Launching a Virtual Machine

Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 1

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/PHrN7yp1AJw

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Launching-a-Virtual-Machine-e493cecce6a743a9b37516d196c07c1d

Week # 1

Why do we need a Virtual Machine (VM)?

Laptops usually come pre-installed with Windows

Unless, of course, you are an 🍎 person

We wish to try Linux almost natively, without removing the existing OS

Also considering the fact that we do not wish to dual boot

Requirements
An .iso image of the operating system we want

Ubuntu 20.04 is recommended, or just use arch btw

Can be downloaded here

A Hypervisor

A hypervisor, also known as a virtual machine monitor or VMM, is

software that creates and runs virtual machines (VMs). A hypervisor

Launching a Virtual Machine 1

 allows one host computer to support multiple guest VMs by virtually
sharing its resources, such as memory and processing.

Source: https://www.vmware.com/topics/glossary/content/hypervisor.html

Oracle VirtualBox

VMWare Workstation Player

or just use Windows Subsystem for Linux

Atleast 20GB free space for the VM

Some RAM ¯\_( ツ)_/¯

8GB+ recommended

Steps
Download the Ubuntu .iso file from https://ubuntu.com/download/desktop

Download either VirtualBox or the VMWare Workstation Player

Install them

Open VirtualBox / VMWare Workstation Player

(I will be using VirtualBox)

Click on the “New Button to create a new VM”

Add a name and choose the OS type and version

Adjust the RAM and Storage as per your liking, make sure to keep the minimum specs

Select the VM on the left menu and go to settings

Launching a Virtual Machine 2

 Go to Storage → Storage Devices → Controller → Empty → Click on the CD icon and choose “Choose/Create a
Virtual Optical Disk...” and choose your .iso file

Proceed with the installation

Uhh it’s just Next, Next, Next .... Next ... Restart

When you install it correctly and get it up and running, you might see something like this ...

Launching a Virtual Machine 3

 (this screenshot here is Ubuntu 21.10 and gosh that’s a creepy monke)

Launching a Virtual Machine 4

 Command Line Environment
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 2

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/qrAnlpcMyYc

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Command-Line-Environment-f96a91e782a147a88894028d7848a2c4

Week # 1

Why use Command Line environment?

To use linux at its max potential

Combine commands to form powerful scripts

To automate using these scripts

To assert dominance over GUI plebs

Terminal in Ubuntu

Command Line Environment 1

 This is what the default terminal looks like in Ubuntu

To clear the command line

clear

or you can press Ctrl + L to clear the terminal screen

To check which directory we currently are in

pwd

By default, you are placed in the home directory of the currently logged in user

To list all the files and folders in the current directory

ls

To view the currently running processes

ps

To know the OS, duh

uname

To exit the shell

exit

Or you can also press Ctrl + D to exit out of the terminal session

Anatomy of a typical command on the terminal

Command Line Environment 2

 To display all the files, press ls -a

To display the files in a list, press ls -l

Command Line Environment 3

 These two flags are the most commonly used ones, we can also combine them as one flag

like, ls -al

To get help on any command

man <command-name>

For example

man ls

gives us the manual for the command ls

Filesystem in Linux

Traversing the tree

Command Line Environment 4

 / is the root of the file system

/ is also the delimiter for sub-directories

. is the current directory

.. is the parent directory

Path for traversal can be absolute or relative

To change directory

cd <location>

Examples

cd without any arguments will take us to the home directory of the currently logged in user

cd <folder-name> will change the move us into the folder-name

cd .. will takes us to the parent of the current directory

cd / will takes us to the root directory

What does this directory do?

/bin → Essential command binaries

/boot → Static files for the bootloader

/dev → Device files

/etc → Host specific system configuration

/lib → Essential shared libraries and kernel modules

/media → Mount points for removable devices

/mnt → Mount points

/opt → Add on application software packages

/run → Data relevant to running processes

/sbin → Essential system binaries

/srv → Data for services

/tmp → Temporary files

/usr → Secondary hierarchy

/var → Variable data

/usr hierarchy
/usr/bin → User commands

/usr/lib → Libraries

/usr/local → Local hierarchy

/usr/sbin → Non-vital system binaries

/usr/share → Architecture dependent data

/usr/include → Header files included by C programs

/usr/src → Source code

/var hierarchy
/var/cache → Application cache data

/var/lib → Variable state information

/var/local → Variable data for /usr/local

/var/lock → Lock files

Command Line Environment 5

 /var/log → Log files and directories

/var/run → Data relevant to running processes

/var/tmp → Temporary files preserved between reboots

Command Line Environment 6

 Simple Commands in Linux - 1
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 3

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/DIpBEmRDHnw

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Simple-Commands-in-Linux-1-3e5b2c25e6d04a7499afcb89af041b20

Week # 1

Some basic commands

date → Date and time

date -R → Gives the date in RFC5322 standard

cal → Calendar of a month

free → Memory statistics

free -h → Makes the output human readable

groups → Groups to which the user belongs

Simple Commands in Linux - 1 1

 idk what the junk is this

file → What type of a file it is

cd - → To visit the previous directory we were in

Typical output of ls -l

File types
- → Regular file

d → Directory

l → Symbolic link

c → Character file

b → Block file

s → Socket file

p → Named pipe

inode (Read: eye node)

ls -l <name>

An entry in the filesystem table about the location in storage media

Permission string

Simple Commands in Linux - 1 2

 To modify permissions
Create a folder

mkdir <folder-name>

chmod g-w <folder-name> to remove the write permission from the group

Similarly, chmod g-x <folder-name> to remove the execute permission from the group

To add permission, chmod g+w <folder-name> to give write permission to the group

So, a general structure of permission syntax is something like ...

chmod <user-group><plus/minus><r/w/x> <folder-name/file-name>

Where <user-group> are ...

u → User

g → Group

o → Others

<plus/minus> are ...

- → To remove permission

+ → To add permission

<r/w/x> are ...

r → Read

w → Write

x → Execute

We can also use numerical values for permissions

chmod 700 <folder-name> to give the rwx permission to user only

touch command
Used to modify the timestamp of a file or folder

If a file does not exist, it will be created

touch <file-name> to create a new file

chmod 700 <file-name> to give rwx permission to user only

cp command

Simple Commands in Linux - 1 3

 cp <file-name> <new-name> to copy a file to a new name

cp <file-name> <new-path> can be used to copy a file to a new path

mv command
mv <file-name> <new-path> to move a file to a new path

mv <file-name> <new-file-name> can be used to rename a file

Also, use quotation marks if the file name includes a space

rm command
rm <file-name> to remove a file

IT WILL NOT ASK FOR YOUR CONFIRMATION

Just straight up delete

This is the default behaviour

We can pass -i flag for the confirm remove prompt

Alias
We can also set an alias for long commands, for example ...

alias ll="ls -altrhF"

Know current user

whoami

Read a text file, page-by-page

less <file-name>

To know the type of a file

file <file-name>

Some commands
chmod → Change permissions of a file

touch → Change modified timestamp of a file

cp → Create a copy of a file

mv → Rename/Move a file

mkdir → Create a directory

rm → Remove a file

Simple Commands in Linux - 1 4

 Simple Commands in Linux - 2
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 1

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/lpe6AKk5GIk

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Simple-Commands-in-Linux-2-0cd2a51884c14be1a43ad24cd99c6692

Week # 2

ls

Short and Long form of options

Interpretation of directory as an argument

Recursive listing

Order of options on command line

ls -l will display the files & folders in the current directly, in a list

If we add the name of a folder after ls -l , it will display the files & folders of that folder

Commands to work with text files

less <file-name> → To read text files, page-by-page

Press q to exit

cat <file-name> → To read the entire text file, and dump them on the terminal window

Simple Commands in Linux - 2 1

 Depending on the situation, less can be a better way to display the contents of a file on the terminal window
rather than cat

more <file-name> → Works similarly to less

View contents of the file page-by-page

head <file-name> → Displays the first 10 lines of a file

Takes an optional flag, -n followed by an integer to display that number of lines

tail <file-name> → Works the opposite of head command

wc <file-name> → Displays the number of lines (or newlines), words and bytes in a file

Takes optional flags like -l to display only the # of lines

which <command> → A command to locate the commands, heh

whatis <command> → Gives a brief description of a command

apropos <keyword> → Takes in the keyword and returns a list of commands that contain the keyword in their name or in
their description

help → Displays the reserved keywords

Can pass a command name as optional parameter and it’ll display it’s help

Works with shell keyword

→ Open a file (which is similar to a webpage) that lists all the commands, and we can move the cursor to any
info

command and press Enter to get the manual of that command

Use the < button to go back, how do you press the < button? Shift + ,

type → Know the type of a command

What are aliases?

Aliases are a nickname given to a command, which may want for our convenience

How to set an alias?

alias <name>='<your-command>'

# Example
alias ll='ls -al'

How to remove an alias?

unalias <name>

# Example
unalias ll

Simple Commands in Linux - 2 2

 OK, How do I know all of my aliases?

# Type 'alias' in the bash shell

alias

Multiple arguments
Second argument

Interpretation of last argument

Recursion is assumed for mv but not for cp

Links
Hard links

Symbolic links

It is a bit analogous to desktop shortcuts in Windows

How to make a symbolic link?

The command ln is used, with the -s flag

ln -s <source> <destination>

Example

How to create a Hard link?

Just don’t pass the -s flag to the ln command

ln <source> <destination>

Example

Notice the inode number for the hardlink is the same as the file

Size of files
ls -s lists the files with file sizes

Simple Commands in Linux - 2 3

 stat <file-name> lists various other details as well as the file size

du <file-name> shows the size of the file

Takes an optional -h flag to format the output in human readable form

In-memory filesystem
/proc

/sys

These directories are not stored on your HDD/SSD

They are located in your system memory

These contain the info about the system, so no rm -rf -ing around as root

A few commands
free → To display the system memory stats, like used memory, free memory

Takes an optional -h flag to format the output in human readable form

df -h → To know about the partitions, in human readable form

Simple Commands in Linux - 2 4

 $hell variables
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 2

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/pPRge8Yxbso

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/hell-variables-7c2117f90cee4aa7aec3ee410038f32a

Week # 2

echo

echo command prints a string or a environment variable

Example:
echo $HOME

echo Hello, World

Frequently used shell variables

$USERNAME

$HOME

$HOSTNAME

$PWD

$PATH

Special shell variables

$0 → Name of the shell

$$ → Process ID of the shell

$? → Return code of previously run program

$- → Flags set in the bash shell

Process control
Use of & to run a job in the background

fg

$hell variables 1
 coproc

jobs

top

kill

Program exit codes

0 → success

1 → failure

2 → misuse

126 → command cannot be executed

127 → command not found

130 → processes killed using Ctrl + C

137 → processes killed using kill -9 <pid>

Flags set in bash

h → locate and hash commands

B → brace expansion enabled

i → interactive mode

m → job control enabled

H → ! style history substitution enabled

s → commands are read from stdin

c → commands are read from arguments

echo

echo Hello World

echo "How do you do?"

it's a start

We can enclose the string in quotes as well

Make sure to match the quotes properly

Some common echo commands

echo $USERNAME
echo $USER
echo $PWD
echo $HOME
echo $HOSTNAME
echo $PATH

We can enclose the shell variable (marked as $) in double quotes, and it'll replace the value

However, if we use single quote around the shell variable, the shell variable is printed as it is

We can also escape the shell variable by using a backslash in front of it

Example → echo "User is \$USERNAME" will display User is $USERNAME

To view all the shell variables

printenv
env

printenv prints all or part of the environment

$hell variables 2
 printenv HOME

set

setallows you to change the values of shell options and set the positional parameters, or to display the names and
values of shell variables. (Source)

To escape any aliases set already

\<alias>

# Example
\ls
\date

$hell variables 3
 Linux Process Management
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @December 22, 2021

Lecture # 3

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/2aThmDRvSWU

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Linux-Process-Management-d73af14458004045b281f5995be7cf32

Week # 2

sleep command
It is a delay for a specified amount of time

The time is specified in seconds

Example

# The following command will make the prompt sleep for 5 seconds
sleep 5

Coprocess
The shell command → coproc

A Coprocess is executed asynchronously in a subshell

In simple words, this command is used to run a process without actually losing control of the prompt

As we don’t lose prompt access, we can execute other commands

Usage

coproc sleep 20

When the above mentioned process is completed, the prompt will output a message saying Done

We can run the ps command to view the running status of the aforementioned command

kill

This command is used to kill an already running process

Linux Process Management 1

 Ctrl + C is also quite handy

Usage

kill -9 <PID>

How do I know the PID?

ps command, try ps --forest instead

& sign to put a process in the background

We can also put the & (ampersand) sign at the end of a command to put that process in the background

Usage

sleep 30 &

Alright, how do I bring it to the foreground?

fg

jobs

List the commands that are running in the background

Example

top command
It’s like your Windows Task Manager, but in the Linux terminal

To exit out of top , press Q or Ctrl + C

Pressing Ctrl + Z while top is open suspends the process, then you can do your work and come back to it by using the
fg command

jobs command will show the top process

Well, Ctrl + Z will suspend any running process

$-

echo $-

The output of this shell variable would tell us about the bash shell we are currently using

To know what the output means, type man bash and match the flags

Launch a bash shell which is not interactive

bash -c "echo \$-"

bash -c "echo \$-; ps --forest;"

To know the PID of the new bash shell we launcher

Linux Process Management 2

 bash -c "echo \$$; echo \$-; ps --forest;"

history

The following command displays out all the commands that have been run on the current shell, chronologically

history

The following command will run the n -th command that has been run, make sure to put n from the list of commands
output from the above command

n is integer

!n

The following command will run the previous command that was executed on the bash shell

!!

Brace Expansion
So the output of echo $- had a B flag, it refers to Brace Expansion

is this a JJK reference? ブレース展開

So, What is a Brace Expansion?

Brace expansion is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated. Source

Example

echo a{b,c,d}e

echo {a..z}

echo {A..C}{g..k}

# The * is a wildcard character, it expands to all the files in the current dir
echo *

Similarly ...

# The following command will return all the files folders that start with D
echo D*

Exit codes
0 → All good, no error

Linux Process Management 3

 1 → General errors, misc. errors

2 → Misuse of shell built-in

126 → Command invoked cannot execute

127 → Command not found

128 → Invalid argument to exit

exit takes int from 0 - 255

128+n → Fatal error signal "n"

When a process running in another place (like in another shell) was killed from somewhere else (killed from not
the same shell)

kill -9 $PPID → $? returns 137 (127 + 9)

130 → Script terminated by Ctrl + C

255* → Exit status out of range

If the exit code is out of range, bash takes the modulo of the exit code w.r.t. 256

Example

# Create a new bash subshell and exit with the status code 300
bash -c "exit 300"

# Check the exit code

echo $?

# The output will be ...

44

Linux Process Management 4

 Combining commands and files
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 9, 2022

Lecture # 1

Lecture
https://youtu.be/Lcx9UsS7y8Y
URL

https://21f1003586.notion.site/Combining-commands-and-files-
Notion URL
2476c1091a704743840ae8b76ab078c9

Week # 3

Executing multiple commands

command1; command2; command3

Each command will be executed one after the other

command1 && command2 && command3

This works as a logical AND

The subsequent commands after command-n will not run if the previous command resulted in an error

command1 || command2 || command3

This works as a logical OR

The subsequent commands after command-n will not run if the previous command resulted in a success

(<command>)

We can run any command enclosed within parentheses to execute them in a subshell, and returned back the result

We can execute a subshell within a subshell too

Combining commands and files 1

 File descriptors

Every command in Linux has 3 file descriptors

stdin (0)
It is a pointer to a stream that is coming from the keyboard (or the user input)

stdout (1)
Points to the screen where the output is made

stderr (2)
Points to the screen where the output is made

command > file1

The output of the command should be written to file1

Create a file using cat command

cat > filename

When we type this command, the cat command is supposed to receive the input from a file that is listed in the command
line, but instead, we left that intentionally blank

So, the cat command, instead, reads the content from the stdin , i.e. the keyboard

To exit, press Ctrl + D

command >> file1

The output of command will be appended to file1

Combining commands and files 2

 Similarly, we can use >> instead of > while creating a new file using the cat command

Combining commands and files 3

 Redirections
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 9, 2022

Lecture # 2

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/BBh69kH_G_Y

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Redirections-734673f36f21448f99de25ccb092c8d4

Week # 3

command 2> file1

Redirect the output of the command to stdout , which is the display in this case

Redirect the error of the command to file1

command > file1 2> file2

Redirect the output of the command to the stdout , i.e. file1

Redirect the error of the command to stderr , i.e. file2

Redirections 1
 command < file1

Any command which takes input from the keyboard, now takes input from file1

command > file1 2>&1

The output of command is written to file1

The error is redirected to stream 1, which is stdout

command1 | command2 → pipe operator |

The output of command1 is sent to command2 as input

Redirections 2
 By default, the stderr will output to the display

Count the number of files in the directory /usr/bin

List the files of /usr/bin directory, but use the less command to scroll at ease
ls /usr/bin | less

command1 | command2 > file1

The stdout of command1 is mapped to stdin of command2

The stdout of command2 is written to file1

The stderr is output to the display

/dev/null

A sink for output to be discarded

Use → silent and clean scripts

So, a typical usage looks like ...

command > file1 2> /dev/null

The output of command is written to file1

Redirections 3
 The stderr is written to /dev/null , which gets warped to another dimension

command1 | tee file1

The tee command splits the output into 2 streams, one stream is written to the file1 another, one to the display

This command can write to multiple files as well

diff command
This command compares files line-by-line

Usage
diff file1 file2

Redirections 4
 Shell variables
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 9, 2022

Lecture # 3

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/QX5XElFRpck

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Shell-variables-7fc4b392e99b4d59a13eebefdae88e1e

Week # 3

Creating a variable

Exporting a variable
Exporting means making the value of the variable available to a shell spawned by the current shell (wut)
export myvar="value string"

OR
myvar="value string"

export myvar

Shell variables 1
 Using variable values
echo $myvar

echo ${myvar}

echo “${myvar}”

Removing a variable
unset myvar

Removing value of a variable

myvar=

Test if a variable is set

[[ -v myvar ]];

echo $?

Return codes:

0 → success (variable myvar is set)

1 → failure (variable myvar is not set)

Test if a variable is not set

[[ -z ${myvar+x} ]];

Here, x can be any string

echo $?

Return codes:

0 → success (variable myvar is not set)

1 → failure (variable myvar is set)

Substitute default value

If the variable myvar is not set, use “default” as its default value
echo ${myvar:-”default”}

So, if myvar is set, display its value else display “default”

Reset value if variable is set

If the variable myvar is set, then set “default” as its value
echo ${myvar:+”default”}

So, if myvar is set, change it’s value to “default” and display it else display null

List of variable names

echo ${!H*}

List of names of shell variables that start with H

Length of string value

echo ${#myvar}

Display length of the string value of the variable myvar

If myvar is not set, display 0

Slice of a string value

echo ${myvar:5:4}

Display 4 chars of the string value of the variable myvar , skipping first 5 chars

Remove matching pattern

echo ${myvar#pattern} → match once

echo ${myvar##pattern} → match max possible

Keep matching pattern

echo ${myvar%pattern} → match once

Shell variables 2
 echo ${myvar%%pattern} → match max possible

Replace matching pattern

echo ${myvar/pattern/string} → match once and replace with string

echo ${myvar//pattern/string} → match max possible and replace with string

Replace matching pattern by location

echo ${myvar/#pattern/string} → match at beginning and replace with string

echo ${myvar/%pattern/string} → match at the end and replace with string

Changing case
echo ${myvar,} → change the first char to lower case

echo ${myvar,,} → change all chars to lower case

echo ${myvar^} → change first char to upper case

echo ${myvar^^} → change all chars to upper case

Restricting value types

declare -i myvar → only integers can be assigned

declare -l myvar → only lower case chars can be assigned

declare -u myvar → only upper case chars can be assigned

declare -r myvar → variable is read-only

You can remove the restrictions by replacing the - sign with a + sign

However, declare +r myvar will NOT work

Indexed arrays
declare -a arr → declare arr as an indexed array

$arr[0]=”value” → set value of element with index 0 in the array

echo ${arr[0]} → value of the element at index 0 of array

echo ${#arr[@]} → number of elements in the array

echo ${!arr[@]} → display all the indices used

echo ${arr[@]} → display values of all elements of the array

unset ‘arr[2]’ → delete element with index 2 in the array

arr+=(”value”) → append an element with a value to the end of the array

Associative arrays
Kind of like Hash maps?

declare -A hash → declare hash as an associative array

$hash[”a”]=”value” → set value of element with index “a” in the array

echo ${hash[”a”]} → value of element with index (or key?) “a” in the array

echo ${#hash[@]} → number of elements in the array

echo ${!hash[@]} → display all indices used

echo ${hash[@]} → display values of all elements of the array

unset ‘hash[”a”]’ → delete element with index “a” in the array

Shell variables 3
 Software Management - pt. 1
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 16, 2022

Lecture # 1

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/hG-bxCmfArc

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Shell-variables-3c228fce1aef41719f77bc4b8e786ff1

Week # 4

Need for a package manager

Tools for installing, updating, removing, managing software

Install new/updated software across network

Package — File look up, both ways

Database of packages on the system including versions

Dependency checking

Signature verification tools

Tools for building packages

Package Types

Software Management - pt. 1 1

 Architecture

To know your system architecture

Can’t spell architecture without arch btw

Tools

Software Management - pt. 1 2

 Package Management in Ubuntu using apt

Inquiring package db

Search packages for a keyword

apt-cache search keyword

List all packages

apt-cache pkgnames

Try apt-cache pkgnames <starting-char> to search to packages with the few starting chars

Display package records of a package

apt-cache show -a package

Package names

Package priorities
required → essential to the proper functioning of a system

important → provides functionality that enables the system to run well

standard → included in a standard system installation

optional → can omit if you do not have enough storage

extra → could conflict with packages with higher priority, has specialized requirements, install only if needed

Package sections
https://packages.ubuntu.com/focal

Checksums
A way to verify that the packages that we are installing are legit

Software Management - pt. 1 3

 md5sum <filename> to get the MD5 checksum of a file, use it to compare it to other files

sha1sum <filename> to get the SHA1 checksum of a file, use it to compare it to other files

sha256sum <filename> to get the SHA256 checksum of a file, use it to compare it to other files

Software Management - pt. 1 4

 Software Management - pt. 2
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 16, 2022

Lecture # 2

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/ctn_s7SDTV0

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Software-Management-b0cd46d7790f479aacf4378fbe9611cf

Week # 4

Only sudoers can install/upgrade/remove packages → /etc/sudoers

We can view the sudoers file by typing sudo cat /etc/sudoers

This will ask for the user password and depending on the su status of the user, it will either display the file or show an
error like user is not in the sudoers file. This incident will be reported.

How can a superuser find out the failed sudo attempt by non-su?
Go to /var/log

Look for auth.log file, these events are reported in this file

Sources for packages

Location: /etc/apt

File → sources.list → Contains repo URLs for Ubuntu pkgs

Folder → sources.list.d → Contains repo URLs for 3rd party pkgs

To get updates
sudo apt-get update

To upgrade the pkgs (if an upgrade is available)

sudo apt-get upgrade

You can pass the -y flag to not get bugged by the Y/N prompt

To remove older, usually obsolete pkgs

sudo apt autoremove

To remove a specific pkg

sudo apt-get remove <pkg-name>

Software Management - pt. 2 1

 Installing/Updating
Install a package

apt-get install <pkg-name>

Reinstall a package

apt-get reinstall <pkg-name>

Removing/Cleaning up
Remove packages that were automatically installed to satisfy a dependency and not needed

apt-get autoremove

Clean local repository of retrieved package files

apt-get clean

Purge package files from the system

apt-get purge package

Package management in Ubuntu using dpkg

Text info regarding packages found at /var/lib/dpkg

Files: arch, available, status

Folder: info

Using dpkg

List all the packages whose names match the pattern

dpkg -l pattern

List installed files that came from packages

dpkg -L package

Report the status of packages

dpkg -s package

Search installed packages for a file

dpkg -S pattern

A tool to query the dpkg database

dpkg-query

Example usage

dpkg-query -W -f=’${Section} ${binary:Package}\n’

Installing a deb package

dpkg -i filename.deb

By default, use package management pointing to a reliable repository

Uninstalling packages using dpkg is NOT recommended

Software Management - pt. 2 2

 Pattern Matching - pt. 1
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 17, 2022

Lecture # 3

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/1y85iTaqq8Y

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Pattern-Matching-pt-1-8cb1aa5c0e6c42b2a9b517b040006284

Week # 4

Pattern matching
regex & grep

Regex
regex is a pattern template to filter text

BRE: POSIX Basic Regular Expression engine

ERE: POSIX Extended Regular Expression engine

Why learn regex?

Languages: Java, Perl, Python, Ruby, ...

To process input from the user

To perform string operations

Tools: grep , sed , awk , ...

Applications: MySQL, PostgreSQL, ...

Usage
grep ‘pattern’ filename

command | grep ‘pattern’

Default engine: BRE

Switch to use ERE:

egrep ‘pattern’ filename

grep -E ‘pattern’ filename

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 1

 Special characters (BRE & ERE)

Special characters (BRE)

Special characters (ERE)

Character classes

To make it slightly easy to match pattern

Backreferences
\1 through \9

\n matches whatever was matched by the n th earlier paranthesized sub-expression

A line with two occurences of “hello” will be matched using: \(hello\).*\1

BRE operator precedence

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 2

 ERE operator precedence

Uses of grep

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 3

 Usage of . in the grep command
. is like a wildcard for a single character

$ is used to denote an anchor

Like a pattern at the end of the line

Well what if your name contains a .

Then escape it using the \ character

If we want the . to be necessarily after a character

Match string using anchors at the beginning

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 4

 ask grep to ignore the case by passing in the -i flag

Match a pattern at the end of the line, a word boundary one might say

\b looks for a word boundary, so that pattern could also occur at the end of a word in the middle of a line

$ looks for line boundary only, so the pattern occurs at the end of the line

Usage of square brackets []

Here, the first character in the pattern is followed by either of the 2 characters given in []

In the grep 'S.*[mn]' command, it matches from the start of the line

We add \b to mark a word boundary just to match it within a word

Had to switch to bash to show the formatting

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 5

 The last command in the following screenshot does negation

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 6

 Number of times a character should occur

In the curly braces, we provide the # of times the preceding character should be matched

We can pass one number or a multiple numbers separated by comma for their matching

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 7

Pattern Matching - pt. 1 8
Pattern Matching - pt. 1 9
Pattern Matching - pt. 1 10
 Pattern Matching - pt. 2
Type 📒 Lecture
Date @January 17, 2022

Lecture # 4

Lecture URL https://youtu.be/XQUJPRc-7zA

Notion URL https://21f1003586.notion.site/Pattern-Matching-pt-2-18da9c08be534558ad86e28d07cba0bd

Week # 4

Match package names that are 4 characters long

dpkg-query -W -f='${Section} ${binary:Package}\n' | egrep ' .{4}$'

Match package names that are 3 characters long and start with the letter g

dpkg-query -W -f='${Section} ${binary:Package}\n' | egrep ' g.{3}$'

Match package names that are between 1 to 5 characters long and start with the letter g

dpkg-query -W -f='${Section} ${binary:Package}\n' | egrep ' g.{1,5}$'

Match package names that are from the math category

dpkg-query -W -f='${Section} ${binary:Package}\n' | egrep '^math'

make sure to use the ^ (hat) character in the front of the regex pattern to match the math category, otherwise it will match
package category and the names

Match package names that from KDE

dpkg-query -W -f='${Section} ${binary:Package}\n' | egrep ' kd.*$'

To skip empty lines from a file

cat filename.txt | egrep -v ‘^$’

Pick any 12 digit or more number from a text file

egrep ‘[[:digit:]]{12}’ filename.txt

Pick any 6 digit or more number from a text file

egrep ‘[[:digit:]]{6}’ filename.txt

But, there is one problem, if there is any number that is more than 12 digits or more than 6 digits respectively, it will pick
that up too

Pick an exactly 6 digit number from a text file

Add a word boundary \b

Pattern Matching - pt. 2 1

 egrep ‘\b[[:digit:]]{6}\b’ filename.txt

Pick a roll number (of the type MM22B001) from a text file

egrep ‘\b[[:alpha:]]{2}[[:digit:]]{2}[[:alpha:]][[:digit:]]{3}\b’ filename.txt

Pick a URL from a text file (like github.com or https://www.iitm.ac.in)

egrep ‘\b[[:alnum:]]+\.[[:alnum:]]+\b’ filename.txt

cut

A command used to cut lines from files

does horizontal trimming

A sample file fields.txt

1234;hello world,line-1
234567;welcome cmdline,line-2
3456;parse text,line-3

Cut first 4 characters from the beginning of the lines

cut -c 1-4 fields.txt

Cut the next 4 characters from the previous

cut -c 5-8 fields.txt

We can skip the beginning or the ending of the substring parameter, it works like python

Cut 4 chars from the beginning

cut -c -4 fields.txt

Cut from 8th char to the end

cut -c 8- fields.txt

Use space as the delimiter and print the first field

cat fields.txt | cut -d “ ” -f 1

Similarly, print the second field

cat fields.txt | cut -d “ ” -f 2

If we want both fields

cat fields.txt | cut -d “ ” -f 1-2

Delimit at a semi-colon ; and get the first field

cat fields.txt | cut -d “;” -f 1

Similarly, get the 2nd field

cat fields.txt | cut -d “;” -f 2

We can pipe multiple commands

To get the part of the line between ; and ,

cat fields.txt | cut -d “;” -f 2 | cut -d “,” -f 1

To do the same thing using grep (similar thing, not exactly the same)

cat fields.txt | egrep ‘;.*,’

To get the part welcome cmdline from the file fields.txt

cat fields.txt | cut -d “;” -f 2 | cut -d “,” -f 1 | head -n 2 | tail -n 1

Pattern Matching - pt. 2 2