al KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA No.

1 CANTT
SHAHJAHANPUR

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

2020-21

NAME: - VISHAL SHARMA

CLASS: - XII A
ROLL No:-

SUBMITTED TO: - Mr. ARUN LAL

SIGNATUTRE: -
Certificate

This is to certify that Vishal Sharma of Class- XII, } \e}

Section- A has successfully completed the

Biology Investigatory project entitled.

“Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome - AIDS”

This report is the result of My endeavours

and research. It is finalized under The guidance
and supervision in the academic
Year 2020-2021 by Mr Arun Kumar Lal
Submitted for CBSE Examination
held in Biology Lab at
Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 1 Cantt Shahjahanpur.

Examiner's signature
Acknowledgement

In the accomplishment of this project successfully many

people have bestowed on me their blessings and their
[Immense support.

| would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to

my Teacher Mr Arun Kumar Lal as well as our principal Mr
Ratan Kumar who gave me the golden opportunity to do
this wonderful project on the topic “Acquired Immuno

Deficiency Syndrome - AIDS” Which also helped me

in doing a lot of research and I came to know about so
many new things.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and my

Friends who helped me a lot in finalizing this project
within the given time.

| would like to thank all the people who had helped me

directly or indirectly during the completion of this project.
NAME- VISHAL SHARMA

CLASS-XII A

Fe

UG

WORLD AIDS

1DAY«

1 DECEMBER
Content

AIDS

Causes of AIDS
Symptoms of HIV- AIDS
Diagnose of AIDS
Treatment of HIV- AIDS

Recent development in AIDS Treatment

HIV Prevention
Conclusion
Hypothesis

10 Bibliography

OC ONDAM PWN
AIDS:

Acquired Immuno
Deficiency

AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome) is a syndrome caused by a virus called
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). The illness alters the immune
system, making people much more vulnerable to infections and
diseases. This susceptibility worsens as the syndrome

progresses.

HIV is found in the body

fluids of an infected
person (semen and vaginal
fluids, blood and breast
milk). The virusispassed
from one person to another #
through blood to- blood
and sexual contact. In
addition, infected pregnant
women can pass HIV to their babies during pregnancy, delivering the
baby during childbirth, and through breast feeding.

HIV can be transmitted in many ways, such as vaginal, oral sex, anal
Sex,

blood transfusion, and contaminated hypodermic needles.

“The red ribbon is the worldwide symbol of support and

Awareness for people living with HIV.”
Both the virus and the syndrome are often referred to together as
HIV/AIDS. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. As a result,
some will then develop AIDS.
The development of numerous opportunistic infections in an AIDS patient
can ultimately lead to death.
According to research, the origins of HIV date back to the late nineteenth or
early twentieth century in west-central Africa. AIDS and its cause, HIV, were
first identified and recognized in the early 1980s.
There is currently no cure for HIV or AIDS. Treatments can slow the course
of the condition — some infected people can live a long and relatively
healthy life.

e HIV is the virus which attacks the T-cells in the immune system.

« AIDSis the syndrome which appears in advanced stages of HIV

infection.

® HIV isa virus.

e AIDS is a medical condition

HIV infection causes AIDS to develop. However, it is possible to be infected
with HIV without developing AIDS. Without treatment, the HIV infection is
allowed to progress and eventually it will develop into AIDS in the vast
majority of cases.
HIV testing can identify infection in the early stages. This allows the patient
to use prophylactic (preventive) drugs which will slow the rate at which the
virus replicates, delaying the onset of AIDS.
AIDS patients still have the HIV virus and are still infectious. Someone with
AIDS can pass HIV to someone else.

Causes of HIV/AIDS

HIV is a retrovirus that infects the vital organs of the human immune
system. The virus progresses in the absence of antiretroviral therapy. The
rate of virus progression varies widely between individuals and depends on
many factors (age of the patient, body's ability to defend against HIV,
access to health care, existence of coexisting infections, the infected
person's genetic inheritance, resistance to certain strains of HIV).
* HIV can be transmitted through:

« Sexual transmission. It can happen when there is contact with

infected sexual secretions (rectal, genital or oral mucous membranes).
This can happen while having unprotected sex, including vaginal, oral
and anal sex or sharing sex toys with someone infected with HIV.

* Prenatal transmission. The mother can pass the infection on to her

child during childbirth, pregnancy, and also through breastfeeding.

* Blood transmission. The risk of transmitting HIV through blood

transfusion is nowadays extremely low in developed countries, thanks
to meticulous screening and precautions. Among drug users, sharing
and reusing syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood is
extremely hazardous.

How HIV/AIDS transmitted?

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Symptoms of HIV and AIDS

What is the difference between a sign and a symptom?

Asign is something other people, apart from the patient can detect, such as
a swelling, rash, or change in skin colour. Asymptom is something only the
patient feels and describes, such as a headache, fatigue, or dizziness. For
the most part, the symptoms of HIV are the result of infections caused by
bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. These conditions do not normally
develop in individuals with healthy immune systems, which protect the
body against infection.
G46
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Symptoms of early HIV infection

‘Many people with HIV have no symptoms for several years. Others may
develop symptoms similar to flu, usually two to six weeks after catching
the virus. The symptoms can last up to four weeks.
* Symptoms of early HIV infection may include:
0 fever Symptoms Of HIV Infection
o chills
© joint pain
o muscle ache
© sore throat
o sweats (particularly at night)
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enlarged glands
a red rash
tiredness
weakness
weight loss

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Asymptomatic HIV infection

In many cases, after the initial symptoms disappear, there will not be
any further symptoms for many years. During this time, the virus carries
on developing and damages the immune system. This process can take
up to 10 years. The infected person will experience no symptoms, feel
well and appear healthy.
Late-stage HIV infection

If left untreated, HIV weakens the ability to fight infection. The person
becomes vulnerable to serious illnesses. This stage of infection is known as
AIDS.

* Symptoms of late-stage HIV infection may include:

1. blurred vision
2. diarrhoea, which is usually persistent or chronic
. dry cough
. fever of above 37C (100F) lasting for weeks
. night sweats
. permanent tiredness
. shortness of breath
. swollen glands lasting for weeks
. weight loss
10. white spots on the tongue or mouth

During late-stage HIV infection, the risk of developing a life-threatening

illness is much greater. Examples include:

1. esophagitis (an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the

oesophagus)

2. infections to the nervous system (acute aseptic meningitis, sub acute

encephalitis, peripheral neuropathy

3. pneumonia

Some cancers, such as Kaposi's sarcoma, invasive cervical cancer, lung

cancer, rectal carcinomas, hepatocellular carcinomas, head and neck
cancers, cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas

1. Toxoplasmosis (a disease caused by a parasite that infects the

brain. It can also cause disease in the eyes and lungs)

2. tuberculosis

3. Life-threatening illnesses may be controlled and treated with

proper HIV treatment.

Diagnosis of HIV/AIDS

won min & w

A 2011 report issued by the CDC (Centres for Disease Control and
Prevention), USA, found that about 1 in every 5 HIV-positive Americans is
unaware of their HIV-status, and only 49% of those who are aware receive
ongoing medical care and treatment.
Blood test

Diagnosis is made through a blood test that screens specifically for the
virus. \ . a

If the HIV virus has been found, the test

result is "positive". The blood is retested
several times before a positive result is
given to the patient.

For those whose tests came back

positive, they will be asked to undergo
some other tests to see how the infection
has progressed, and also to decide when to start treatment.

If a person has been exposed to the virus, it is crucial that they get tested
as soon as possible. The earlier HIV is detected, the more likely the
treatment will be successful. Also, precautions can be taken to prevent the
virus from spreading to other people.

ELISA Test?

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, also called ELISA or EIA, is a test

that detects and measures antibodies in your blood. This test can be used
to determine if you have antibodies related to certain infectious
conditions. Antibodies are proteins that your body produces in response to
harmful substances called antigens. An ELISA test may be used to
diagnose:

o HIV, which causes AIDS

o Lyme disease

o pernicious anaemia

o Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF)

o Rotavirus

© squamous cell carcinoma

© syphilis

o toxoplasmosis
Varicella-zoster virus, which causes chicken pox and shingles
ELISA is often used as a screening tool before more in-depth tests are
ordered. A doctor may suggest this test if you're having signs or symptoms
of the conditions above or your doctor wants to rule out any of these
conditions.

.. substrate (4)

enzyme labelled (3)

detection antibody —~

capture antibody (7)

How the Test Is Performed

The ELISA test is simple and straightforward. You'll probably need to sign a
consent form, and your doctor should explain the reason for doing the test.
The ELISA test involves taking a sample of your blood. First, a healthcare
provider will cleanse your arm with an antiseptic. Then, a tourniquet, or
band, will be applied around your arm to create pressure and cause your
veins to swell with blood. Next, a needle will be placed in one of your veins
to draw a small sample of blood. When enough blood has been collected,
the needle will be removed and a small bandage will be placed on your arm
where the needle was. You'll be asked to elevate your arm and pce
pressure on it with gauze to reduce blood flow.

This procedure should be relatively painless, 508

but your arm may throb a little after the 4
procedure F # > =
The blood sample will be sent to a laboratory @ |
for analysis. In the lab, a technician adds the 5

sample to a Petri dish containing the specific d oe 3

antigen related to the condition for which

you are being tested. If your blood contains Ey =

antibodies to the antigen, the two will bind @ |

together. The technician will check this by i ~ |

adding an enzyme to the Petri dish and i} ofS =
observing how your blood and the antigen

react. You may have the condition if the a i : >:

contents of the dish change colour. How

much change the enzyme causes allows the
technician to. Determine the presence and
amount of antibody.

Ultra-sensitive HIV sensor ~

>
z

Capture

Scientists from Imperial College London reported in Nature

Nanotechnology (October 2012 issue) that they have developed an
extremely sensitive sensor that detects viral infections, including HIV. They
say the sensor is ten times more sensitive at detecting an HIV biomarker
that anything else on the market today; it is also extremely cheap. The
doctor can see the results by looking at the colour change in a liquid
solution.
Recent developments on HIV

Genetic changes identified that make HIV elusive to drugs

Scientists have identified two locations where slight differences in genetic
code can change the way human immunodeficiency virus infects cells —a
change associated with worsening symptoms and resistance to
antiretroviral drugs.

Scripps team lays ‘spectacular’ foundations for HIV vaccine

"A leap forward" has been made to develop a vaccine against HIV, claim
the authors of two new studies that are published concurrently in the
journals Cell and Science.

Latent HIV cells only 'wake up' once a week after antiretroviral

therapy, study finds

A new study published in PLOS Pathogens provides new insight into how
often HIV cells "Wake up" among individuals undergoing antiretroviral
therapy for the virus, bringing researchers one step closer to getting
patients off the treatment for good and into remission.

Vaginal ring reduces risk of HIV by up to 61%

A vaginal ring can safely provide some protection against HIV infection by
continuously releasing an experimental antiretroviral drug, say findings
published in the New England Journal of Medicine.

Treatments for HIV/AIDS

Earlier HIV antiretroviral treatment is crucial - it improves quality of

life, extends life expectancy and reduces the risk of transmission, according
to the World Health Organization's guidelines issued in June 2013. When
an HIV-positive adult's CD4 cell count is 500 cells/mm3 or lower they
should start treatment immediately.

According to Margaret Chan, WHO Director-General "These guidelines

represent another leap ahead in a trend of ever-higher goals and ever
preater achievements. With nearly 10 million people now on antiretroviral
therapy, we see that such prospects - unthinkable just a few years ago —
can now fuel the momentum needed to push the HIV epidemic into
irreversible decline."
Currently, there is no vaccine or cure for HIV/AIDS. But treatments have
evolved which are much more efficacious - they can improve patients’
general health and quality of life considerably.

Emergency HIV pills _

If an individual believes they have been exposed to the virus within the last
72 hours (three days), anti-HIV medication, called PEP (post-exposure
prophylaxis) may stop infection. The treatment should be taken as soon as
possible after contact with the virus.

PEP is a very demanding treatment lasting four weeks. It is also associated

with unpleasant side effects (diarrhoea, malaise, nausea, weakness and
fatigue).

After a positive HIV diagnosis,

regular blood tests are necessary
to monitor the progress of the
virus before starting treatment.
The therapy is designed to reduce
the level of HIV in the blood.

Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

Antiretroviral drugs

HIV is treated with antiretroviral (ARVs). The treatment fights the HIV
infection and slows down the spread of the virus in the body. Generally,
patients take a combination of medications called HAART (highly active
antiretroviral therapy).

The combination of drugs is adapted to each individual. HIV treatment is

usually permanent and lifelong. HIV treatment is based on routine dosage.
Pills must be taken on a regular schedule, every time. Common side effects
include nausea, fatigue, diarrhea, skin rashes, moodiness, alterations to
the adipose (fat) tissue, birth defects.

Antifungal cream Ciclopirox may help eradicate HIV - researchers at

the Rutgers New Jersey Medical School reported in the journal PLoS ONE
that Ciclopirox, a widely used antifungal cream, as well as Deferiprone, a
medication used to remove excess iron from the body, eradicate HIV in
cultured cells. They added that when treatment stops, the virus does not
return.
Complementary or alternative medicine _

Although widely used, alternative/complementary medications, such has

herbal ones, have not been proven to be effective or ineffective. According
to some limited studies, mineral or vitamin supplements may provide some
benefits. Patients are urged to discuss these options with their doctors.
New clue towards an AIDS vaccine

The outer shell of HIV has a vulnerable spot, which enabled two HIV-
positive people to make antibodies powerful enough to kill off the majority
of HIV types known globally. '""
A glycan, a form of sugar,
in a specific part on the
protein coat that covers
HIV (location known as
"position 332")is a
vulnerable spot that
allows the body to mount
an effective attack using
broadly neutralizing antibodies. The scientists, from the University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, said their discovery offers new
clues about stimulating the body to produce "broadly neutralizing
antibodies". They believe these antibodies are key for making an AIDS
vaccine, because they destroy most of the HIV types around the world.
They published their findings in Nature Medicine (21 October, 2012 issue).
April 2013 - A step closer to an HIV vaccine

Ateam led by scientists from the Duke Human Vaccine Institute, and the
NIH accine Research Center say they have charted a new route that may
help develop a vaccine which boosts an individual's ability to destroy HIV.
They published their findings in the journal Nature (April 2013 issue).
Barton F. Haynes, M.D., John Mascola, M.D. and team studied an HIV
infected patient whose immune system attacked the virus, allowing

them to describe the co-evolution of the antibodies.

HIV has proven especially difficult in inducing an antibody response,

making it very hard to develop a vaccine. As soon as HIV antibodies

are produced, the virus changes rapidly to avoid them.

The team used a new form of technology that can detect infection early on
and track the body's immune system.
Recent developments in HIV treatment

New drugs reawaken latent HIV to eradicate virus

A new study suggests a class of drugs already being tested in clinical trials
for the treatment of cancer may also hold the key to complete eradication

of HIV. STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN

IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV)

Alcoholism drug could help cure HIV, study finds

A drug used to treat alcoholism - called disulfiram - could bring us closer ta

a cure for HIV, according to the results of a new study led by researchers
from the University of Melbourne in Australia.

HIV vaccine possibility following study of ‘antibodies with loops’

A new study suggests it may be possible to induce a rapid anti-HIV immune

response in unexposed people by developing a vaccine that triggers
antibodies containing loop-like structures.

HIV antibody therapy looks promising

A new study of the effects of a new antibody treatment suggests it may

offer a long-term solution for the control of HIV.
HIV Prevention

To prevent being infected with HIV, healthcare professionals advice

precautions related to:

Unprotected Sex

Having sex without a condom can put a person at risk of being infected with
HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). HIV can be spread by
having unprotected sex (vaginal, oral and anal sex). It can also be caught
from sharing sex toys with someone infected with HIV.

Drug Abuse and Needle Sharing

Intravenous drug use is an important factor in HIV transmission in

developed countries. Sharing needles can expose users to HIV and other
viruses, such as hepatitis C. Strategies such as needle-exchange program
are used to reduce the infections caused by drug abuse s

AIDS ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME

Body Fluid Exposure

Exposure to HIV can be controlled by employing precautions to reduce the

risk of exposure to contaminated blood. At all times, health care workers
should use barriers (gloves, masks, protective eyewear, shields, and
gowns). Frequent and thorough washing of the skin immediately after
being contaminated with blood or other bodily fluids can reduce the chance
of infection.

Pregnancy

Anti-HIV medicines can harm the unborn child. But an effective treatment
plan can prevent HIV transmission from mother to baby. Precautions have
to be taken to protect the baby’s health. Delivery through caesarean
section may be necessary. Breastfeeding may have to give way to bottle-
feeding if the mother is infected.
A study by scientists from Columbia University, New York, found that
breastfeeding for 6+ months with antiretroviral therapy could help reduce
mother-to-child HIV transmission as well as improve chances of infant's
survival

Education
Health education is an important factor in reducing risky behaviour

Managing HIV

Adherence. HIV treatment is effective if the patient is committed and

constant in taking the medication on time. Missing even a few doses will
jeopardize the treatment. A daily methodical routine has to be
programmed to fit the treatment plan around the patient's lifestyle and
schedule. "Adherence" is sometimes known as "compliance".

General Health. It is crucial for patients to take medication correctly and

take steps to avoid illness. Patients should seek to improve their general
health and reduce the risk of falling ill by practicing regular exercise,
healthy eating, and not smoking.

Additional precautions. HIV-infected people should be extra cautious to

prevent exposure to infection. They should be careful around animals,
avoid coming into contact with cat litter, animal feces. Meticulous and
regular washing of hands is recommended.

Long-term condition. HIV is a lasting condition, and therefore patients have

to be in regular contact with their healthcare team. Treatment plan is
reviewed regularly.

Psychological. Common misconceptions about AIDS/ HIV are diminishing.

However, the stigma of the condition persists in many parts of the world.
People infected with the virus may feel excluded, rejected, discriminated
and isolated. Being diagnosed with HIV can be very distressing, and feelings
of anxiety or depression are common. If you feel anxious or have symptoms
of depression, seek medical help immediately.
CONCLUSION

After studying the cause and effects of ‘AIDS’ from different views, we
conclude that it is a pandemic disease. It is mainly spreading sexually and
person of the age group of 25-45 years are the most affected group. There
are some methods like ‘Antiviral Therapy’ and Immuno Simulative therapy
which bring some hope that even then no specific treatment has been
found so for and morality form is virtually 100%. So only prevention in the
test medicine care.

HYPOTHESIS

AIDS is non curable due to its nature of pathogen. It also damage immune
system of the body. Therefore any medicine (Antiviral) drugs are not
effective against HIV virus. Ignorance and lack of knowledge about this
disease is the root cause of wide spread of this disease Malaria is one of
the major diseases which is caused by Protozoan. Protozoan causes many
diseases in human beings. Malaria has been for thousands of years a very
serious disease of the tropical and temperate regions. Prevalence of
malaria continues to be one of the major health problems of developing
countries. It was almost eliminated a few years back with the efforts of
WHO and our National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), but
unfortunately it has appeared again. Plasmodium is a genus of Protozoa
belonging to subphylum Sporozoa, class Telosporidea, includes causative
agent of malaria in man and lower animals. Members of the genus
plasmodium are collectively known as Malaria parasite, because they cause
a horrible disease called malaria.
Parts of this project have been referred from foreign sources
and have been included in this project after editing.

The reference of sources is as follows:-

Books:-
a) Biology NCERT Book class 12th
b) National Geographic Magazine

Internet Sources: -

a) www.google.com
b) www.wekipedia.com

c) www. biflora.com aa
d) www.nationalgeographic.com

e) www.vectorstocks.com a
f) www.encyclopedial.com lh Zt
gf) www.icbse.com f

www.who.org ! 4 is