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CIE IGCSE Computer Science Your notes

8.1 Programming Concepts

Contents
Data Types
Variables & Constants
Input & Output
Sequence
Selection
Iteration
Totalling & Counting
String Handling
Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators
Nested Statements
Procedures & Functions
Local & Global Variables
Library Routines
Maintaining Programs

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Data Types
Your notes
Data Types
A data type is a classification of data into groups according to the kind of data they represent
Computers use different data types to represent different types of data in a program
The basic data types include:
Integer: used to represent whole numbers, either positive or negative
Examples: 10, -5, 0
Real: used to represent numbers with a fractional part, either positive or negative
Examples: 3.14, -2.5, 0.0
Char: used to represent a single character such as a letter, digit or symbol
Examples: 'a', 'B', '5', '$'
String: used to represent a sequence of characters
Examples: "Hello World", "1234", "@#$%
Boolean: used to represent true or false values
Examples: True, False
We can declare variables as follows:

Python Java Visual Basic

Syntax variable_name = value data_type variable_name; Dim variable_name As data_type

Example x=5 int x Dim x As Integer

It is important to choose the correct data type for a given situation to ensure accuracy and efficiency in the
program.

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Worked example
Your notes
Name and describe the most appropriate programming data type for each of the examples of data
given. Each data type must be different
[6]
Data: 83
Data type name: Integer [1]
Data type description: The number is a whole number [1]

Data: [email protected]
Data type name: String [1]
Data type description: It is a group of characters [1]

Data: True
Data type name: Boolean [1]
Data type description: The value is True (or could be False) [1]

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Variables & Constants

Your notes
Variables & Constants
Variables and constants are used to store a single item of data in a program. This can be accessed through
the identifier. Variables can be changed during program execution while constants remain the same.

Declaring Variables and Constants

Variables are declared using a data type, a name and a value (optional)
Constants are declared using the 'const' keyword, a name and a value
In all programming languages, variable names should follow certain rules, such as:
Starting with a letter
Not containing spaces
Can contain letters, numbers, _ or $
Not using reserved words (like if, while, for etc.)
Examples of data types include integer, float, boolean, and string

Examples in Pseudocode:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
score ← 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

const PI ← 3.14

Examples in Python:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
score = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

PI = 3.14

Examples in Java:
Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
int score = 10;

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

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final double PI = 3.14;

Examples in Visual Basic: Your notes

Declare a variable called 'score' with a value of 10
Dim score As Integer = 10

Declare a constant called 'PI' with a value of 3.14

Const PI As Double = 3.14

Exam Tip
Exam questions will ask you to write pseudocode statements, rather than in a specific language

Worked example
The variables 'name' and 'age' are used to store data in a program:
name stores the user’s name
age stores the user’s age
Write pseudocode statements to declare the variables name and age.
[2]
DECLARE name : STRING [1]
DECLARE age : INTEGER [1]

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Input & Output

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Output
Output refers to the process of displaying or saving the results of a program to the user.

Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Hello, ", name

Python example:
print("Hello, ", name)

Java example:
System.out.println("Hello, " + name);

Visual Basic example:

Console.WriteLine( "Hello, " & name)

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Input
Input refers to the process of providing data or information to a program. Your notes
'User Input' is data or information entered by the user during program execution.

Pseudocode example:
OUTPUT "Enter your name"

INPUT name

Python example:
name = input("Enter your name: ")

Java example:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter your name: ");

String name = input.nextLine();

Visual Basic example:

Console.WriteLine("Enter your name")

name = Console.Readline()

Exam Tip
Remember to prompt the user for input clearly, and format the output to make it readable and
understandable.

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Sequence
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Sequence
What is Sequence?
Sequence is a concept that involves executing instructions in a particular order
It is used in programming languages to perform tasks in a step-by-step manner
Sequence is a fundamental concept in computer science and is used in many programming languages

Pseudocode example:
PRINT "Hello, World!"

x←5

y←10

z← x + y

PRINT z

Python example:
print("Hello, World!")

x=5

y = 10

z=x+y

print(z)

Java example:
System.out.println("Hello, World!");

int x = 5;

int y = 10;

int z = x + y;

System.out.println(z);

Visual Basic example:

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Console.WriteLine("Hello, World!")

Dim x As Integer = 5 Your notes

Dim y As Integer = 10

Dim z As Integer = x + y

Console.WriteLine(z)

Exam Tip
Always remember to write your instructions in the order in which you want them to be executed

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Selection
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Selection
What is selection?
Selection is a programming concept that allows you to execute different sets of instructions based on
certain conditions. There are two main types of selection statements: IF statements and CASE statements.

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If Statements
IF statements allow you to execute a set of instructions if a condition is true. They have the following syntax: Your notes
IF condition
THEN
instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:
x← 5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

Java example:
int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

System.out.println("x is positive");

Visual Basic example:

Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is positive")

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End If

Your notes
IF ELSE Statements
If else statements are used to execute one set of statements if a condition is true and a different set of
statements if the condition is false. They have the following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:
x←5

IF x > 0

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ELSE

PRINT “x is negative”

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

else:

print("x is negative")

Java example:

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int x = 5;

if (x > 0) { Your notes

System.out.println("x is positive");

} else {

System.out.println("x is negative");

Visual Basic example:

Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is positive")

Else

Console.WriteLine("x is negative")

End If

IF ELSE IF Statements
If else if statements are used to test multiple conditions and execute different statements for each
condition. They have the following syntax:
IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE IF condition
THEN
Instructions
ELSE
Instructions
ENDIF
Pseudocode example:

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x← 5

IF x > 0 Your notes

THEN

PRINT "x is positive"

ELSE IF x < 0

THEN

PRINT “x is negative”

ELSE

PRINT “x is 0”

ENDIF

Python example:
x=5

if x > 0:

print("x is positive")

elif x < 0:

print("x is negative")

else:

print("x is 0")

Java example:
int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

System.out.println("x is positive");

} else if (x < 0) {

System.out.println("x is negative");

} else {

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System.out.println("x is 0");

} Your notes
Visual Basic example:
Dim x As Integer = 5

If x > 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is positive")

ElseIf x < 0 Then

Console.WriteLine("x is negative")

Else

Console.WriteLine("x is 0")

End If

Worked example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 3 numbers
Outputs the largest of the three numbers
[3]

INPUT a, b, c
IF a > b AND a > c THEN PRINT a [1]
ELSE IF b > c THEN PRINT b [1]
ELSE PRINT c [1]

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Case Statements
CASE statements allow you to execute different sets of instructions based on the value of a variable. They Your notes
have the following syntax:
CASE OF variable
value1: instructions
value2: instructions
...
OTHERWISE instructions
END CASE
Pseudocode example:
CASE OF number

1: PRINT "Monday"

2: PRINT "Tuesday"

3: PRINT “Wednesday”

4: PRINT “Thursday”

5: PRINT “Friday”

6: PRINT “Saturday”

7: PRINT “Sunday”

OTHERWISE PRINT "Invalid number"

END CASE

Python example:
match (number)

case 1:

print "Monday";

case 2:

print "Tuesday";

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case 3:

print "Wednesday"; Your notes

case 4:

print "Thursday";

case 5:

print "Friday";

case 6:

print "Saturday";

case 7:

print "Sunday";

case _:

print "Invalid number";

Java example:
switch (number) {

case 1:

return "Monday";

case 2:

return "Tuesday";

case 3:

return "Wednesday";

case 4:

return "Thursday";

case 5:

return "Friday";

case 6:

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return "Saturday";

case 7: Your notes

return "Sunday";

default:

return "Invalid number";

Visual Basic example:

Select Case number

Case 1

Return "Monday"

Case 2

Return "Tuesday"

Case 3

Return "Wednesday"

Case 4

Return "Thursday"

Case 5

Return "Friday"

Case 6

Return "Saturday"

Case 7

Return "Sunday"

Case Else

Return "Invalid number"

End Select

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure to include all necessary components in the selection statement: the condition, the
statement(s) to execute when the condition is true, and any optional statements to execute when
the condition is false
Use proper indentation to make the code easier to read and understand
Be careful with the syntax of the programming language being used, as it may differ slightly
between languages
Make sure to test the selection statement with various input values to ensure that it works as
expected

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Iteration
Your notes
Iteration
What is iteration?
Iteration is the process of repeating a set of instructions until a specific condition is met. It is an important
programming concept and is used to automate repetitive tasks.
There are three main types of iteration:
Count-controlled loops
Precondition loops
Postcondition loops

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Count-controlled Loops
A count-controlled loop is used when the number of iterations is known beforehand Your notes
It is also known as a definite loop
It uses a counter variable that is incremented or decremented after each iteration
The loop continues until the counter reaches a specific value
Example in Pseudocode:
count ← 1

FOR i <= 10

OUTPUT count

NEXT i
Example in Python:
for count in range(1, 11):

print(count)

Example in Java:
for(int count=1; count<=10; count++){

System.out.println(count);

Example in Visual Basic:

For count = 1 To 10

Console.WriteLine(count)

Next count

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Pre-condition Loops
A precondition loop is used when the number of iterations is not known beforehand and is dependent Your notes
on a condition being true
It is also known as an indefinite loop
The loop will continue to execute while the condition is true and will stop once the condition becomes
false
Example in Pseudocode:
INPUT temperature

WHILE temperature > 37 DO

OUTPUT "Patient has a fever"

INPUT temperature

END WHILE

Example in Python:
temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

while temperature > 37:

print("Patient has a fever")

temperature = float(input("Enter temperature: "))

Example in Java:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

float temperature = input.nextFloat();

while (temperature > 37) {

System.out.println("Patient has a fever");

temperature = input.nextFloat();

Example in Visual Basic:

temperature = InputBox("Enter temperature")

Do While temperature > 37

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Console.WriteLine( "Patient has a fever")

Console.WriteLine("Enter temperature") Your notes

temperature=Console.ReadLine()

Loop

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Postcondition Loops
A post-condition loop is used when the loop must execute at least once, even if the condition is false Your notes
from the start
The condition is checked at the end of the loop

Example in Pseudocode:
REPEAT

INPUT guess

UNTIL guess = 42

Example in Python:
Postcondition loops don’t exist in Python and would need to be restructured to a precondition loop

Example in Java:
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

int guess = 0;

do {

System.out.print("Enter guess: ");

guess = input.nextInt();

} while (guess != 42);

Example in Visual Basic:

Do

Console.WriteLine("Enter guess")

guess = Console.ReadLine()

Loop Until guess = 42

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Totalling & Counting

Your notes
Totalling
Totalling involves adding up values, often in a loop
A total variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:
Pseudocode example:
total ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num

total ← total + num

next i

output total

Python example:
total = 0

for i in range(1, 11):

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

total += num

print("Total:", total)

Java example:
int total = 0;

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

System.out.print("Enter a number: ");

int num = scanner.nextInt();

total += num;

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System.out.println("Total: " + total);

Visual Basic example: Your notes

Dim total As Integer = 0

For i As Integer = 1 To 10

Console.Write("Enter a number: ")

Dim num As Integer = Integer.Parse(Console.ReadLine())

total += num

Next i

Console.WriteLine("Total: " & total)

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Counting
Counting involves keeping track of the number of times a particular event occurs Your notes
A count variable can be initialised to 0 and then updated within a loop, such as:
Pseudocode example:
count ← 0

for i ← 1 to 10

input num

if num > 5 then

ount ← count + 1

end if

next i

output count

Python example:
count = 0

for i in range(1, 11):

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if num > 5:

count += 1

print("Count:", count)

Java example:
int count = 0;

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

System.out.print("Enter a number: ");

int num = scanner.nextInt();

if (num > 5) {

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count++;

} Your notes
}

System.out.println("Count: " + count);

Visual Basic example:

Dim count As Integer = 0

For i As Integer = 1 To 10

Console.Write("Enter a number: ")

Dim num As Integer = Integer.Parse(Console.ReadLine())

If num > 5 Then

count += 1

End If

Next i

Console.WriteLine("Count: " & count)

Worked example
Write an algorithm using pseudocode that:
Inputs 20 numbers
Outputs how many of these numbers are greater than 50
[3]

FOR x ← 1 TO 20 [1]

INPUT Number

IF Number > 50 THEN Total ← Total + 1 [1]

NEXT x

PRINT total [1]

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String Handling
Your notes
String Handling
Strings are a sequence of characters, such as letters, numbers, and symbols
They are used to represent text in a computer program
String handling refers to the various operations that can be performed on strings
Length
The length of a string is the number of characters it contains
In Python, the len() function is used to find the length of a string
In Java, the length() method is used to find the length of a string
In Visual Basic, the Len() function is used to find the length of a string
Substring
A substring is a portion of a string
In Python, the substring can be obtained using the slicing operator [:]
In Java, the substring() method is used to obtain a substring
In Visual Basic, the Mid() function is used to obtain a substring
Upper
The upper() method converts all characters of a string to uppercase
In Python, the upper() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
In Java, the toUpperCase() method is used to convert a string to uppercase
In Visual Basic, the UCase() function is used to convert a string to uppercase
Lower
The lower() method converts all characters of a string to lowercase
In Python, the lower() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
In Java, the toLowerCase() method is used to convert a string to lowercase
In Visual Basic, the LCase() function is used to convert a string to lowercase
Pseudocode example:
string phrase ← "Save my exams"

length ← LENGTH(phrase)

substring ← SUBSTRING(phrase, 5, 2)

upper ← TO_UPPER(phrase)

lower ← TO_LOWER(phrase)

Python example:

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phrase = "Save my exams"

length = len(phrase) Your notes

substring = phrase[4:6]

upper = phrase.upper()

lower = phrase.lower()

Java example:
String phrase = "Save my exams";

int length = phrase.length();

String substring = phrase.substring(4, 6);

String upper = phrase.toUpperCase();

String lower = phrase.toLowerCase();

Visual basic example:

Dim phrase As String = "Save my exams"

Dim length As Integer = phrase.Length

Dim substring As String = phrase.Substring(4, 2)

Dim upper As String = phrase.ToUpper()

Dim lower As String = phrase.ToLower()

Position of First Character

The first character of a string can be at position zero or one, depending on the programming language
In Python and Java, the first character of a string is at position zero
In Visual Basic, the first character of a string is at position one

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Worked example
Your notes
The function Length(x) finds the length of a string x. The function substring(x,y,z) finds a substring of x
starting at position y and z characters long. The first character in x is in position 1.
Write pseudocode statements to:
Store the string “Save my exams” in x
Find the length of the string and output it
Extract the word exams from the string and output it
[6]

X ← "Save my exams" [1] for storing string in X.

[1] for calling the function length.
OUTPUT Length(X) [1] for using the correct
parameter X.
Y ←9

Z ←5

[1] for using the substring

function. [1] for correct
parameters.
OUTPUT SubString(X,Y,Z)
[1] for outputting length and
substring return values.

Exam Tip
Remember that the length of a string is not the same as the index of the last character in the string
Be careful when counting positions in a string, as the first character can be at position zero or one
depending on the programming language

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Arithmetic, Logical & Boolean Operators

Your notes
Arithmetic Operators
Addition (+): Adds two values together
Subtraction (-): Subtracts one value from another
Division (/): Divides one value by another
Multiplication (*): Multiplies two values together
Exponentiation (^): Raises a number to a power
Modulo (MOD): Returns the remainder of a division operation
Integer Division (DIV): Returns the whole number of a division operation
Pseudocode example:
a←5

b←3

c←a+b

d←a-b

e←a*b

f←a/b

g ← a MOD b

h←a^b

i ← a DIV b

Python example:
a=5

b=3

c=a+b

d=a-b

e=a*b

f=a/b

g=a%b

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h = a ** b

i = a // b Your notes
Java example:
int a = 5;

int b = 3;

int c = a + b;

int d = a - b;

int e = a * b;

double f = (double) a / b;

int g = a % b;

double h = Math.pow(a, b);

int i = a / b;

Visual Basic example:

Dim a As Integer = 5

Dim b As Integer = 3

Dim c As Integer = a + b

Dim d As Integer = a - b

Dim e As Integer = a * b

Dim f As Double = a / b

Dim g As Integer = a Mod b

Dim h As Double = Math.Pow(a, b)

Dim i As Integer = a \ b

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Logical Operators
Equal to (=): Returns true if two values are equal Your notes
Less than (<): Returns true if the first value is less than the second value
Less than or equal to (<=): Returns true if the first value is less than or equal to the second value
Greater than (>): Returns true if the first value is greater than the second value
Greater than or equal to (>=): Returns true if the first value is greater than or equal to the second value
Not equal to (<>): Returns true if two values are not equal
Pseudocode example:
a←5

b←3

c ← (a = b)

d ← (a < b)

e ← (a <= b)

f ← (a > b)

g ← (a >= b)

h ← (a <> b)

Python example:
a=5

b=3

c = (a == b)

d = (a < b)

e = (a <= b)

f = (a > b)

g = (a >= b)

h = (a != b)

Java example:
int a = 5;

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int b = 3;

boolean c = (a == b); Your notes

boolean d = (a < b);

boolean e = (a <= b);

boolean f = (a > b);

boolean g = (a >= b);

boolean h = (a != b);

Visual Basic example:

Dim a As Integer = 5

Dim b As Integer = 3

Dim c As Boolean = (a = b)

Dim d As Boolean = (a < b)

Dim e As Boolean = (a <= b)

Dim f As Boolean = (a > b)

Dim g As Boolean = (a >= b)

Dim h As Boolean = (a <> b)

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Boolean Operators
Boolean operators are logical operators that can be used to compare two or more values and return a Your notes
Boolean value (True or False) based on the comparison. There are 3 you need to know:
AND: Returns True if both conditions are True
OR: Returns True if one or both conditions are True
NOT: Returns the opposite of the condition (True if False, False if True)
Boolean Operators in Pseudocode:
IF (condition1 AND condition2) THEN

// code to execute if both conditions are True

END IF

IF (condition1 OR condition2) THEN

// code to execute if one or both conditions are True

END IF

IF NOT(condition) THEN

// code to execute if the condition is False

END IF

Boolean Operators in Python:

if condition1 and condition2:

# code to execute if both conditions are True

if condition1 or condition2:

# code to execute if one or both conditions are True

if not condition:

# code to execute if the condition is False

Boolean Operators in Java:

if (condition1 && condition2) {

// code to execute if both conditions are True

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if (condition1 || condition2) {

// code to execute if one or both conditions are True Your notes

}

if (!condition) {

// code to execute if the condition is False

Boolean Operators in Visual Basic:

If condition1 And condition2 Then

' code to execute if both conditions are True

End If

If condition1 Or condition2 Then

' code to execute if one or both conditions are True

End If

If Not condition Then

' code to execute if the condition is False

End If

Exam Tip
Boolean operators are often used in conditional statements such as if, while, and for loops
Boolean operators can be combined with comparison operators such as == (equal to), != (not
equal to), < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal to), and >= (greater than or equal to)
Be careful when using the NOT operator, as it can sometimes lead to unexpected results. It is
always a good idea to test your code with different inputs to ensure that it works as expected

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Nested Statements
Your notes
Nested Statements
Nested statements involve including one statement within another statement. This can be done with
both selection (if/else) and iteration (for/while) statements
In programming languages like Python, Java, and Visual Basic, nested statements are often indicated
by indenting the inner statement(s) relative to the outer statement(s)

Exam Tip
You will not be required to write more than three levels of nested statements

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Nested Selection
Nested selection is an if statement inside an if statement Your notes
If the first if statement is true, it will run the if statement which is nested inside
Otherwise, it will skip to the "else if" or "else" which is part of that if statement
Pseudocode example:
if a > b then

if b > c then

output “a is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

else

if a > c then

output “b is the largest”

else

output “c is the largest”

Python example:
if a > b:

if b > c:

print("a is the largest")

else:

print("c is the largest")

else:

if a > c:

print("b is the largest")

else:

print("c is the largest")

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Java example:
if (a > b) {
Your notes
if (b > c) {

System.out.println("a is the largest");

} else {

System.out.println("c is the largest");

} else {

if (a > c) {

System.out.println("b is the largest");

} else {

System.out.println("c is the largest");

Visual Basic example:

If a > b Then

If b > c Then

Console.WriteLine("a is the largest")

Else

Console.WriteLine("c is the largest")

End If

Else

If a > c Then

Console.WriteLine("b is the largest")

Else

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Console.WriteLine("c is the largest")

End If Your notes

End If

Exam Tip
Indentation is key so make sure it's clear in your answer which if statement line is part of which. It's
more clear when you use end if in the appropriate places, too.

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Nested Iteration
Nested iteration refers to a loop inside another loop. Your notes
Pseudocode example:
FOR i ← 1 TO 10

FOR j ← 1 TO 5

OUTPUT "i = ", i, " j = ", j

END FOR

END FOR

Python example:
for i in range(1, 11):

for j in range(1, 6):

print("i = ", i, " j = ", j)

Java example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

for (int j = 1; j <= 5; j++) {

System.out.println("i = " + i + " j = " + j);

Visual Basic example:

For i As Integer = 1 To 10

For j As Integer = 1 To 5

Console.WriteLine("i = " & i & " j = " & j)

Next j

Next i

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Nested iteration is useful when we need to perform a task for a specific range of values
It is important to keep track of the number of nested statements
It is important to keep nested statements organized and clear. Use consistent indentation and
avoid going too many levels deep, as this can make the code difficult to read and understand

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Procedures & Functions

Your notes
Subroutines
Procedures and functions are types of subroutines. They are a sequence of instructions that perform a
specific task or set of tasks
Subroutines are often used to simplify a program by breaking it into smaller, more manageable parts.
They can be used to:
Avoid duplicating code and can be reused throughout a program,
Improve the readability and maintainability of code,
Perform calculations, to retrieve data, or to make decisions based on input.
Parameters are values that are passed into a subroutine. They can:
Be used to customise the behaviour of a subroutine,
Be of different types,
Have default values, which are used if no value is passed in,
Be passed by value or by reference.
When a parameter is passed by value, a copy of the parameter is made and used within the
subroutine
When a parameter is passed by reference, the original parameter is used within the subroutine,
and any changes made to the parameter will be reflected outside of the subroutine
Subroutines can have multiple parameters
What's the difference between a procedure and function?
Functions return a value whereas a procedure does not.
Defining and Calling a Subroutine
A subroutine only needs to be defined once to set it up. After this you can call it as many times as needed to
use it.

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Procedures
Procedures are defined using the PROCEDURE keyword in pseudocode, def keyword in Python, Your notes
public in Java and Sub keyword in Visual Basic
Procedures can be called from other parts of the program using their name
Pseudocode example:
PROCEDURE calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width

OUTPUT "The area is " + area

END PROCEDURE

To call the procedure you would use the following pseudocode:

calculate_area(5,3)

Python example:
def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width

print("The area is ", area)

calculate_area(5,3)

Java example:
public class Main {
static void calculateArea(int length, int width) {
int area = length * width;
System.out.println("The area is " + area);
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

calculateArea(3,6);
}
}

Visual Basic example:

Sub CalculateArea(length As Integer, width As Integer)

Dim area As Integer = length * width

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Console.WriteLine("The area is " & area)

End Sub Your notes

CalculateArea(5, 3)

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Functions
Functions are defined using the FUNCTION keyword in pseudocode, def keyword in Python, and Your notes
Function keyword in Visual Basic and Java
Functions return a value using the RETURN keyword in pseudocode, return statement in Python, and
function name in Visual Basic and Java
Functions can be called from other parts of the program using their name, and their return value can be
stored in a variable
Pseudocode example:
FUNCTION calculate_area(length: INTEGER, width: INTEGER)

area ← length * width

RETURN area

END PROCEDURE

To output the value returned from the function you would use the following pseudocode:
OUTPUT(calculate_area(5,3))

Python example:
def calculate_area(length, width):

area = length * width

return area

print(calculate_area(5,3))

Java example:
public class Main {
static int calculateArea(int length, int width) {
int area = length * width;
return area;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println(calculateArea(3,6));
}
}

Visual Basic example:

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CalculateArea(5, 3)

Sub CalculateArea(length As Integer, width As Integer) Your notes

Dim area As Integer = length * width

Return area

End Sub

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Local & Global Variables

Your notes
Local & Global Variables
A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a subroutine and can only be accessed from within
that subroutine
A global variable is a variable that is declared outside of a subroutine and can be accessed from
anywhere in the program
Global variables can be used to pass data between different subroutine
Overuse of global variables can make a program difficult to understand and debug and is therefore
discouraged as it’s considered bad practice
Pseudocode example:
global total_score

FUNCTION calculate_average(num1: INTEGER, num2: INTEGER)

average ← (num1 + num2) / 2

RETURN average

END FUNCTION

total_score ← 0

PROCEDURE add_score(score: INTEGER)

total_score ← total_score + score

END PROCEDURE

Python example:
def calculate_average(num1, num2):

average = (num1 + num2) / 2

return average

total_score = 0

def add_score(score):

global total_score

total_score = total_score + score

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Java example:
static int totalScore = 0;
Your notes
public static void main(String args[]) {

double average = calculateAverage(5, 7);

System.out.println("Average: " + average);

addScore(10);

System.out.println("Total score: " + totalScore);

public static double calculateAverage(int num1, int num2) {

double average = (num1 + num2) / 2.0;

return average;

public static void addScore(int score) {

totalScore = totalScore + score;

Visual Basic example:

Dim totalScore As Integer = 0

Dim average As Double = CalculateAverage(5, 7)

Console.WriteLine("Average: " & average)

AddScore(10)

Console.WriteLine("Total score: " & totalScore)

Function CalculateAverage(num1 As Integer, num2 As Integer) As Double

Dim average As Double = (num1 + num2) / 2.0

Return average

End Function

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Sub AddScore(score As Integer)

totalScore = totalScore + score Your notes

End Sub

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Library Routines
Your notes
Library Routines
Library routines are pre-written code that can be used in programs to perform specific tasks.
Using library routines saves time by not having to write code from scratch
Library routines are also tested and proven to work, so errors are less likely
Some commonly used library routines include:
Input/output routines
Maths routines
Libraries can be included in programs by importing them
The specific syntax for importing a library may vary depending on the programming language being
used
It is important to check the documentation for a library to understand its usage and available functions
Maths routines
MOD: a function that returns the remainder when one number is divided by another number
Pseudocode example: x MOD y
Python example: x % y
Java example: x % y
Visual Basic example: x Mod y
DIV: a function that returns the quotient when one number is divided by another number
Pseudocode example: x DIV y
Python example: x // y
Java example: x / y
Visual Basic example: x \ y
ROUND: a function that rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
Pseudocode example: ROUND(x, n)
Python example: round(x, n)
Java example: Math.round(x * 10^n) / x;
Visual Basic example: Math.Round(x, n)
RANDOM: a function that generates a random number between x and n
Pseudocode example: RANDOM(x,n)
Python example: random.randint(x,n)
Java example: rand.nextInt(x)
Visual Basic example: rand.next(x,n)

Exam Tip
Remember to import or include the appropriate library before using the routines in your code

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Maintaining Programs
Your notes
Maintaining Programs
Why is it important to create a maintainable program?
Improve program quality:
A maintainable program is easier to understand and modify, which leads to fewer bugs and better
program quality
Reduce development time and costs:
A maintainable program requires less time and effort to modify, which reduces development time
and costs
Enables collaboration:
A maintainable program makes it easier for multiple developers to work together on the same
project, as it's easier to understand and modify
Increase program lifespan:
A maintainable program is more likely to be updated and maintained over time, which increases its
lifespan and usefulness
Adapt to changing requirements:
A maintainable program is easier to modify to adapt to changing requirements or new features
How do you create a well maintained program?
Use meaningful identifiers:
Identifiers are names given to variables, constants, arrays, procedures and functions
Use descriptive and meaningful identifiers to make your code easier to understand and maintain
Avoid using single letters or abbreviations that may not be clear to others
Use the commenting feature provided by the programming language:
Comments are used to add descriptions to the code that help readers understand what the code
is doing
Use comments to explain the purpose of variables, constants, procedures, functions and any
other parts of the code that may not be immediately clear
Use comments to document any assumptions or limitations of the code
Use procedures and functions:
Procedures and functions are reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks
Using procedures and functions allows you to modularise your code and make it easier to
understand, debug and maintain
Procedures and functions should have descriptive names that clearly indicate what they do
Relevant and appropriate commenting of syntax:
Commenting of syntax is used to explain the purpose of individual lines or blocks of code within
the program

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Use commenting of syntax to describe complex algorithms, or to provide additional information

on the purpose or behaviour of code
Your notes

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