations, images and a few texts. The aim of infographics is to give
audiences an easy-to-comprehend overview of a subject matter. They serve
as a visual tool to facilitate communication and decision-making.
Pictograms are often used as a feature in infographics. Why? Because they
turn otherwise boring information or data points like statistics into
attractive, eye-catching items. Other items that utilize pictograms to catch
and hold attention include resumes, reports and presentations.
FIGURE 8.10

FIGURE 8.11
Relaying insights doesn't have to be intricate and interactive. Often
something as simple as showing a single figure with a visual to represent it
is all you need to get your point across. The most important thing when
visualizing data is understanding and interpreting the insights. Don't
overcomplicate it if you don't have to. Tables and pictograms are an
excellent way to showcase the data in its purest form.
 9
F U N D A M E N TA L S O F D E S I G N

Y ou have chosen the right medium to express the story that you have
developed to relay the information to your audience. But your job is
not done. You need to be able to sell your story to your audience.
Doing so is not based on luck and chase. It is based on you combining the
right elements in the right order to grab their attention and keep them
engaged enough to wonder what’s next. This chapter outlines these
elements and how you can use them most effectively.

7 PRINCIPLES FOR TRANSFORM IN G DATA I NTO

STUNNING, INFORMATIVE VISUALS
Creating stunning data visuals is certainly an art. However, science can
guide the flow of information with 7 principles:

Balance of Design

Balance refers to the designed elements of your data visualization being

distributed equally across your charts. These elements can be the colors
used, the negative space, which is the unused spaces around and between
objects like the unused spaces between bars on a bar chart, shapes and
texture.
There's no formula for perfectly balancing each visualization. Simply look
at your data, and determine how the chart represents it. Is there a smooth
visual flow? Clean color theory? Minimal elements? You should naturally
create a balanced design after going through the remaining 7 principles and
optimizing your chart elements, which will come later in the chapter.
Asking yourself if your design is balanced is the first and last thing you
should always consider in the design phase.

The Emphasis of Key Insights

You need to draw your audience's eyes to the key data points by using color
contrast, different colors, negative space, size and shapes. Because we read
from left to right, naturally, viewers’ attention tends to fall on the top left
corner of a plot first. It is a good practice to make use of that space for
important insights or, often the title. With this, of course, having some
information to back it up is necessary.
“As you can see, we have been steadily declining in our premium
memberships. However, We have recently released the next version of our
software, which has many improvements such as bug fixes and user
experience upgrades. With this release, we have run multiple marketing
campaigns and seem to have brought in many new customers.”
FIGURE 9.1

T HIS CAN ALSO BE DONE by showcasing specific data points of relevance

based on what your needs were.

FIGURE 9.2
 Show Clear Movement

A cluttered design will have your audience's eyes darting all over your plot
with no clear spot where they should land or how they should move to
create cohesive absorption of information. Avoid this confusion by creating
a clear flow of information. Another tendency we, as human beings
illustrate, is that we read in an ‘F’ pattern. First, our eyes move from left to
right, then gradually down a page. You can use this tendency to create
movement from key insights to supporting points in your data
visualizations.
You can also create this smooth movement using colors to direct the
audience's eyes across your plot if your visualization is static. Movement is
implied if your visualization uses interactive and animated tools or light to
dark hue.

FIGURE 9.3

A simple trend line visually shows the audience where the data could go
without needing any information. With this, you can add extra visuals, a
table, or insights about why this is happening or how you can make it
happen.
 Utilize Patterns to Highlight Insights

Patterns are developed when design elements are repeated. Use this
repetition to your advantage to display similar types of information across
your plots. This repetition can come in the form of colors, types of charts
and the elements used on these charts.
Showing patterns not only highlights similar relationships between different
data groups but also shows anomalies and differentiations when elements
break from the trend of repetition.

FIGURE 9.4

In the case of the ice cream sales, we added a trend line to reveal the pattern
of the data and its trajectory.

Use Proportion

Proportion refers to the size of the elements plotted on your data

visualizations. Use these relative sizes to indicate the weight of significance
of different data sets and the relationship between the values of these
different data sets. Make key insights bigger than the rest of the information
plotted to visually convey their importance.
Also, ensure that charts reflect the interdependent relationships between
different values accurately.

Give your Audience Variety

Watching the same ole thing over and over again creates boredom. As much
as you want to create coherence in your visualizations, you need to also
spice things up. Use different, interesting, relevant design elements to break
the repetition trend. Instead of falling asleep, your audience becomes more
engaged with you and the visualization presented. In this case, we can view
ice cream sales with a regression line showing the upward trend.

FIGURE 9.5

Additionally, you can use multiple visuals to stress important points.

Adding a simple bar chart comparing the previous year to confirm that
trend adds more context and helps the audience better understand the
insight.
 FIGURE 9.6

By having two visuals to look at, you better understand the overall trend
and performance of the data.

State your Theme

The theme of your presentation is the dominant idea that unifies all the
elements of the data visualizations. Make this idea clear to your audiences
with consistency and a clear standard. Developing your theme is not a
difficult task. In fact, this would have been developed while you studied
your audiences and while you developed the key insights to be presented.
How you state your theme to your audience depends on the niche of the
data and on the culture of the audience. Find that core element that links all
your insights to show a prevailing objective and concept. Colors tend to tell
someone how to feel. Keep this in mind when figuring out what the goal of
your presentation is.

FIGURE 9.7

In this case, we based the theme of the parties so people can easily
distinguish which is which.

OPTIMIZING CHART ELE M E NTS

The presence of, or lack thereof, certain chart elements can either
compromise the understanding or help your audience grasp the information
that you are portraying. How these elements are used if they are present
also plays a significant role. Here are a few of these elements and how you
can use them effectively if they help your visualization be more impactful.
Axes
An axis is a line drawn on charts. It gives the audience a point of reference
regarding the values the points plotted represent. Ensure that you provide
the audience with a clear description of what each axis on your chart
represents. Also, add units of measurement.
Tick Marks
Tick marks indicate a reference value at given points on a chart. Think of
them like the lines on a ruler. They are not all labeled but they established a
continual flow that shows intervals between values. When using tick marks,
keep the labels to a minimum. Avoid labeling each one.
Use smaller tick marks for non-labeled lines and longer tick marks for
labeled increments to avoid visual clutter. Only show what is relevant to
getting your point across to your audience.
Grid Lines
Grid lines are lines plotted to show the divisions along each axis of a chart.
They allow the audience to see the value represented by unlabeled data
points. They are not necessarily for inclusion in every data visualization. In
fact, you should avoid the use of them if possible. Only use them when they
are helpful to your audience. When used, ensure they are colored light gray
to minimize visual distraction.
Lets take our chart from above.
FIGURE 9.8

Removal of gridlines creates a smoother visual flow and adding a data label
with the key insight ensures they won’t be missed. The visuals look a lot
smoother, in my opinion. This can also be done with our accompanying
visual aswell.
FIGURE 9.9

The goal of the visual is to show an overall trend, not each specific value.
The gridlines were not adding any significance and the removal made a
cleaner visual.
Data Labels
Labels give your audience context as to what is being presented visually.
However, when they are used incorrectly, they can cause confusion rather
than aid.
FIGURE 9.10

This is a great way to add confusion to your visual. Be meticulous when

adding data labels and ask yourself, “What insight is worth highlighting.”

FIGURE 9.11

This is a lot better and gives the reader a great understanding of the data.
Typography
Don't use typography that is too loud as this will distract from your insights.
Not only does your font matter but so too does the title case. Ensure that
capitalization is used correctly. This depends on the exact nature of your
labels.
Map Labels
When labeling maps, be consistent with abbreviations. Use the USPS
abbreviation preferably (or the relevant labels for countries other than the
US). For example, AZ should be used for Arizona in place of A.Z.,
Arizona. Whatever you decide, keep it consistent throughout.
Also, customize map labels to represent the country. This easily
distinguishes them so that confusion is avoided.
Legends
Legends are visual representations of data series on charts. They are used
when displaying multiple series data or combinations of charts. They use
color to show the correlation between the data points plotted.

FIGURE 9.12
Integrating them with your titles is an excellent way to enhance a legend's
effectiveness.
An example of this would be Texas and California are our best performing
states. Instead of a legend, you can color the state names as they would
appear in the chart itself. This eliminates the need for unnecessary glancing
and can be a unique creative approach.

FIGURE 9.13

How legend elements are ordered is also important. When working with
sequential data, always have the highest number at top of the legend in
descending order. A vertical legend with the most extreme values at
opposite ends works best with diverging data.
Placement also plays a significant role. Always place elements below or
beside (parallel to) the visualization so as not to obstruct the audience’s
view of values related to that data. Legends should not add technicality to
the visual, just an easy way to understand the symbols or colors the reader
is looking at.
Titles
This is a line of text that broadly describes what the visualization represents
without identifying trends. Ensure this is not long-winded with no more
than 2 lines of text or 8 words. Always place the title directly at the top of
the chart in the center or to the left.
A title can be accompanied by a subtitle if necessary. Subtitles are a more
detailed explanation of data trends and highlights that will be spotted in the
chart.

FIGURE 9.14
They also serve the purpose of indicating the unit of measurement used. An
effective title paired with a subtitle looks like this: World Population For
2023: World population is expected to cross 8 billion by the end of 2023.
Depending on the main parts of your analysis, curate the title accordingly to
direct the audience to the key outcomes you found.
An excellent format to remember is Title: A general overview of the data in
front of them. Subtitle: Detailed explanation of the critical insight.

A GUIDE TO COLOR
Color theory might seem like a concept that graphic designers and those in
similar posts should know. However, understanding color theory is a
necessary component of developing visually attractive and informative
charts. Color theory combines art and science to explain how human beings
perceive and interpret colors. By understanding color theory, you develop
the mastery of communicating messages effectively by mixing, matching
and contrasting colors on your visuals. How colors are combined is called a
color scheme.
Picking a Color Scheme
Picking the right color scheme for your chart depends on grasping the
anatomy of color. Just like human anatomy describes the different parts that
come together to create a whole being, color harmony refers to the different
aspects that make up color so that we can perceive it. I would highly
recommend you check out Paletton.com. It is an excellent tool for creating
color schemes that go together naturally.
FIGURE 9.15

Color anatomy is made up of the following parts and are processed in the
following ways by your audience:
Hue
Hue is just another name for color. It describes the specific name or shade
of a color. In data visualization, different hues refer to different values or
categories. It shows relationships: whether or not the values or categories
are related.
Saturation
This part of color anatomy refers to a chart element’s brightness relative to
the area it occupies. Highly saturated elements have vibrant colors in
comparison to their environment and other elements, while less saturated
elements produce duller, more washed-out colors. Both ends of the
spectrum are useful in chart design as too much saturation can make
elements overwhelm your graph while too little saturation can make it
difficult to identify visual elements.
Lightness
This feature of color anatomy is closely related to saturation but instead of
the brightness of a color, it refers to the shades and tints (degrees of black
and white) that make up a color. It should be noted that playing both
lightness and saturation leaves you with striking variations in colors’ scale
of intensity. These degrees highlight the differences in chart elements.
For example, changing the lightness of a color can showcase different
values within a given category while still insinuating they are of the same
category. The reader can then easily compare the metrics across regions.

FIGURE 9.16

Color Harmony
Certain color combinations are easier on the eyes and thus, easier for the
brain to perceive. They create contrast and cohesion so that multiple levels
of perception are derived. Diverging from that causes confusion. To ensure
that you use color combinations to your advantage, you need to become
acquainted with the color wheel. The color wheel is an abstract illustration
of colors organized around a circle. These colors are not randomly situated.
Instead, they are placed to show the relationships being primary colors (red,
blue and yellow), secondary colors, which are the mixture of two primary
colors (orange, purple and green), tertiary colors, which are a variety of
primary and secondary colors being mixed (for example blue-green), and
more variations.
Color harmony is achieved when designers pick colors from the color wheel
and arrange them in such a way so that data visualizations gain depth by
virtue of the contrast and cohesiveness those colors allow. Consider color
harmony when creating your theme to represent the data and tell a story in
the most effective way possible.

FIGURE 9.17
Monochromatic
This color arrangement consists of a single color being used in different
shades (the addition of black) and tints (the addition of white). Therefore,
you use light and dark versions of that one color.

FIGURE 9.18

Analogous
Three colors situated next to each other on the color wheel are used in this
arrangement. For example, orange-yellow and orange-red can be used to
develop a data visual with such an arrangement.
FIGURE 9.19

Complementary
This arrangement makes use of colors that are on opposite sides of the color
wheel. This can be expanded into shades and tints of these two colors.
Green and red are examples of complementary colors.
FIGURE 9.20

Split complementary
This is a variation of the complementary color scheme. However, instead of
using two colors, three colors are used. One of the complementary colors is
split into the two adjacent colors to create the trio. The use of orange, blue-
purple and blue-green is an example of a split complementary color
scheme. Orange and blue are opposite on the color wheel. Blue is split into
the two adjacent colors blue-purple and blue-green to make the trio.
Triad
Triad means three, so this arrangement of colors is composed of three
colors evenly spaced on the color wheel. The most basic triad color
schemes are composed of:

The primary colors, which are red, blue and yellow.

The secondary colors, which are orange, green and purple.

Tetradic
This arrangement of colors comes with four colors from the color wheel, as
indicated by the prefix ‘tetra’. The colors are picked for a rectangular shape
and are evenly spaced on the color wheel with no color being dominant
over the others. This color arrangement is also called double
complementary.

A GUIDE TO USING COLOR PALE T TE S ON DIFFE RE NT

TYPES OF CHARTS
The type of data being expressed determines the best-used color palette. As
such, color palettes that are largely used for creating data visualizations are:
Qualitative

FIGURE 9.21

This type of palette is used when the data variables are categorical. These
variables do not have a distinct order. Tips for making the best use of such a
color palette include:

Each category must be assigned a specific color.

If you are working with more than 10 variables, consider grouping
small
values into an ‘Other’ category to limit the use of colors and keep
your charts from becoming too busy.
Create additional variation by using lightness or saturation
strategically. This can serve to highlight the importance of specific
values.
Use the same color in varying saturations to separate values if they
are related.
Sequential

FIGURE 9.22

The sequential color palette is used when the values plotted for one subject
are numerically ordered. The colors assigned must exist in a continuum. For
example, if your data is presented in percentages (0-100), lower numbers
should be lighter while higher values should be a darker shade. The same
color is used. The difference is the changing lightness.
Alternatively, you can use transitions with different hues. Use light or cool
colors like blue for lower values and transition into darker or warm colors
for higher values.
Diverging

FIGURE 9.23

A diverging color palette should be used if your data contains a central

value such as zero (0). A diverging color palette is essentially a
combination of two sequential palettes that share an endpoint as the central
value. Highlight this feature with a distinct hue used for each side, such as
with positive versus negative values. The central value should be a light hue
that darkens at the sides.
The Best Practices for Effective Use of Color
To end this chapter, I leave you with a few more tips to make color work for
you and not against you for data visualizations.
Where to put color
A trick I like to use is to create your entire chart and make everything gray.
From there, with nothing grabbing your attention, you can focus on what
information needs to be in color. And only add it where necessary.
Consider color blindness among your audience
About 4% of the human population and 10% of men has a form of color
blindness. In some cases, there is confusion when viewing red and green, or
yellow and blue. Make your data visualizations accessible and interpretable
for everyone by using color selection tools to assess how our visuals look
for people with color perception difficulties. A quick Google search will
place a plethora of color selection tools at your disposal.
Lets see how we can improve some charts for color blindness.

FIGURE 9.24
A more effective approach would be to use a horizontal bar graph. It
eliminates the need for color to distinguish the categories.

FIGURE 9.25

Another effective approach is to use different patterns to categorize the

elements to make them unique.

FIGURE 9.26

Be consistent
You might be tempted to play around with color palettes as there is such a
vast array to choose from but you must remember to stay consistent with
colors throughout the development of your visuals. If your presentation
contains different charts highlighting different insights, then, of course, you
can use different palettes, but if you use, for example, green and red to
show positive and negative values in your sequential palette, make sure this
stays consistent for future visualizations. Do not change the association of
color to mean something different in different charts.
Don’t always rely on color
Color is not the only tool at your disposal in data visualization. In some
instances, you can even use other visual elements to magnify the emphasis
you are trying to place with color. For example, you can add indicators like
an up arrow to show positive or strengthen the insight's meaning. The brain
will naturally associate seeing green and an arrow pointing up as a gain of
some sort. The opposite applies to using a down arrow along with red to
show negativity or loss.
Avoid color clutter
Do not use too much color when creating your visuals. In fact, the first
color you should add is gray. Then consider which insights are worth using
color to highlight. In some cases, you can give each category a distinct
color to signify their difference. The chart might solidify one key point with
supporting points in other cases. In that instance, it might be worth
highlighting the specific insight with color and keeping the rest of the chart
neutral.
FIGURE 9.27

FIGURE 9.28
C OLOR IS NOT SOLELY an aesthetic element. It's a tool that tells your
audience how to feel and where to look. I like to think of it as music in a
film. It sets the tone for what's happening. A properly selected color palette
should convey the data accurately and add to the story. Using color simply
to distinguish categories should be the bare minimum. You can get
everything wrong on data visualization, but nail the color composition, and
you'll get your point across.

W HEN DESIGNING YOUR VISUALS , many factors come into play. Knowing the
fundamentals and adding your own flair is the key to creating winning data
visualizations. Over time it is good practice to slowly build a style guide
and document what worked and what didn't. Eventually, you'll arrive at a
place where you can easily turn any dataset into a beautifully crafted and
presented story with ease.
 10
CHART REDESIGNS

D ata visualization is a skill you will constantly improve throughout

your career. I hope I have helped you create a baseline that sets the
stage for all your future visualizations and gives you valuable
information to work off of and expand upon. Although we covered a lot of
stuff, I think it's important to see some real-life examples and some
redesigned visuals to understand better what it requires of us as data
professionals. Let's go through an example and then look at some
redesigned visuals.

L ET ’ S say our company is one of the top suppliers of above-ground pools,

pool accessories and parts. We are tracking our website traffic over the year
based on our primary sources to determine where to allocate our resources
to grow our business in the coming years. Let's throw the numbers on a
typical chart people use in this scenario.
FIGURE 10.1

I DON ' T LIKE A STACKED bar chart because it's difficult to compare the
categories over time or even compare specific metrics within one month.
Readability is essential for your audience and this falls short. You've missed
the mark if you have to tell the reader what they should be seeing before
they see it. Your narrative should support what the chart already shows. I'm
sure there are ways to make it work, but I would rather scrap it altogether. A
line chart is more effective when showcasing trends over time.
FIGURE 10.2

N OW IT ' S important to ask yourself specific questions to ensure the success

of your visual. The first thing I always Like to ask is

W HAT DOES my audience see first?

So, what do you see first? Besides the apparent spike in the summer
months, no real insight is showcased. We need to dig deeper so the audience
has some valuable insights and potential action steps based on the data.
That leads us to the second question we need to ask,

C AN WE REMOVE ANYTHING ?

This happens to be one of our best years for organic traffic and sales. Since
it is 2020 and everyone is forced to stay home, many families brought their
summer fun to their houses.
L ET ' S focus our chart more on the specific insights that stand out and lead
our audience to some action steps to benefit from this spike. We can remove
the traffic from social media and advertising and start by comparing the
previous year's organic search sales to this year's.
This is the first chart we will present to our audience, but not before a few
tweaks.

FIGURE 10.3

LET ' S get into our next important question, which is

AM I USING COLOR , labels, and aesthetics effectively

Color does a great job of emphasizing key metrics; you can use it to tell the
audience where to look. In this case, fading the previous year and
enhancing the new data seems like a good option. Still easy to compare but
focuses on what's important.
FIGURE 10.4

I N TERMS OF LABELS , we will remove the legend and add the years onto the
chart to avoid unnecessary glancing back and forth. It's common practice to
place data labels at the end of the lines, but given this specific chart and
how close the ends are, putting them at the beginning might be more
effective. This can also be effective because people read left to right, so
they will see the year and its corresponding income in the same color,
resulting in a quick understanding of the key points.

W E CAN ALSO REMOVE the gridlines and chart border for a smooth visual
flow and update the title to be more detailed and clear.

N OW THE CHART looks quite presentable. But we can't forget our most
important task as data professionals, guiding them to the proper insights
that lead to better business decisions.
T HIS LEADS us to our next question.

W HAT ACTION DOES my audience need to take, and do they have the
tools to see this?

C OVID -19 HAS BEEN an anomaly for our business regarding sales and new
customers. But trying to surpass an anomaly year is not feasible.

C ONSIDERING we have gained a substantial number of new customers, the

most effective thing to do is to ensure those customers continue to purchase
for years to come, even after the pandemic.

W ITH INSIGHTS from our organic search, we can now allocate a considerable
amount of our marketing budget to retargeting in the following season, so
they continue to return for the things they need, whether another pool,
pump, chemicals, or anything else. This can be done through our
promotional emails, digital advertising campaigns and social posts.

T O HELP the audience reach this conclusion, we can pair our new line graph
with a simple metric, Showing that in the previous years, around 50-64% of
our sales were from returning customers. They continually bought the
supplies they needed year after year. With the influx of new customers,
2020 resulted in only 35% of our sales from returning buyers.
FIGURE 10.5

Although we will have more data after the next peak season, we can use the
most recent insights to focus our budget on retargeting and keeping those
customers, so when lockdowns lift and our sales return to normal, we have
gained, and kept many reliable customers. If we spend our resources trying
to continue to gain more and surpass our anomaly year, we are setting
ourselves up for disappointment.

T HIS IS JUST a taste of telling a compelling story with data. If you want to
dive deeper into the presentation process, check out my first book, How to
Win With Your Data Visualizations. It is all about presenting data effectively
captivating your audience.
Let's have a look at some more chart redesigns.
 FIGURE 10.6

Here is a basic pie chart. Although it falls under the parameters of an

effective pie chart, with this specific dataset, I think a simple bar pictogram
is a lot more effective and showcases the insights in a clear way.

FIGURE 10.7
Comparing categories within categories with different sets of values is
always a challenge. People often fall on some sort of bar chart variation, but
they aren't the most effective way to view such data.

FIGURE 10.8

In these scenarios, Marimekko charts can be highly effective. You can

compare the categories within categories and the main categories to each
other with ease. Let's look at the same data but in a Marimekko chart.
Whatever metrics you choose to compare, a Marimekko makes it easy to
isolate and compare specific information.
FIGURE 10.9

I T ALSO INCORPORATES the legend into the chart so that you don't find
yourself glancing back and forth, trying to piece together the visual. (Which
is what I found myself doing in the original bar chart).
Although line charts are a fan favorite, they can still be done incorrectly.
 FIGURE 10.10

As you can see, there is an awful lot of clutter. Although it shows all the
information, I think it's possible to make it much more exciting and
effective.

FIGURE 10.11
By only highlighting the essential metrics, the audience can see where we
were in 2017, the trend over the years, and finally, where we are now. The
extra values seemed irrelevant. This way, they can see the sales trajectory
and where more resources need to be allocated. The readability goes way up
by adding the locations onto the chart and changing the color scheme. By
adding insight to the subtitle, we can better focus our audience's attention
while still having all the necessary metrics clearly visible. Highlighting one
specific line wouldn't be effective here as the performance of all the regions
is essential to see.
Many people naturally gravitate to bar charts. Although this isn’t
necessarily negative, let's see how we can make them more effective based
on the data.

FIGURE 10.12

In my opinion, it really doesn’t do much for the data.

 FIGURE 10.13

This regular bar chart seems to be better. However, When comparing actual
to targets, there is a better way to do it. You can either go the route of a
bullet chart or, in this case, we can take the elements of a bullet chart and
execute them in a simple yet effective way.

FIGURE 10.14
The horizontal bar works great in this scenario. By adding the target as
lines, the viewer will naturally check to see if the bars are below or above
them, even if they dont know what they mean. A great way to compare
sales to targets. We can add the actual values as data labels to get more
insight out of the chart.

FIGURE 10.15

This makes it easy to see the numbers without guessing.

From there, we can potentially highlight any important insights that we
gained from our analysis. In this case, we can highlight Q3 as we did not hit
our target.
FIGURE 10.16

If required, we can further dive into the metrics from Q3 and see where we
fell short.
There are many ways to redesign and visualize the information above to be
effective. Don't take these rules as set in stone, be creative and present the
information most memorably. Data visualization is an art in itself. Create
your style and continue to expand upon it with new insights and knowledge.
With the number of new people in the world of data, standing above the rest
is crucial to making yourself known. Harnessing your data visualization
skills will allow you to stand above the rest.
 CONCLUSION

Data. It seems to pour like raindrops during a storm but unlike those
passing clouds, it never stops. Data is constantly being generated during
every microsecond of the day. Gone is the time when our economy and
many social constructs were driven by manufacturing. We have entered the
information age and there is no end in sight for this time period. Also gone
is the time when the world's most valuable resource is oil. The intangible
components that make up this age, data points, have become the most
valuable thing on this planet. People are willing to pay big bucks for data
but that would not be the case if there was no way of translating data from
its raw state into a medium that is easy to interpret.
Data visualization is the translation of data into a visual context such as a
chart or a map. Data visualization is that bridge that makes data the value
item for which people are willing to write big checks. The human brain is
hardwired to pick information received through the sense of sight far faster
and easier than information derived from any other sense. That’s the power
of visual processing. That is the power you can harness to bring your point
across to audiences. You can show patterns, showcase trends and highlight
outliers without saying a word, even when working with large data sets.
You might be an academic. You might be an intern. You might be an entry-
level employee. You might be a manager. You might be a business owner.
No matter your job title, understanding the value of data visualization and
using it effectively goes across the board. It all starts with a plan. This plan
will tell you which is the right chart to pick for your particular presentation
and which design elements will enhance that chart visually and make it the
most informative for the audience. The “right” chart is dependent on what
you want to tell your audience. This is the overall theme of the chart
development. The themes stated in this book, along with a brief outline of
what they are and some of the graphs that fall in this category, include:
Change Over Time
These charts show the changing trends of data set over both short time
frames like 24 hours and over longer periods of time like years. Charts that
show change over time include:

Line charts
Slope charts
Area charts
Connected Scatter plots
Gantt charts

Comparison
Such charts show the differences or similarities between multiple variables
in data sets or multiple categories within a single variable. Charts that show
comparison include:

Bar graphs
Diverging bars
Bubble charts
Waterfall charts
Sankey diagrams
Marimekko charts
Bullet charts
Dumbbell plots

Distribution
This theme of data visualization expresses the frequency of data to show
uniformity or a lack thereof. In other words, such charts highlight how data
is spread out. Charts in this group include:
 Histograms
Dot plots
Ridgeline plots
Box plots
Candlestick plots
Violin plots
Population pyramids
Strip plots
Beeswarm plots

Part-to-the-Whole
These charts highlight how a single entity compares to its elements’
distribution. The common function of these charts is to show how
something is divided up. Such charts include:

Pie charts
Treemaps
Sunburst charts
Nightingale Rose charts

Relationship
This group of charts aims to show the relationships or connections between
two or more data variables. Examples of such charts include:

Scatter plots
Radar charts
Chord diagrams
Network diagrams
Tree diagrams
Parallel coordinates plots

Geographical
These charts are used to highlight data sets when precise locations are
important to note. Such charts include:
 Choropleths
Proportional symbol maps
Flow maps

It is not enough to simply pick the right chart. You must also walk your
audience through a story that captivates and engages them. That story needs
to have a beginning, a middle and an end. Using the right visual elements
helps you do just that. The principles of design that make your chart
visually appealing include:

Making the design balanced

Emphasis of key insights
Showing clear movement
Creating smooth flow
Using patterns to highlight insights
Using proportion
Giving your audience variety to prevent boredom
Stating the theme of your design

The use of charts helps simplify complicated data to be easily understood.

However, this advantage can become a disadvantage as data can become
overly simplified, leading to an audience misunderstanding the message
being delivered. In such a case, using tables and pictograms instead of and
in conjunction with charts is an option. Tables allow audiences to:

Easily look up specific data points

Note the precise numbers that are applicable to the data
presentation
Note ranks
Compare data variables going in two directions

Tables are particularly useful when the audience is used to reading certain
types of information rather than seeing it in a visual format.

You have reached this book's end and are now equipped to use charts like a
pro. Enhancing your ability to communicate data will slingshot you far in
this day and age and lead you to success in your role and a pat on the back
from your superiors (Hopefully, that comes with a raise.) I hope I have
shined a light on an essential skill and I wish you luck on your journey of
telling better stories, communicating more insights, and driving better
business decisions.
 A P P E N D I X - T O O L S F O R D ATA
V I S U A L I Z AT I O N

I'm sure you've asked yourself, "How on earth do I create these charts?!”.
Considering that could be a topic for an entire book, We won't go through it
step by step this time. But I can assure you not to panic. There are many
programs to create stunning visualizations regardless of your expertise.
Let's go through some of them so you can start getting your feet wet.

Best options for beginners

Excel
Being the industry standard, I'm sure you've heard of Excel and its many
capabilities. Excel is an easy way to take a spreadsheet of data and
immediately turn it into a chart without any complex processes or code.
With many design possibilities, it is a great way to visualize data quickly
and effectively. Many of the data visualizations in this book are made
through Excel.
Pros: Easy to generate charts directly from your data.
Cons: It lacks advanced chart types and you must customize your visuals,
so they are up to speed. Auto-populated charts aren't the most stunning.
Flourish
Flourish is another great option for data visualizations. Where excel lacks,
flourish picks up the slack. More uncommon charts such as beeswarm plots
and network diagrams are made easy with Flourish as they come pre-built,
just waiting for your data. There is a free version as well as a paid version
that comes with different visualizations and features.
Pros: Lots of advanced charts that are easy to set up.
Cons: It can sometimes be difficult to populate charts if you arent data-
savvy. The data needs to be formatted correctly.
Datawrapper
Datawrapper is an online tool with one of the least barriers to entry. From
the homepage, you can simply click *Start Creating*, which will walk you
through the process to a finished data visualization. It also has pre-made
colorblindness palette options, which change the color accordingly. Go use
one of their sample data sets and try it out.
Pros: Creates professional-looking charts quickly and walks you through
the process.
Cons: It doesn't have as many detailed design features.

Infogram
Infogram offers interactive charts, infographics, maps, and many free
templates to tell compelling data stories. It supports data uploads from
google sheets, dropbox, MySQL and more. Infogram is known for its
interactive features to enhance your visualizations and allow for movement
such as zoom, bounce, fade, rotate, and slide objects into your work.
Infogram is often used by marketers, media companies, and whoever wants
their visualizations to stand out and be different.
Pro: Easy to create interactive and engaging visualizations
Con: You must upgrade to the paid version to remove the watermark if
embedding your visualizations.

Mid-level options
PowerBI
PowerBI is another great data visualization tool. It has the extra processing
power to work with larger sets of data. Their dashboards can also be more
customizable than Excel. It's essentially a more powerful Excel. It's used
prevalently in business intelligence.
Pro: Can connect with many different file data sources, including Excel and
CSV, as well as database sources like Oracle, SQL Server, IBM and much
more.
Con: Although capable, can sometimes have trouble processing large sets of
data

Tableau
Tableau is one of the most used programs in the business world. Tableau
excels at visualizing even the most extensive data sets without limitations
on the number of data points or rows.
Pros: Fast, with many extensive features for creating intricate
visualizations.
Cons: With the free version (Tableau Public) Your dashboards can be
viewed publicly, which can cause problems with confidential data.

Advanced Options
Python
Python is a programming language with many built-in libraries that make it
possible to visualize data. Libraries such as Matplitlib, Pandas visualization,
Seaborn, and Plotly make it possible to curate your data into a wide array of
dashboards and visuals. Although effective, it takes experience with Python
programming. Creating these visualizations requires you to write lines of
code for your desired output.
R
R is another statistical language used for the analysis and visualization of
data. It connects with various libraries that, with some coding, you can turn
your data into visual insights. It can be very effective and professional yet
has a higher barrier of entry.

As your career in data evolves, so will the software you use. Inevitably, if
you can effectively visualize data, it doesn't matter which program you use.
Find one you like or that fits your business needs. Whether you need access
to large databases or quick insights on the fly, there should be a tool for
you.
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