Routing

•A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can

be transferred from source to the destination. Routing is
performed by a special device known as a router.
•A Router works at the network layer in the OSI model and
internet layer in TCP/IP model
•A router is a networking device that forwards the packet based
on the information available in the packet header and forwarding
table.
•The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The
routing algorithm is nothing but a software responsible for
deciding the optimal path through which packet can be
transmitted.
•The routing protocols use the metric to determine the best
path for the packet delivery. The metric is the standard of
measurement such as hop count, bandwidth, delay, current
load on the path, etc. used by the routing algorithm to
determine the optimal path to the destination.
•The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing
table for the process of path determination.
Routing Metrics and Costs
• Routing metrics and costs are used for determining the best
route to the destination. The factors used by the protocols to
determine the shortest path, these factors are known as a
metric.
• Metrics are the network variables used to determine the best
route to the destination. For some protocols use the static
metrics means that their value cannot be changed and for
some other routing protocols use the dynamic metrics means
that their value can be assigned by the system administrator.
The most common metric values:
Hop count:
• Hop count is defined as a metric that specifies the number of
passes through internetworking devices such as a router, a
packet must travel in a route to move from source to the
destination.
• If the routing protocol considers the hop as a primary metric
value, then the path with the least hop count will be
considered as the best path to move from source to the
destination.
Delay:
• It is a time taken by the router to process, queue and transmit
a datagram to an interface.
• The protocols use this metric to determine the delay values
for all the links along the path end-to-end.
• The path having the lowest delay value will be considered as
the best path.
Bandwidth:
• The capacity of the link is known as a bandwidth of the
link. The bandwidth is measured in terms of bits per
second.
• The link that has a higher transfer rate like gigabit is
preferred over the link that has the lower capacity like 56
kb.
• The protocol will determine the bandwidth capacity for all
the links along the path, and the overall higher bandwidth
will be considered as the best route.
Load:
• Load refers to the degree to which the network resource
such as a router or network link is busy.
• A Load can be calculated in a variety of ways such as
CPU utilization, packets processed per second.
• If the traffic increases, then the load value will also be
increased. The load value changes with respect to the
change in the traffic.
Reliability:
• Reliability is a metric factor may be composed of a fixed
value.
• It depends on the network links, and its value is measured
dynamically. Some networks go down more often than
others. After network failure, some network links repaired
more easily than other network links.
• Any reliability factor can be considered for the assignment
of reliability ratings, which are generally numeric values
assigned by the system administrator.
Routing Information
Protocol (RIP)
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing
protocol that uses hop count as a routing metric to find the
best path between the source and the destination network.
• It is a distance-vector routing protocol that has an AD value
of 120 and works on the Network layer of the OSI model.
RIP uses port number 520.
Features of RIP
• Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
• Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
• Full routing tables are sent in updates.
• Routers always trust routing information received from
neighbor routers.
Hierarchical Routing
• When network size is growing, the number of routers in
the network will increase. Therefore, the size of routing
table increases, then routers cannot handle network traffic
as efficiently. To overcome this problem we are using
hierarchical routing.
• In hierarchical routing, the routers are divided into
regions.
• Each router has complete details about how to route
packets to destinations within its own region. But it does
not have any idea about the internal structure of other
regions.
• In hierarchical routing, routers are classified in groups
called regions. Each router has information about the
routers in its own region and it has no information about
routers in other regions. So, routers save one record in their
table for every other region.
• For huge networks, a two-level hierarchy may be
insufficient hence, it may be necessary to group the regions
into clusters, the clusters into zones, the zones into groups
and so on.
Multicast Routing

• Multicast routing is a networking method for efficient

distribution of one-to-many traffic.
• A multicast source, such as a live video conference, sends
traffic in one stream to a multicast group.
• The multicast group contains receivers such as computers,
devices, and IP phones.
• Multicast routing uses the Protocol-Independent Multicast
(PIM) protocol.
• There are different variants of this protocol. Your Firebox
supports PIM Sparse Mode (PIM-SM) which is used when
only a few devices subscribe to the multicast.
• These devices are multicast receivers. Receivers can be
located anywhere in the world, on any network, and
compose the multicast group logical group.
In this diagram, a server sends multicast traffic through a router and the Firebox.
The Firebox forwards the multicast traffic to the multicast group on the local network.
Common uses include these technologies:
•Voice over IP (VOIP)
•Video on demand (VOD)
•Video conferencing
•IP television (IPTV)
FTP
• FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used
for transmitting the files from one host to another.
• It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their
creator to the computer that acts as a server for other
computers on the internet.
• It is also used for downloading the files to computer from
other servers.
Objectives of FTP
• It provides the sharing of files.
• It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
• It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.
Control Connection:
• The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can
transfer a line of command or line of response at a
time.
• The control connection is made between the control
processes. The control connection remains connected
during the entire interactive FTP session.
Data Connection:
• The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types
may vary. The data connection is made between data transfer
processes.
• The data connection opens when a command comes for
transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.
 FTP Clients
• FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol
which allows you to transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
• It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download
the files.
• It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host,
transfer the files between you and your host and close the
connection.
• The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web
browser. This GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy
and also does not require to remember the FTP commands.
Advantages of FTP:
• Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the
fastest way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
• Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations
to get the entire file.
• Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
• Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth.
Suppose you are a manager of the company, you send some information to all
the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.
 Disadvantages of FTP:
• The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions
should be encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all
the providers offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP
providers that provides encryption.
• FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network.
However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow
you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
• Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted
eavesdropping. So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute
force attack by trying to guess the FTP password.
• It is not compatible with every system.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• TFTP stands for Trivial File Transfer Protocol. TFTP is defined as a
protocol that is used to transfer a file from a client to a server and from
a server to a client.
• TFTP is majorly used when no complex interactions are required by
the client and server.
• The service of TFTP is provided by UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
and works on port number 69. TFTP does not provide security features
therefore it is not used in communications that take place over the
Internet. Therefore it is used only for the systems that are set up on the
local internet. TFTP requires less amount of memory.
TFTP Message Formats
There are four types of TFTP Message formats. They are as
follows
1. Read Request:
2. Write Request:
3. Data
4. Acknowledgement
Advantages of TFTP
• TFTP Protocol makes use of User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• TFTP requires less amount of memory.
• TFTP is simple to implement.
• TFTP is supported by many network devices such as routers, firewalls,
and switches.
• TFTP has low overhead as compared to other protocols and therefore
can be used for low-bandwidth networks.
• TFTP can transfer small files such as boot files, and firmware images
more fastly.
Disadvantages of TFTP
• TFTP does not provide any security features
• TFTP does not provide any approach for error checking.
• TFTP can be used for limited functionalities only.
• TFTP servers do not allow the renaming and deletion of files.
Applications of TFTP
• TFTP is used to transfer files within clients and sever
connected in a network.
• TFTP is used to transfer the configuration files within the
network.
• TFTP is used to update the firmware on the devices
connected to the network
• TFTP is used in applications where no authentication is
required.
Domain Name System (DNS)
• Domain Name System (DNS) is a hostname for IP
address translation service.
• DNS is a distributed database implemented in a
hierarchy of name servers.
• It is an application layer protocol for message
exchange between clients and servers. It is required for
the functioning of the Internet.
Types of Domain
1.Generic domains:
.com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military),
.org(nonprofit organization), .net(similar to commercial) all
these are generic domains.
2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk
HTML
• HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language, which is
the most widely used language on Web to develop web
pages.
• HTML was created by Berners-Lee in late 1991 but "HTML
2.0" was the first standard HTML specification which was
published in 1995. HTML 4.01 was a major version of
HTML and it was published in late 1999. Though HTML 4.01
version is widely used but currently we are having HTML-5
version which is an extension to HTML 4.01, and this version
was published in 2012.
 World Wide Web
• WWW stands for World Wide Web. A technical definition of the
World Wide Web is : all the resources and users on the Internet that
are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• A broader definition comes from the organization that Web
inventor Tim Berners-Lee helped found, the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C).
• The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible
information, an embodiment of human knowledge.
• In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging
information between computers on the Internet, tying them together
into a vast collection of interactive multimedia resources.
HTTP
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-
level protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.
• This is the foundation for data communication for the World
Wide Web (i.e. internet) since 1990. HTTP is a generic and
stateless protocol which can be used for other purposes as
well using extensions of its request methods, error codes, and
headers.
• HTTP is a TCP/IP based communication protocol, that is used
to deliver data (HTML files, image files, query results, etc.) on
the World Wide Web.
• The default port is TCP 80, but other ports can be used as well.
• It provides a standardized way for computers to communicate
with each other.
• HTTP specification specifies how clients' request data will be
constructed and sent to the server, and how the servers respond
to these requests.