Clauses

What is a clause?

A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses),
dependent (subordinate clauses).

Independent Clauses

An independent clause is a complete sentence; it contains a subject and verb and expresses a
complete thought in both context and meaning.

For example: The door opened.

Independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction to form complex or compound

sentences.

Co-ordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

for and nor

but or yet

so

For example: Take two independent clauses and join them together with the conjunction and: "
The door opened." "The man walked in." = The door opened, and the man walked in.

Dependent Clauses

A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it contains a subject and verb but does
not express a complete thought.

Dependent clauses often begin with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun (see below)
that makes the clause unable to stand alone.

An adjective clause (or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and describes a noun, it's
usually introduced by a relative pronoun: who | whom | whose | that | which

For example:

 I went to the show that was very popular.

  The car that is parked in front of the gates will
be towed away. (Defining relative clause.)

Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"

Summary

An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause

functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a
noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the
preposition).

!Note - Whom is not used much in spoken English.

Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"

Subordinating Conjunctions

after although as because

before even if even though if

in order that once provided that rather than

since so that than that

though unless until when

whenever where whereas wherever

whether while why

For example:

The door opened because the man pushed it.

Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.

A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words
containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if |
whether
For example:

I wondered whether the homework was necessary.

Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"

An adverbial clause (adverb clause) is a word or expression in the sentence that functions as an
adverb; that is, it tells you something about how the action in the verb was done. An adverbial
clause is separated from the other clauses by any of the following subordinating conjunctions:
after | although | as | because | before | if | since | that | though | till | unless | until | when |
where | while

For example:

They will visit you before they go to the airport.

Adverbial clauses can also be placed before the main clause without changing the meaning.

For example:

 Before they go to the airport, they will visit you.

!Note - When an adverb clause introduces the sentence (as this one does), it is set off with a
comma.

Adverb clauses answer questions like "when?", "where?", "why?"

An adjectival clause (adjective clause or relative clause) does the work of an adjective and
describes a noun, it's usually introduced by a relative pronoun: who | whom | whose | that |
which

For example:

 I went to the show that was very popular.

 This kind of clause is used to provide extra

information about the noun it follows. This can
be to define something (a defining clause), or
 provide unnecessary, but interesting, added
information (a non-defining clause).

For example:

 The car that is parked in front of the gates will

be towed away. (Defining relative clause.)

 Information contained in the defining relative

clause is absolutely essential in order for us to
be able to identify the car in question.

 My dog, who is grey and white, chased the

postman. ( Non-defining relative clause)

 A non-defining relative clause is separated from

the rest of the sentence by commas. If you take
away the non-defining clause the basic
meaning of the sentence remains intact.

For example:

 My dog chased the postman.

Adjective clauses answer questions like "which?" or "what kind of?"

Summary

An adjective clause functions as an adjective (modifies a noun or pronoun); an adverb clause

functions as an adverb (describes a verb, adjective or other adverb); a noun clause is used as a
noun (subject of a verb, direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative or object of the
preposition).

!Note - The difference between a clause and a phrase is that a phrase does not contain a finite
verb.

Relative Clauses
A relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at
the start of the clause, although sometimes you can tell simply by word order. The choice of
relative pronoun, or choice to omit one, can be affected by the following:-

Human or Non-human?

We make a distinction between an antecedent that is a human — who(m) — and an antecedent

which is a non-human — which.

Who(m) is used when the antecedent is a person.

That is used to refer to either a person or thing.
Which is used to refer to anything exept a person.

I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had long blonde hair, was very pretty.

 The man she was with, was the man that / who
won the race.
 The race was the one that I lost.
 The man, to whom the winnings were given,
was with the woman who was very pretty.

 !Note - Whom is not used much in spoken

English.

 Restrictive or Non-restrictive?

Restrictive relative clauses are sometimes called defining relative clauses, or identifying relative
clauses. Similarly, non-restrictive relative clauses are called non-defining or non-identifying
relative clauses.

In English a non-restrictive relative clause is preceded by a pause in speech or a comma in

writing, unlike a restrictive clause.

For example:-

The builder, who erects very fine houses, will make a large profit.
This example, with commas, contains a non-restrictive relative clause. It refers to a specific
builder, and assumes we know which builder is intended. It tells us firstly about his houses, then
about his profits.
The builder who erects very fine houses will make a large profit.
This second example uses a restrictive relative clause. Without the commas, the sentence states
that any builder who builds such houses will make a profit.

Restrictive Non-restrictive

Human Nonhuman Human

Nonhuman

Subject who, that which, that who which

Object who, whom, that, Ø which, that, Ø who, whom which

After preposition whom which whom which

Possessive whose, of whom whose, of which

A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words
containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if |
whether

For example:

 I wondered whether the homework was

necessary.

Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"