MODULE 9: APPLIED SCIENCE I

Module Outcomes

By the end of the module, the student should be able to:

1. Apply knowledge of basic science in the practice of Dental Technology
2. Apply knowledge of force and elasticity in the practice of Dental Technology
3. Apply the knowledge of liquids and density in the practice of Dental technology

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

Significance: In dental technology, we will be dealing with chemicals and machines and it is therefore
important to understand how the various chemicals interact and also understand their physical nature. It is
also important to understand the role of machines in helping chemical reactions.

Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds composed of atoms,
molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo
during a reaction with other substances.

Matter
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume and is made up of particles. The
particles that make up matter have rest mass as well. Note that, not all particles have rest mass, such as
the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances.

Atom

A diagram of an atom based on the Bohr model

The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded
by a space occupied by an electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons, while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the
nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons.
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element,
such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and
preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).

Compound
A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a
compound bear little similarity to those of its element

Molecule

A ball-and-stick representation of the caffeine molecule (C8H10N4O2).

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of
chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other
substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules,
which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together
by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with
other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.

Physics comes from a Greek word meaning 'knowledge of nature'. However, today, Physics is the
natural science that studies matter, its motion, and behavior through space and time as well as energy
and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand
how the universe behaves.

Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because the subject of study of all branches of natural
science like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics, [54] similar to
how chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in linking the physical sciences.
Physics is applied in industries like engineering and medicine.
MOLECULES, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

The universe is made up of atoms, the tiny building blocks of matter. This computer screen is made up of
atoms and so are your eyes and the rest of your body! In the last 110 years, scientists have discovered that
atoms themselves are made up of even smaller particles: an atom has a central nucleus made up of
protons and neutrons, and surrounded by electrons. These parts are so incredibly small that scientists can
only believe that they are there, based on the behaviors that atoms display. Electron microscopes allow
scientists to “see” highly magnified images of some atoms, but not the smaller particles that form the
atom.
Elements are the simplest substances in nature that cannot be broken down into smaller parts by normal
chemical means. They contain only atoms of the same type, ones that have identical chemical properties.
There are at least 90 naturally-occurring elements, plus man-made ones. If you look at a periodic table,
you will see the names of each of these elements and some of their properties (such as mass, or how
heavy the atom is).

Molecules and Compounds

When atoms from different elements are joined together in groups, they form molecules. The atoms in
molecules bind together chemically, which means that the atoms cannot be separated again by physical
means, such as filtration. The molecule has different properties from the elements from which is was
made. A water molecule is not three separate atoms, two hydrogen (H) and one oxygen (O), but it is
actually a unique H2O molecule.
Like elements that are formed of atoms of the same sort, compounds are formed of molecules of the same
sort. The elements can be combined into about 2 million different compounds! Did you know that
eggshells are made up of a calcium carbonate compound? And citric acid, which is found in oranges and
other citrus fruit, is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. There are more carbon
compounds than compounds of any other element. Organic compound is the name for the carbon
compounds found in all living things.

Mixtures
All matter can be classified into two categories: pure substances and mixtures. A pure substance consists
of a single element or compound. Iron is formed only of iron (Fe) atoms; table salt is formed only by
sodium chloride (NaCl) molecules. A mixture, however, is made up of different compounds and/or
elements. When salt is added to water to make saltwater, it becomes a mixture. The salt and water
molecules do not combine to form new molecules, but only “mix” together while still retaining their
identities. Air is also a mixture, containing just the right amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases for
life on Earth.
Not all mixtures have the same composition throughout, e.g. Salt water. Others are not perfectly blended
or homogenous. Mixtures of metals are called alloys (bronze is an alloy of copper and tin); liquid
mixtures (such as saltwater) are solutions.
The substances that make up a mixture can be separated by physical means because they have different
physical properties (such as different melting points) and are not chemically bonded. A mixture can be
separated into its parts in a variety of ways, including decantation (letting the sand in a mixture of water
and sand settle, and then draining off the water, for example), filtering, and evaporation. You can use a
kitchen funnel and coffee filter for filtration, and either use sunlight or low heat for evaporation. Try out
these methods on a saltwater and a sand and water mixture to see how they work and compare the results.
Evaporation will work for both saltwater and sand and water solutions, but filtration will not work for
saltwater. Can you think of other examples where a separating method will work for one mixture and not
another? Another one to try is lemon juice, a mixture of water and citric acid; what do you think happens
when it is boiled? The water evaporates and eventually leaves nothing but citric acid crystals.
The chemical formula for a molecule tells how many atoms and what types of atoms the molecule is
made up of. How many atoms are in a molecule of AlSO 4 (aluminum sulfate)? There is one aluminum
(Al), one sulfur (S), and four oxygen (O) for a total of six atoms. What is the formula for ammonium
chloride? Since it contains one nitrogen (N), four hydrogen (H), and one chlorine (Cl), the chemical
formula is NH4Cl. Have you ever wondered what to call a chemical compound, such as CaOH 2? There are
a few general rules that can help you. Start with the name of the first atom, Ca. That’s the element
calcium. Then, take the next atom and replace the ending with “ide.” Oxygen (O) becomes “oxide”. As
with many rules, though, there are exceptions! In this case, the first part of the name for the last atom,
hydrogen (H), is tacked on so that the correct chemical name is calcium hydroxide. Prefixes, the part
added to the beginning of a word, can help you figure out names and formulas, too. Mono means one, di
means two. So a compound with two of the same molecule (represented by a subscript 2) would have “di”
before that molecule name. What would you call CO2? How many oxygen atoms are in carbon monoxide?
What is the chemical formula for dicarbon dihydride?
A mole is a measure of chemical substances. There are 602,300 million trillion (6.023 x 10 23) atoms or
molecules in one mole. A mole of any two elements will have a different mass, but the same number of
particles. If you look up gold (Au) on a periodic table, you will see it has an atomic mass of 107.9. To
measure out one mole, you should weigh out 107.9 grams of gold. The atomic mass of sodium (Na), on
the other hand, is 23.0 and so one mole is 23 grams of sodium. Both gold and sodium have the same
number of particles in one mole, i.e. 6.023 x 1023.

Kinetic Theory and Change

The kinetic theory of matter states that atoms and molecules are in constant motion and that the higher the
temperature around them, the greater their speed will be. In other words, increased heat energy will make
atoms and molecules move faster. This ties in to the states or phases of matter. In the solid phase, atoms
and molecules are close together and vibrate in random directions. In the liquid phase, they move around
and collide with each other. Then, in the gas phase, they move around much faster and spread out or
expand. Energy is necessary for a phase change, often in the form of heat energy.
When a solid reaches its melting point, it becomes a liquid. We see this when solid ice melts into liquid
water. Then, when the liquid is heated enough, it reaches boiling point and changes from liquid to gas
phase. The melting and boiling points vary, depending on the properties of the elements that form the
molecules. Water has a low melting point (32 °F), but many elements have much higher ones. Iron’s
melting point is 2777 °F!
Chemical change affects the type of atoms in a molecule; physical change, on the other hand, does not
change the atomic makeup of a molecule. When you take a piece of paper and hold the end to a flame, the
result – burned paper – is a chemical change. The paper cannot become “unburned.” When you get a plain
piece of paper wet, though, the change is physical. You can dry out the paper, often without leaving much
damage – the water will evaporate.
Bonds join different atoms or molecules together. Atoms have “shells” of electrons around them, which
attract other atoms – when the outer shell has an incomplete number of electrons, it will attract another
incomplete atom. A covalent bond occurs when atoms share electrons. Water (H 2O) has very strong
covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms. A compound with covalent bonds will typically not
conduct electricity when dissolved in water. (100% pure water does not conduct electricity.)
Ionic bonds typically form between metal and nonmetal compounds. A cation is an atom that has lost an
electron and has a positive charge; an anion is an atom that has gained an electron and has a negative
charge. When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, the water will conduct electricity.
In a reaction, the original bonds between atoms break down and the atoms form new bonds. Energy is
used to break the old bonds and energy (usually in the form of heat) is given off or absorbed as the new
bonds are formed. Exothermic reactions produce heat, whereas endothermic reactions take heat in. Next
time you bake a cake, consider this.
Example: The cake dough is not really a cake, but when it’s heated in the oven, an endothermic chemical
reaction occurs and new bonds are formed, creating the compound of flour, sugar, butter, eggs, salt, and
everything else that makes the cake.
Oxidation reactions occur when a chemical substance loses electrons to another substance. Combustion is
an example of this. Gasoline contains carbon and hydrogen, which “oxidize” to produce water (H 2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) when it burns. Corrosion is another oxidation reaction, occurring when metal is in
contact with oxygen. The reaction causes a compound, called an oxide, to form on the surface of the
metal. Rust (iron oxide) is a common example of this.
In a reduction reaction, one chemical substance gains electrons from another substance. An example of
this is plant photosynthesis: the plant cells use energy from the sun to turn water and carbon dioxide into
glucose and oxygen.
CRYSTALLIZATION
Definition
Crystallization is a natural process which occurs as materials solidify from a liquid, or as they precipitate
out of a liquid or gas. This can be caused by a physical change, such as a temperature change, or a
chemical change such as acidity. Crystallization is a process directed by the size and shapes of the
molecules involved, and their chemical properties. Crystals can be formed out of a single species of atom,
different species of ions, or even large molecules like proteins. Some large molecules have a harder time
undergoing the crystallization process, because their internal chemistry is not very symmetrical or
interacts with itself to avoid crystallization.
The smallest unit of a crystal is called the unit cell. This is the base formation of atoms or molecules upon
which additional units can be attached. You can think of this as a children’s building block, to which
other blocks can be attached. Crystallization proceeds as if you were attaching these blocks in all
directions. Some materials form different shaped crystals, which accounts for the great variation in shape,
size, and color of various crystals.

Solidification

The crystallization of a large amount of material from a single point of nucleation results in a
single crystal. In engineering materials, single crystals are produced only under carefully
controlled conditions. The expense of producing single crystal materials is only justified for
special applications, such as turbine engine blades, solar cells, and piezoelectric materials.
Normally when a material begins to solidify, multiple crystals begin to grow in the liquid and a
polycrystalline (more than one crystal) solid forms.

The moment a crystal begins to grow is known as nucleation and the point where it occurs is the
nucleation point. At the solidification temperature, atoms of a liquid, such as melted metal, begin
to bond together at the nucleation points and start to form crystals. The final sizes of the
individual crystals depend on the number of nucleation points. The crystals increase in size by
the progressive addition of atoms and grow until they impinge upon adjacent growing crystal.
a) Nucleation of crystals, b) crystal growth, c) irregular grains form as crystals grow together,
d) grain boundaries as seen in a microscope.

In engineering materials, a crystal is usually referred to as a grain. A grain is merely a crystal

without smooth faces because its growth was impeded by contact with another grain or a
boundary surface. The interface formed between grains is called a grain boundary. The atoms
between the grains (at the grain boundaries) have no crystalline structure and are said to be
disordered.

Grains are sometimes large enough to be visible under an ordinary light microscope or even to
the unaided eye. The spangles that are seen on newly galvanized metals are grains. Rapid cooling
generally results in more nucleation points and smaller grains (a fine grain structure). Slow
cooling generally results in larger grains which will have lower strength, hardness and ductility.

Dendrites
In metals, the crystals that form in the liquid during
freezing generally follow a pattern consisting of a main
branch with many appendages. A crystal with this
morphology slightly resembles a pine tree and is called a
dendrite, which means branching. The formation of
dendrites occurs because crystals grow in defined planes
due to the crystal lattice they create. The figure to the right
shows how a cubic crystal can grow in a melt in three
dimensions, which correspond to the six faces of the cube.
For clarity of illustration, the adding of unit cells with continued solidification from the six faces
is shown simply as lines. Secondary dendrite arms branch off the primary arm, and tertiary arms
off the secondary arms and etcetera.

During freezing of a polycrystalline material, many

dendritic crystals form and grow until they eventually
become large enough to impinge upon each other.
Eventually, the interdendriticspaces between the dendrite
arms crystallize to yield a more regular crystal. The
original dendritic pattern may not be apparent when
examining the microstructure of a material. However,
dendrites can often be seen in solidification voids that
sometimes occur in castings or welds, as shown to the
right.

Shrinkage

Most materials contract or shrink during solidification and

cooling. Shrinkage is the result of:

 Contraction of the liquid as it cools prior to its solidification

 Contraction during phase change from a liquid to solid
 Contraction of the solid as it continues to cool to ambient temperature.

Shrinkage can sometimes cause cracking to occur in component as it solidifies. Since the coolest
area of a volume of liquid is where it contacts a mold or die, solidification usually begins first at
this surface. As the crystals grow inward, the material continues to shrink. If the solid surface is
too rigid and will not deform to accommodate the internal shrinkage, the stresses can become
high enough to exceed the tensile strength of the material and cause a crack to form. Shrinkage
cavitation sometimes occurs because as a material solidifies inward, shrinkage occurred to such
an extent that there is not enough atoms present to fill the available space and a void is left.

Anisotropy and Isotropy

In a single crystal, the physical and mechanical properties often differ with orientation. It can be
seen from looking at our models of crystalline structure that atoms should be able to slip over
one another or distort in relation to one another easier in some directions than others. When the
properties of a material vary with different crystallographic orientations, the material is said to be
anisotropic.

Alternately, when the properties of a material are the same in all directions, the material is said to
be isotropic. For many polycrystalline materials the grain orientations are random before any
working (deformation) of the material is done. Therefore, even if the individual grains are
anisotropic, the property differences tend to average out and, overall, the material is isotropic.
When a material is formed, the grains are usually distorted and elongated in one or more
directions which makes the material anisotropic. Material forming will be discussed later but
let’s continue discussing crystalline structure at the atomic level.

Crystal Defects

A perfect crystal, with every atom of the same type in the correct position, does not exist. All
crystals have some defects. Defects contribute to the mechanical properties of metals. In fact,
using the term “defect” is sort of a misnomer since these features are commonly intentionally
used to manipulate the mechanical properties of a material. Adding alloying elements to a metal
is one way of introducing a crystal defect. Nevertheless, the term “defect” will be used, just keep
in mind that crystalline defects are not always bad. There are basic classes of crystal defects:

 Point defects, which are places where an atom is missing or irregularly placed in the
lattice structure. Point defects include lattice vacancies, self-interstitial atoms,
substitution impurity atoms, and interstitial impurity atoms
 Linear defects, which are groups of atoms in irregular positions. Linear defects are
commonly called dislocations.
 Planar defects, which are interfaces between homogeneous regions of the material. Planar
defects include grain boundaries, stacking faults and external surfaces.

It is important to note at this point that plastic deformation in a material occurs due to the
movement of dislocations (linear defects). Millions of dislocations result for plastic forming
operations such as rolling and extruding. It is also important to note that any defect in the regular
lattice structure disrupts the motion of dislocation, which makes slip or plastic deformation more
difficult. These defects not only include the point and planer defects mentioned above, and also
other dislocations. Dislocation movement produces additional dislocations, and when
dislocations run into each other it often impedes movement of the dislocations. This drives up the
force needed to move the dislocation or, in other words, strengthens the material. Each of the
crystal defects will be discussed in more detail in the following pages.

Point Defects

Point defects are where an atom is missing or is in an

irregular place in the lattice structure. Point defects
include self-interstitial atoms, interstitial impurity
atoms, substitutional atoms and vacancies. A self-
interstitial atom is an extra atom that has crowded its
way into an interstitial void in the crystal structure.
Self-interstitial atoms occur only in low
concentrations in metals because they distort and
highly stress the tightly packed lattice structure.
A substitutional impurity atom is an atom of a different type than the bulk atoms, which has
replaced one of the bulk atoms in the lattice. Substitutional impurity atoms are usually close in
size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. An example of substitutional impurity atoms
is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have replaced some of
the copper atoms, which have a radius of 0.128 nm.

Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial
impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An
example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make steel.
Carbon atoms, with a radius of 0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (0.124
nm) iron atoms.

Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They are common,
especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change their positions
leaving behind empty lattice sites. In most cases diffusion (mass transport by atomic motion) can
only occur because of vacancies.

Linear Defects - Dislocations

Dislocations are another type of defect in crystals. Dislocations are areas were the atoms are out
of position in the crystal structure. Dislocations are generated and move when a stress is applied.
The motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic deformation to occur.

Before the discovery of the dislocation by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani in 1934, no one could
figure out how the plastic deformation properties of a metal could be greatly changed by solely
by forming (without changing the chemical composition). This became even bigger mystery
when in the early 1900’s scientists estimated that metals undergo plastic deformation at forces
much smaller than the theoretical strength of the forces that are holding the metal atoms together.
Many metallurgists remained skeptical of the dislocation theory until the development of the
transmission electron microscope in the late 1950’s. The TEM allowed experimental evidence to
be collected that showed that the strength and ductility of metals are controlled by dislocations.

There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation and the screw dislocation.
Actually, edge and screw dislocations are just extreme forms of the possible dislocation
structures that can occur. Most dislocations are probably a hybrid of the edge and screw forms
but this discussion will be limited to these two types.

Edge Dislocations

The edge defect can be easily visualized as an extra half-plane of atoms in a lattice. The
dislocation is called a line defect because the locus of defective points produced in the lattice by
the dislocation lie along a line. This line runs along the top of the extra half-plane. The inter-
atomic bonds are significantly distorted only in the immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
Understanding the movement of a dislocation is key to understanding why dislocations allow
deformation to occur at much lower stress than in a perfect crystal. Dislocation motion is
analogous to movement of a caterpillar. The caterpillar would have to exert a large force to move
its entire body at once. Instead it moves the rear portion of its body forward a small amount and
creates a hump. The hump then moves forward and eventual moves all of the body forward by a
small amount.

As shown in the set of images above, the dislocation moves similarly moves a small amount at a
time. The dislocation in the top half of the crystal is slipping one plane at a time as it moves to
the right from its position in image (a) to its position in image (b) and finally image (c). In the
process of slipping one plane at a time the dislocation propagates across the crystal. The
movement of the dislocation across the plane eventually causes the top half of the crystal to
move with respect to the bottom half. However, only a small fraction of the bonds are broken at
any given time. Movement in this manner requires a much smaller force than breaking all the
bonds across the middle plane simultaneously.

Screw Dislocations
There is a second basic type of dislocation,
called screw dislocation. The screw dislocation is
slightly more difficult to visualize. The motion
of a screw dislocation is also a result of shear
stress, but the defect line movement is
perpendicular to direction of the stress and the
atom displacement, rather than parallel. To
visualize a screw dislocation, imagine a block of
metal with a shear stress applied across one end
so that the metal begins to rip. This is shown in
the upper right image. The lower right image
shows the plane of atoms just above the rip. The
atoms represented by the blue circles have not
yet moved from their original position. The
atoms represented by the red circles have moved
to their new position in the lattice and have
reestablished metallic bonds. The atoms
represented by the green circles are in the
process of moving. It can be seen that only a
portion of the bonds are broke at any given time.
As was the case with the edge dislocation,
movement in this manner requires a much
smaller force than breaking all the bonds across
the middle plane simultaneously.

If the shear force is increased, the atoms will

continue to slip to the right. A row of the green atoms will find their way back into a proper spot
in the lattice (and become red) and a row of the blue atoms will slip out of position (and become
green). In this way, the screw dislocation will move upward in the image, which is perpendicular
to direction of the stress. Recall that the edge dislocation moves parallel to the direction of stress.
As shown in the image below, the net plastic deformation of both edge and screw dislocations is
the same, however.
The dislocations move along the densest planes of atoms in a material, because the stress needed
to move the dislocation increases with the spacing between the planes. FCC and BCC metals
have many dense planes, so dislocations move relatively easy and these materials have high
ductility. Metals are strengthened by making it more difficult for dislocations to move. This may
involve the introduction of obstacles, such as interstitial atoms or grain boundaries, to “pin” the
dislocations. Also, as a material plastically deforms, more dislocations are produced and they
will get into each other’s way and impede movement. This is why strain or work hardening
occurs.

In ionically bonded materials, the ion must move past an area with a repulsive charge in order to
get to the next location of the same charge. Therefore, slip is difficult and the materials are
brittle. Likewise, the low density packing of covalent materials makes them generally more
brittle than metals.

Planar Defects
Stacking Faults and Twin Boundaries

A disruption of the long-range stacking sequence can produce two other common types of crystal
defects: 1) a stacking fault and 2) a twin region. A change in the stacking sequence over a few
atomic spacings produce a stacking fault whereas a change over many atomic spacings produces
a twin region.

A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in the stacking sequence of atom planes.
Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but it is easiest to see how they occur in
close packed structures. For example, it is know from a previous discussion that face centered
cubic (FCC) structures differ from hexagonal close packed (HCP) structures only in their
stacking order. For HCP and FCC structures, the first two layers arrange themselves identically,
and are said to have an AB arrangement. If the third layer is placed so that its atoms are directly
above those of the first (A) layer, the stacking will be ABA. This is the HCP structure, and it
continues ABABABAB. However it is possible for the third layer atoms to arrange themselves
so that they are in line with the first layer to produce an ABC arrangement which is that of the
FCC structure. So, if the HCP structure is going along as ABABAB and suddenly switches to
ABABABCABAB, there is a stacking fault present.

Alternately, in the FCC arrangement the pattern is ABCABCABC. A stacking fault in an FCC
structure would appear as one of the C planes missing. In other words the pattern would become
ABCABCAB_ABCABC.

If a stacking fault does not corrects itself immediately but continues over some number of atomic
spacings, it will produce a second stacking fault that is the twin of the first one. For example if
the stacking pattern is ABABABAB but switches to ABCABCABC for a period of time before
switching back to ABABABAB, a pair of twin stacking faults is produced. The red region in the
stacking sequence that goes ABCABCACBACBABCABC is the twin plane and the twin
boundaries are the A planes on each end of the highlighted region.

Grain Boundaries in Polycrystals

Another type of planer defect is the grain boundary. Up to this point, the discussion has focused
on defects of single crystals. However, solids generally consist of a number of crystallites or
grains. Grains can range in size from nanometers to millimeters across and their orientations are
usually rotated with respect to neighboring grains. Where one grain stops and another begins is
know as a grain boundary. Grain boundaries limit the lengths and motions of dislocations.
Therefore, having smaller grains (more grain boundary surface area) strengthens a material. The
size of the grains can be controlled by the cooling rate when the material cast or heat treated.
Generally, rapid cooling produces smaller grains whereas slow cooling result in larger grains.
For more information, refer to the discussion on solidification.

Bulk Defects

Bulk defects occur on a much bigger scale than the

rest of the crystal defects discussed in this section.
However, for the sake of completeness and since
they do affect the movement of dislocations, a few
of the more common bulk defects will be
mentioned. Voids are regions where there are a
large number of atoms missing from the lattice.
The image to the right is a void in a piece of metal
The image was acquired using a Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM). Voids can occur for a number
of reasons. When voids occur due to air bubbles
becoming trapped when a material solidifies, it is
commonly called porosity. When a void occurs due to the shrinkage of a material as it solidifies,
it is called cavitation.

Another type of bulk defect occurs when impurity atoms cluster together to form small regions
of a different phase. The term ‘phase’ refers to that region of space occupied by a physically
homogeneous material. These regions are often called precipitates. Phases and precipitates will
be discussed in more detail latter.

Elastic/Plastic Deformation

When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural material, it will cause the material
to change shape. This change in shape is called deformation. A temporary shape change that is
self-reversing after the force is removed, so that the object returns to its original shape, is called
elastic deformation. In other words, elastic deformation is a change in shape of a material at low
stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. This type of deformation involves stretching
of the bonds, but the atoms do not slip past each other.

When the stress is sufficient to permanently

deform the metal, it is called plastic
deformation. As discussed in the section on
crystal defects, plastic deformation
involves the breaking of a limited number
of atomic bonds by the movement of
dislocations. Recall that the force needed to
break the bonds of all the atoms in a crystal
plane all at once is very great. However, the
movement of dislocations allows atoms in
crystal planes to slip past one another at a
much lower stress levels. Since the energy
required to move is lowest along the
densest planes of atoms, dislocations have a
preferred direction of travel within a grain
of the material. This results in slip that
occurs along parallel planes within the
grain. These parallel slip planes group
together to form slip bands, which can be
seen with an optical microscope. A slip
band appears as a single line under the
microscope, but it is in fact made up of
closely spaced parallel slip planes as shown
in the image.

Fatigue Crack Initiation

While on the subject of dislocations, it is appropriate to briefly discuss fatigue. Fatigue is one of
the primary reasons for the failure of structural components. The life of a fatigue crack has two
parts, initiation and propagation. Dislocations play a major role in the fatigue crack initiation
phase. It has been observed in laboratory testing that after a large number of loading cycles
dislocations pile up and form structures called persistent slip bands (PSB). An example of a PSB
is shown in the micrograph image to the right.

PSBs are areas that rise above (extrusion) or fall below (intrusion) the surface of the component
due to movement of material along slip planes. This leaves
tiny steps in the surface that serve as stress risers where
fatigue cracks can initiate. A crack at the edge of a PSB is
shown in the image below taken with a scanning electron
microscope (SEM).

Diffusion

Diffusion is the migration of atoms from a region of high concentration to

a region of low concentration. In a homogeneous material, atoms are
routinely moving around but the movement is random (i.e. there is always
an equal number of atoms moving in all directions). In an inhomogeneous
material, all the atoms are moving near randomly, but there is a migration
of atoms to areas where their concentrations are lower. In other words,
there is a net diffusion.

Atom diffusion can occur by the motion of host or substitutional atoms to

vacancies (vacancy diffusion), or interstitial impurities atoms to different
interstitial positions (interstitial diffusion). In order to move, an atom
must overcome the bond energy due to nearby atoms. This is more easily
achieved at high temperatures when the atoms are vibrating strongly.
Carburizing, which will be discussed later, is an example of diffusion is
used.
Property Modification

Many structural metals undergo some special treatment to modify their properties so that they
will perform better for their intended use. This treatment can include mechanical working, such
as rolling or forging, alloying and/or thermal treatments. Consider aluminum as an example.
Commercially pure aluminum (1100) has a tensile strength of around 13,000 psi, which limits its
usefulness in structural applications. However, by cold-working aluminum, its strength can be
approximately doubled. Also, strength increases are obtained by adding alloying metals such as
manganese, silicon, copper, magnesium and zinc. Further, many aluminum alloys are
strengthened by heat treatment. Some heat-treatable aluminum alloys obtain tensile strengths that
can exceed 100,000 psi.

Strengthening/Hardening Mechanisms

As discussed in the previous section, the ability of a crystalline material to plastically deform
largely depends on the ability for dislocation to move within a material. Therefore, impeding the
movement of dislocations will result in the strengthening of the material. There are a number of
ways to impede dislocation movement, which include:

 controlling the grain size (reducing continuity of atomic planes)

 strain hardening (creating and tangling dislocations)
 alloying (introducing point defects and more grains to pin dislocation)

Control of Grain Size

The size of the grains within a material also has an effect

on the strength of the material. The boundary between
grains acts as a barrier to dislocation movement and the
resulting slip because adjacent grains have different
orientations. Since the atom alignment is different and slip
planes are discontinuous between grains. The smaller the grains, the shorter the distance atoms
can move along a particular slip plane. Therefore, smaller grains improve the strength of a
material. The size and number of grains within a material is controlled by the rate of
solidification from the liquid phase.

Strain Hardening

Strain hardening (also called work-hardening or cold-working) is the process of making a metal
harder and stronger through plastic deformation. When a metal is plastically deformed,
dislocations move and additional dislocations are generated. The more dislocations within a
material, the more they will interact and become pinned or tangled. This will result in a decrease
in the mobility of the dislocations and a strengthening of the material. This type of strengthening
is commonly called cold-working. It is called cold-working because the plastic deformation must
occurs at a temperature low enough that atoms cannot rearrange themselves. When a metal is
worked at higher temperatures (hot-working) the dislocations can rearrange and little
strengthening is achieved.

Strain hardening can be easily demonstrated with piece of wire or a paper clip. Bend a straight
section back and forth several times. Notice that it is more difficult to bend the metal at the same
place. In the strain hardened area dislocations have formed and become tangled, increasing the
strength of the material. Continued bending will eventually cause the wire to break at the bend
due to fatigue cracking. (After a large number of bending cycles, dislocations form structures
called Persistent Slip Bands (PSB). PSBs are basically tiny areas where the dislocations have
piled up and moved the material surface out leave steps in the surface that act as stress risers or
crack initiation points.)

It should be understood, however, that increasing the

strength by cold-working will also result in a reduction in
ductility. The graph to the right shows the yield strength
and the percent elongation as a function of percent cold-
work for a few example materials. Notice that for each
material, a small amount of cold-working results in a
significant reduction in ductility.

Effects of Elevated Temperature on Strain Hardened Materials

When strain hardened materials are exposed to elevated temperatures, the strengthening that
resulted from the plastic deformation can be lost. This can be a bad thing if the strengthening is
needed to support a load. However, strengthening due to strain hardening is not always desirable,
especially if the material is being heavily formed since ductility will be lowered.

Heat treatment can be used to remove the effects of strain hardening. Three things can occur
during heat treatment:
 1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth

Recovery

When a stain hardened material is held at

an elevated temperature an increase in
atomic diffusion occurs that relieves
some of the internal strain energy.
Remember that atoms are not fixed in
position but can move around when they
have enough energy to break their bonds.
Diffusion increases rapidly with rising
temperature and this allows atoms in
severely strained regions to move to
unstrained positions. In other words,
atoms are freer to move around and
recover a normal position in the lattice
structure. This is known as the recovery phase and it results in an adjustment of strain on a
microscopic scale. Internal residual stresses are lowered due to a reduction in the dislocation
density and a movement of dislocation to lower-energy positions. The tangles of dislocations
condense into sharp two-dimensional boundaries and the dislocation density within these areas
decrease. These areas are called subgrains. There is no appreciable reduction in the strength and
hardness of the material but corrosion resistance often improves.

Recrystallization

At a higher temperature, new, strain-free grains nucleate and grow inside the old distorted grains
and at the grain boundaries. These new grains grow to replace the deformed grains produced by
the strain hardening. With recrystallization, the mechanical properties return to their original
weaker and more ductile states. Recrystallization depends on the temperature, the amount of time
at this temperature and also the amount of strain hardening that the material experienced. The
more strain hardening, the lower the temperature will be at which recrystallization occurs. Also,
a minimum amount (typically 2-20%) of cold work is necessary for any amount of
recrystallization to occur. The size the new grains is also partially dependant on the amount of
strain hardening. The greater the stain hardening, the more nuclei for the new grains, and the
resulting grain size will be smaller (at least initially).

Grain Growth

If a specimen is left at the high temperature beyond the time needed for complete
recrystallization, the grains begin to grow in size. This occurs because diffusion occurs across the
grain boundaries and larger grains have less grain boundary surface area per unit of volume.
Therefore, the larger grains lose fewer atoms and grow at the expense of the smaller grains.
Larger grains will reduce the strength and toughness of the material.

Laboratory Uses of Crystallization

Crystallization is a common and useful laboratory technique. It can be used to purify substances, and can
be combined with advanced imaging techniques to understand the nature of the substances crystallized. In
laboratory crystallization, a substance can be dissolved into an appropriate solvent. Heat and changes in
acidity can help the material dissolve. When these conditions are reversed, the materials within the
solution precipitate out at different rates. If the conditions are controlled properly, pure crystals of a
desired substance can be obtained.
An advanced imaging technique, called crystallography, x-rays or other high-energy beams and particles
can be shot through the crystal structure of a pure substance. While this doesn’t create a visible image, the
rays and particles are diffracted in specific patterns. These patterns can be detected by special developing
paper or electronic detectors. The pattern can then be analyzed by mathematics and computers, and a
model of the crystal can be formed. The diffraction patterns are created when particles or beams are
redirected by dense electron-clouds within the crystal structure. These dense areas represent the atoms
and bonds present in the crystal, formed during crystallization. Using this method, scientists can
recognize almost any substance based on its crystal form.

Crystallization Examples

Human time-scale

Crystals can take an enormous amount of time to form, or they can form quickly. Scientists were able to
study crystallization, because there are many events in nature in which crystallization takes place quickly.
As already discussed, ice and snowflakes are great examples of the crystallization of water. Another
interesting example is the crystallization of honey. When bees regurgitate honey into the honeycomb, it is
a liquid. Over time, sugar molecules within the honey begin to form crystals, through the process of
crystallization described above. If you have an old bottle of honey, look inside. There will likely be little
crystals of sugar within the liquid. If you want to speed the process up, put the honey in the refrigerator.
The cooling of the liquid decreases the solubility of the sugar within the liquid, and it will rapidly form
crystals.

Geological time scale

While the process is similar, the time it takes to form things like quartz, ruby, and granite are much
longer. These crystals are formed under extremely high pressures within the crust and magma of the
Earth. While the process of crystallization is the same, it takes a long time for the conditions and atoms to
unite in just the right way to crystallize. These processes can be replicated in the laboratory, in shorter
times, by creating ideal conditions for the crystallization to occur. Laboratories can also grow seed
crystals, which can be introduced to greatly speed the production of large batches of crystal at once.
On a slightly shorter timescale, mineral buildups like stalactites and stalagmites are also formed through
the crystallization process. As small drops of water are dropped onto these crystals, the minerals within
are integrated into the crystal structure already present, and the water drains off.
FORCE AND ELASTICITY

FORCE

Force is a push or a pull. Force is therefore that which changes a body’s state of motion or shape.
The SI unit for force is Newton (N). It is a vector quantity.

Types of forces
Gravitational force –this is the force of attraction between two bodies of given masses.
Earth’s gravitational force is the force which pulls a body towards its center. This pull of gravity is called
weight.
Force of friction – this is a force which opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact with each
other. Friction in fluids is known as viscosity.
Tension force – this is the pull or compression of a string or spring at both its ends.
Upthrust force – this is the upward force acting on an object immersed in a fluid.
Cohesive and adhesive forces – cohesive is the force of attraction of molecules of the same kind while
adhesive is the force of attraction of molecules of different kinds.
Magnetic force – this is a force which causes attraction or repulsion in a magnet.
Electrostatic force – this is the force of attraction or repulsion of static charges
Centripetal force – this is a force which constrains a body to move in a circular orbit or path.
Surface tension – this is the force which causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched skin. This
force is cohesive.

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law: Inertia
"An object either remains at rest or continues to move at a constant velocity, unless acted upon by a net
external force."
An object will not accelerate unless it is acted on by unbalanced forces.
All matter has inertia. Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in velocity, or
acceleration. An object with a large mass, has a large inertia, and a high resistance to acceleration.

Newton's Second Law: Force

"The vector sum of the external forces, F, on an object is equal to the mass, m, of that object multiplied by
the acceleration vector of the object."
∑F=ma
Example: A ball has a mass of 0.43 kg. Find the acceleration of the ball when it experiences a net force
(total force) of 1 N from air friction.
Example: A 100 kg boat at rest is being pushed left with a 2000 N force from the wind. The water current
is producing a force of 1900 N to the right. How will the boat accelerate? How far will the boat go in 6 s?

Newton's Third Law:

Equal and Opposite Force Pairs
"When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body."
If you push on something it will push back with the same force, but in the opposite direction. Forces
always come in equal, but opposite pairs.
Most of the time force pairs come from objects in contact, but even non-contact forces, like gravity, still
obey this law.

Momentum

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

A rapidly moving truck has a large momentum. It takes a large or prolonged force to get the truck up to
this speed, or to bring it to a stop afterwards. A slow moving snail has a small momentum. It would be
easy to slow down or speed up a little snail.
p = mv
Conservation of momentum, general law of physics according to which the quantity called momentum
that characterizes motion never changes in an isolated collection of objects; that is, the total momentum of
a system remains constant. Momentum is equal to the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity and is
equivalent to the force required to bring the object to a stop in a unit length of time. For any array of
several objects, the total momentum is the sum of the individual momenta. There is a peculiarity,
however, in that momentum is a vector, involving both the direction and the magnitude of motion, so that
the momenta of objects going in opposite directions can cancel to yield an overall sum of zero.
Before launch, the total momentum of a rocket and its fuel is zero. During launch, the downward
momentum of the expanding exhaust gases just equals in magnitude the upward momentum of the rising
rocket, so that the total momentum of the system remains constant—in this case, at zero value. In a
collision of two particles, the sum of the two momenta before collision is equal to their sum after
collision. What momentum one particle loses, the other gains
The law of conservation of momentum is abundantly confirmed by experiment and can even be
mathematically deduced on the reasonable presumption that space is uniform—that is, that there is
nothing in the laws of nature that singles out one position in space as peculiar compared with any other.

Mass and Weight

Mass
The mass of an object is a fundamental property of the object; a numerical measure of its inertia; a
fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object. Definitions of mass often seem circular
because it is such a fundamental quantity that it is hard to define in terms of something else. All
mechanical quantities can be defined in terms of mass, length, and time. The usual symbol for mass is m
and its SI unit is the kilogram. While the mass is normally considered to be an unchanging property of an
object, at speeds approaching the speed of light one must consider the increase in the relativistic mass.
The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined as the mass times the
acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton. Density is
mass/volume.

Weight

The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity on the object and may be calculated as the mass
times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton.
For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the expression for weight
follows from Newton's second law.
Moments
The turning effect of a force is known as the moment. It is the product of the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot or point where the object will turn.

When undoing a nut fastened to a screw by hand one realises that the amount of force required is a lot
greater than when undoing the same nut using a spanner. The spanner increases the distance between the
fulcrum and the line of action of the force, thus for the same force a greater moment is obtained.

Principle of Moments
The principle of moments states that when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti-clockwise moment is
equal to the total sum of the clockwise moment.
When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as all the forces acting on the system
cancel each other out.
In equilibrium
Total Anticlockwise Moment = Total Clockwise Moment
Moments Acting on a Seesaw
Both people exert a downward force on the seesaw due to their weights.
Person A’s weight is trying to turn the seesaw anticlockwise whilst person B’s weight is trying to turn the
seesaw clockwise.
Person A’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum
1000 x 1 = 1000 Nm

Person B’s Moment = Force x perpendicular distance from fulcrum

500 x 2 = 1000 Nm
Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment
Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium.
ELASTICITY

Elasticity, ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when the forces
causing the deformation are removed. A body with this ability is said to behave (or respond) elastically
To a greater or lesser extent, most solid materials exhibit elastic behavior, but there is a limit to the
magnitude of the force and the accompanying deformation within which elastic recovery is possible for
any given material. This limit, called the elastic limit, is the maximum stress or force per unit area within
a solid material that can arise before the onset of permanent deformation. Stresses beyond the elastic limit
cause a material to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic limit marks the end of elastic behavior and
the beginning of plastic behavior. For most brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic limit result in
fracture with almost no plastic deformation.
The elastic limit depends markedly on the type of solid considered; for example, a steel bar or wire can be
extended elastically only about 1 percent of its original length, while for strips of certain rubberlike
materials, elastic extensions of up to 1,000 percent can be achieved. Steel is much stronger than rubber,
however, because the tensile force required to effect the maximum elastic extension in rubber is less (by a
factor of about 0.01) than that required for steel. The elastic properties of many solids in tension lie
between these two extremes.
The different macroscopic elastic properties of steel and rubber result from their very different
microscopic structures. The elasticity of steel and other metals arises from short-range interatomic forces
that, when the material is unstressed, maintain the atoms in regular patterns. Under stress the atomic
bonding can be broken at quite small deformations. By contrast, at the microscopic level, rubberlike
materials and other polymers consist of long-chain molecules that uncoil as the material is extended and
recoil in elastic recovery. The mathematical theory of elasticity and its application to engineering
mechanics is concerned with the macroscopic response of the material and not with the underlying
mechanism that causes it.
In a simple tension test, the elastic response of materials such as steel and bone is typified by a linear
relationship between the tensile stress (tension or stretching force per unit area of cross section of the
material), σ, and the extension ratio (difference between extended and initial lengths divided by the initial
length), e. In other words, σ is proportional to e; this is expressed σ = Ee, where E, the constant of
proportionality, is called Young’s modulus. The value of E depends on the material; the ratio of its values
for steel and rubber is about 100,000. The equation σ = Ee is known as Hooke’s law and is an example of
a constitutive law. It expresses, in terms of macroscopic quantities, something about the nature (or
constitution) of the material. Hooke’s law applies essentially to one-dimensional deformations, but it can
be extended to more general (three-dimensional) deformations by the introduction of linearly related
stresses and strains (generalizations of σ and e) that account for shearing, twisting, and volume changes.
The resulting generalized Hooke’s law, upon which the linear theory of elasticity is based, provides a
good description of the elastic properties of all materials, provided that the deformations correspond to
extensions not exceeding about 5 percent. This theory is commonly applied in the analysis of engineering
structures and of seismic disturbances.
The elastic limit is in principle different from the proportional limit, which marks the end of the kind of
elastic behavior that can be described by Hooke’s law, namely, that in which the stress is proportional to
the strain (relative deformation) or equivalently that in which the load is proportional to the displacement.
The elastic limit nearly coincides with the proportional limit for some elastic materials, so that at times
the two are not distinguished; whereas for other materials a region of non- proportional elasticity exists
between the two.
The linear theory of elasticity is not adequate for the description of the large deformations that can occur
in rubber or in soft human tissue such as skin. The elastic response of these materials is nonlinear except
for very small deformations and, for simple tension, can be represented by the constitutive law σ = f (e),
where f (e) is a mathematical function of e that depends on the material and that approximates to Ee when
e is very small. The term nonlinear means that the graph of σ plotted against e is not a straight line, by
contrast with the situation in the linear theory. The energy, W (e), stored in the material under the action
of the stress σ represents the area under the graph of σ = f (e). It is available for transfer into other forms
of energy—for example, into the kinetic energy of a projectile from a catapult.
The stored-energy function W (e) can be determined by comparing the theoretical relation between σ and
e with the results of experimental tension tests in which σ and e are measured. In this way, the elastic
response of any solid in tension can be characterized by means of a stored-energy function. An important
aspect of the theory of elasticity is the construction of specific forms of strain-energy function from the
results of experiments involving three-dimensional deformations, generalizing the one-dimensional
situation described above.
Strain-energy functions can be used to predict the behavior of the material in circumstances in which a
direct experimental test is impractical. In particular, they can be used in the design of components in
engineering structures. For example, rubber is used in bridge bearings and engine mountings, where its
elastic properties are important for the absorption of vibrations. Steel beams, plates, and shells are used in
many structures; their elastic flexibility contributes to the support of large stresses without material
damage or failure. The elasticity of skin is an important factor in the successful practice of skin grafting.
Within the mathematical framework of the theory of elasticity, problems related to such applications are
solved. The results predicted by the mathematics depend critically on the material properties incorporated
in the strain-energy function, and a wide range of interesting phenomena can be modeled.
Gases and liquids also possess elastic properties since their volume changes under the action of pressure.
For small volume changes, the bulk modulus, κ, of a gas, liquid, or solid is defined by the equation P =
−κ (V − V0)/V0, where P is the pressure that reduces the volume V0 of a fixed mass of material to V. Since
gases can in general be compressed more easily than liquids or solids, the value of κ for a gas is very
much less than that for a liquid or solid. By contrast with solids, fluids cannot support shearing stresses
and have zero Young’s modulus. See also deformation and flow.

Hooke's Law

Hooke’s law, law of elasticity discovered by the English scientist Robert Hooke in 1660, which states
that, for relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement or size of the deformation is directly
proportional to the deforming force or load. Under these conditions the object returns to its original shape
and size upon removal of the load. Elastic behaviour of solids according to Hooke’s law can be explained
by the fact that small displacements of their constituent molecules, atoms, or ions from normal positions
is also proportional to the force that causes the displacement.
The deforming force may be applied to a solid by stretching, compressing, squeezing, bending, or
twisting. Thus, a metal wire exhibits elastic behaviour according to Hooke’s law because the small
increase in its length when stretched by an applied force doubles each time the force is doubled.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law states that the applied force F equals a constant k times the displacement or
change in length x, or F = kx. The value of k depends not only on the kind of elastic material under
consideration but also on its dimensions and shape.
At relatively large values of applied force, the deformation of the elastic material is often larger than
expected on the basis of Hooke’s law, even though the material remains elastic and returns to its original
shape and size after removal of the force. Hooke’s law describes the elastic properties of materials only in
the range in which the force and displacement are proportional. Sometimes Hooke’s law is formulated as
F = −kx. In this expression F no longer means the applied force but rather means the equal and oppositely
directed restoring force that causes elastic materials to return to their original dimensions.
Hooke’s law may also be expressed in terms of stress and strain. Stress is the force on unit areas within a
material that develops as a result of the externally applied force. Strain is the relative deformation
produced by stress. For relatively small stresses, stress is proportional to strain. For particular expressions
of Hooke’s law in this form, see bulk modulus; shear modulus; Young’s modulus.

Stress & Strain

Stress

The stress applied to a material is the force per unit area applied to the material. The maximum stress a
material can stand before it breaks is called the breaking stress or ultimate tensile stress.
Tensile means the material is under tension. The forces acting on it are trying to stretch the material.
Compression is when the forces acting on an object are trying to squash it.
The equation below is used to calculate the stress.

Stress is measured in Nm-2 or Pascals (Pa)

F = force in Newton (N)
A = cross-sectional area in m2

Strain
The ratio of extension to original length is called strain it has no units as it is a ratio of two lengths
measured in meters.
Strain has no units
L =extension measured in meters
L = original length measured in meters
Stress-Strain graph for a ductile material (like copper)

L = the limit of proportionality, Hooke’s law applies up to this point.

E = elastic limit, beyond this point the material is permanently stretch and it will not go back to its
original length. Elastic behavior is when a material returns to its original length, plastic behavior is when
the stretched material does not return to its original length.
Y = yield point, beyond this point small increases in force give much big increases in length.
B = breaking point / breaking stress, the material breaks at this point.
Stress-Strain graph for a brittle material (like glass)

Elastic strain energy (energy stored in a stretched wire or spring)

The energy stored in the stretch wire or spring is the area under the force-extension graph as we can see in
the equation below.

E = elastic strain energy in joules (J)

F = force in Newton (N)
L = change in length in meters (m)
Stretching rubber
When rubber is stretched and released energy is lost as heat and this is called hysteresis. The area between
the two lines is the energy lost per unit volume.
LIQUIDS AND DENSITY

LIQUIDS
Liquid Molecules
Liquids have some intermolecular bonding, but it isn't as strong as bonding in a solid. As a result, the
molecules are close together, but they are not tightly packed. Instead, they are free to slide past each
other. Liquids occur at temperatures above the melting point of a substance, but below its boiling point.
At the melting point, the molecules are moving slow enough to form rigid bonds and become a solid. At
the boiling point, the molecules are moving so fast that they cannot form any bonds and become a gas.

Characteristics of Liquids
Liquids have definite volume, but indefinite shape. They are free to form droplets and puddles when they
are not inside a container. When a liquid is inside a container, it will take its shape. Unlike gases, a liquid
will not change its volume to spread out and completely fill a container. There is enough intermolecular
bonding to give liquids a definite volume.
Liquids are fluid, able to flow and take any shape. This occurs due to the weak intermolecular bonding
that allows the molecules to slide past each other freely. As a result of being fluid, liquids exhibit many
interesting properties that solids do not, including capillary action and diffusion.
Liquids, like gases, undergo diffusion when mixed. This can be seen by adding food coloring to water.
Different liquids, when added, will chaotically spread out and mix together. Diffusion will occur faster
when the liquid is warmer because the increased kinetic energy allows the molecules to move faster and
collide more frequently.
Liquids are usually considered incompressible. The molecules are already close together, so it is difficult
to compress them anymore. Under very high pressures, liquids will actually compress, but not very much.
Liquids, unlike gases, have a distinct surface—they need not take their container's shape. This allows the
formation of droplets and puddles.

Properties

Cohesion and Adhesion

The molecules of a liquid are attracted to each other. This is called cohesion. Molecules like methane are
non-polar, so they are held together only by van der Waals forces. These molecules will have minimal
cohesion. In contrast, water molecules use hydrogen bonding, so they display strong cohesion. A cohesive
liquid will form more spherical droplets and have much higher surface tension.

Adhesion is the attraction of a liquid molecule to its surroundings. Adhesive liquids will demonstrate
capillary action. They are also more "wet". Mercury is very cohesive, but not adhesive. As a result, it
does not leave behind residue as it rolls across a surface. Water, on the other hand, is much more
adhesive. When water rolls across a surface, it wets that surface because some of the molecules adhere to
it.

Surface Tension and Capillary Action

When water drops are on an impermeable (waterproof) surface, they tend to form beads. This is due to its
surface tension. Liquid molecules pull at each other, and as a result they decrease their surface area. The
molecules at the boundary of the liquid are pulled in, causing a droplet shape. When water is on a
permeable surface, it spreads out, as can be seen with water on a paper towel. This capillary action
explains how water in the ground reaches the top of trees that are hundreds of feet tall.

Pressure
Liquids will distribute pressure evenly. This concept, known as Pascal's Law, is crucial for equipment
like hydraulic brakes. It is a result of their incompressibility.

Evaporation

Liquids will evaporate. Although the average kinetic energy of the molecules is too low to overcome
bonding and become a gas, individual molecules will occasionally have above-average energy and break
free from the surface of the liquid. The molecule then escapes to the gas phase. At the same time,
however, a gas molecule may hit the surface of the liquid and slow down enough to join the liquid. A
glass of water left outside in the sun will eventually become empty. The sunlight adds energy to the
molecules, allowing some to escape as a gas. Eventually, all molecules will escape. The tendency of a
liquid to evaporate depends on its intermolecular forces. Volatile liquids tend to evaporate quickly have
relatively weak intermolecular forces keeping the molecules together, making it easier for them to escape
the liquid phase. Conversely, non-volatile liquids do not evaporate to any visible extent due to the
presence very strong intermolecular forces.
The evaporation increases with temperature. It can be measured by vapor pressure, the amount of pressure
exerted by the evaporated gas above the liquid's surface. Vapor pressure increases with temperature, and
once it reaches the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere, the liquid will boil. Vapor pressure also
depends on the intensity of intermolecular forces in the liquid.

Viscosity

Viscosity refers to the liquid's resistance to flow. For example, maple syrup has a relatively high viscosity
when compared to water because maple syrup flows much slower than water, which flows relatively
quickly and easily. The difference in viscosity between these two liquids is due to the attractive forces
within the specific liquid. In order to flow, molecules must roll and move over each other. A solution with
low attractive forces would allow the molecules to move in a more free and easy manner, decreasing the
viscosity.
In most cases, the viscosity of a liquid decreases as the temperature of a liquid is increased. Increasing the
temperature of a liquid causes the molecules to have a higher kinetic energy. This increase in kinetic
energy breaks down the intermolecular forces present in the liquid. Since viscosity is dependent on these
attractive forces, the viscosity will decrease when the kinetic energy is increased.

Uses of Liquids

Liquids have a variety of uses, as lubricants, solvents, and coolants. In hydraulic systems, liquid is used to
transmit power.

In tribology, liquids are studied for their properties as lubricants. Lubricants such as oil are chosen for
viscosity and flow characteristics that are suitable throughout the operating temperature range of the
component. Oils are often used in engines, gear boxes, metalworking, and hydraulic systems for their
good lubrication properties.

Many liquids are used as solvents, to dissolve other liquids or solids. Solutions are found in a wide
variety of applications, including paints, sealants, and adhesives. Naphtha and acetone are used
frequently in industry to clean oil, grease, and tar from parts and machinery. Body fluids are water based
solutions.

Surfactants are commonly found in soaps and detergents. Solvents like alcohol are often used as
antimicrobials. They are found in cosmetics, inks, and liquid dye lasers. They are used in the food
industry, in processes such as the extraction of vegetable oil.

Liquid is the primary component of hydraulic systems, which take advantage of Pascal's law to provide
fluid power. Devices such as pumps and waterwheels have been used to change liquid motion into
mechanical work since ancient times. Oils are forced through hydraulic pumps, which transmit this
force to hydraulic cylinders. Hydraulics can be found in many applications, such as automotive brakes
and transmissions, heavy equipment, and airplane control systems. Various hydraulic presses are used
extensively in repair and manufacturing, for lifting, pressing, clamping and forming.

Liquids are sometimes used in measuring devices. A thermometer often uses the thermal expansion of
liquids, such as mercury, combined with their ability to flow to indicate temperature. A manometer uses
the weight of the liquid to indicate air pressure
MASS, DENSITY, AND VOLUME

Introduction

Among the physical properties studied by chemists and other scientists, mass is one of the most
fundamental. All matter, by definition, has mass. Mass, in turn, plays a role in two properties important to
the study of chemistry: density and volume. All of these—mass, density, and volume—are simple
concepts, yet in order to work in chemistry or any of the other hard sciences, it is essential to understand
these types of measurement. Measuring density, for instance, aids in determining the composition of a
given substance, while volume is a necessary component to using the gas laws.
Fundamental Properties in Relation to Volume and Density
Most qualities of the world studied by scientists can be measured in terms of one or more of four
properties: length, mass, time, and electric charge. The volume of a cube, for instance, is a unit of length
cubed—that is, length multiplied by "width," which is then multiplied by "height."
Width and height are not, for the purposes of science, distinct from length: they are simply versions of it,
distinguished by their orientation in space. Length provides one dimension, while width provides a
second perpendicular to the third. Height, perpendicular both to length and width, makes the third spatial
dimension—yet all of these are merely expressions of length differentiated according to direction.

Volume and Density

Volume, then, is measured in terms of length, and can be defined as the amount of three-dimensional
space an object occupies. Volume is usually expressed in cubic units of length—for example, the
milliliter (mL), also known as the cubic centimeter (cc), is equal to 6.10237 · 10 −2 in3. As its name
implies, there are 1,000 milliliters in a liter.
Density is the ratio of mass to volume—or, to put its definition in terms of fundamental properties, of
mass divided by cubed length. Density can also be viewed as the amount of matter within a given area. In
the SI system, density is typically expressed as grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3), equivalent to
62.42197 pounds per cubic foot in the English system.

Mass

Though length is easy enough to comprehend, mass is more involved. In his second law of motion, Sir
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) defined mass as the ratio of force to gravity. This, of course, is a statement that
belongs to the realm of physics; for a chemist, it is more useful—and also accurate—to define mass as the
quantity of matter that an object contains.
Matter, in turn, can be defined as physical substance that occupies space; is composed of atoms (or in the
case of subatomic particles, is part of an atom); is convertible into energy—and has mass. The form or
state of matter itself is not important: on Earth it is primarily observed as a solid, liquid, or gas, but it can
also be found (particularly in other parts of the universe) in a fourth state, plasma.
The more matter an object contains, the more mass. To refer again to the laws of motion, in his first law,
Newton identified inertia: the tendency of objects in motion to remain in motion, or of objects at rest to
remain at rest, in a constant velocity unless they are acted upon by some outside force. Mass is a measure
of inertia, meaning that the more mass something contains, the more difficult it is to put it into motion, or
to stop it from moving.

Mass Versuss Weight.

Most people who are not scientifically trained tend to think that mass and weight are the same thing, but
this is like saying that apples and apple pies are the same. Of course, an apple is an ingredient in an apple
pie, but the pie contains something else—actually, a number of other things, such as flour and sugar. In
this analogy, mass is equivalent to the apple, and weight the pie, while the acceleration due to gravity is
the "something else" in weight.
It is understandable why people confuse mass with weight, since most weight scales provide
measurements in both pounds and kilograms. However, the pound (lb) is a unit of weight in the English
system, whereas a kilogram (kg) is a unit of mass in the metric and SI systems. Though the two are
relatively convertible on Earth (1 lb = 0.4536 kg; 1 kg = 2.21 lb), they are actually quite different.
Weight is a measure of force, which Newton's second law of motion defined as the product of mass
multiplied by acceleration. The acceleration component of weight is a result of Earth's gravitational pull,
and is equal to 32 ft (9.8 m) per second squared. Thus a person's weight varies according to gravity, and
would be different if measured on the Moon; mass, on the other hand, is the same throughout the
universe. Given its invariable value, scientists typically speak in terms of mass rather than weight.
Weight differs as a response to the gravitational pull of the planet, moon, or other body on which it is
measured. Hence a person weighs less on the Moon, because the Moon possesses less mass than Earth,
and, thus, exerts less gravitational force. Therefore, it would be easier on the Moon to lift a person from
the ground, but it would be no easier to move that person from a resting position, or to stop him or her
from moving. This is because the person's mass, and hence his or her resistance to inertia, has not
changed.

Measuring Volume

Mass, because of its fundamental nature, is sometimes hard to comprehend, and density requires an
explanation in terms of mass and volume. Volume, on the other hand, appears to be quite straightforward
—and it is, when one is describing a solid of regular shape. In other situations, however, volume
measurement is more complicated.
As noted earlier, the volume of a cube can be obtained simply by multiplying length by width by height.
There are other means for measuring the volume of other straight-sided objects, such as a pyramid. Still
other formulae, which make use of the constant π (roughly equal to 3.14) are necessary for measuring the
volume of a cylinder, a sphere, or a cone.
For an object that is irregular in shape, however, one may have to employ calculus—but the most basic
method is simply to immerse the object in water. This procedure involves measuring the volume of the
water before and after immersion, and calculating the difference. Of course, the object being measured
cannot be water-soluble; if it is, its volume must be measured in a non-water-based liquid such as alcohol.
LIQUID AND GAS VOLUME.

Measuring liquid volumes is even easier than for solids, given the fact that liquids have no definite shape,
and will simply take the shape of the container in which they are placed. Gases are similar to liquids in
the sense that they expand to fit their container; however, measurement of gas volume is a more involved
process than that used to measure either liquids or solids, because gases are highly responsive to changes
in temperature and pressure.
If the temperature of water is raised from its freezing point to its boiling point—from 32°F (0°C) to 212°F
(100°C)—its volume will increase by only 2%. If its pressure is doubled from 1 atm (defined as normal
air pressure at sea level) to 2 atm, volume will decrease by only 0.01%. Yet if air were heated from 32° to
212°F, its volume would increase by 37%; if its pressure were doubled from 1 atm to 2, its volume would
decrease by 50%.
Not only do gases respond dramatically to changes in temperature and pressure, but also, gas molecules
tend to be non-attractive toward one another—that is, they tend not to stick together. Hence, the concept
of "volume" in relation to a gas is essentially meaningless unless its temperature and pressure are known.

Comparing Densities

In the discussion of molar mass above, helium and iron were compared, and we saw that the mass of a
mole of iron was about 14 times as great as that of a mole of helium. This may seem like a fairly small
factor of difference between them: after all, helium floats on air, whereas iron (unless it is arranged in just
the right way, for instance, in a tanker) sinks to the bottom of the ocean. But be careful: the comparison of
molar mass is only an expression of the mass of a helium atom as compared to the mass of an iron atom.
It makes no reference to density, which is the ratio of mass to volume.
Expressed in terms of the ratio of mass to volume, the difference between helium and iron becomes much
more pronounced. Suppose, on the one hand, one had a gallon jug filled with iron. How many gallons of
helium does it take to equal the mass of the iron? Fourteen? Try again: it takes more than 43,000 gallons
of helium to equal the mass of the iron in one gallon jug! Clearly, what this shows is that the density of
iron is much, much greater than that of helium.
This, of course, is hardly a surprising revelation; still, it is sometimes easy to get confused by
comparisons of mass as opposed to comparisons of density. One might even get tricked by the old
elementary-school brain-teaser that goes something like this: "Which is heavier, a ton of feathers or a ton
of cannonballs?" Of course neither is heavier, but the trick element in the question relates to the fact that
it takes a much greater volume of feathers (measured in cubic feet, for instance) than of cannonballs to
equal a ton.
One of the interesting things about density, as distinguished from mass and volume, is that it has nothing
to do with the amount of material. A kilogram of iron differs from 10 kg of iron both in mass and volume,
but the density of both samples is the same. Indeed, as discussed below, the known densities of various
materials make it possible to determine whether a sample of that material is genuine.
Specific Gravity

Note that pure water (as opposed to sea water, which is 3% more dense) has a density of 1.0 g per cubic
centimeter. Water is thus a useful standard for measuring the specific gravity of other substances, or the
ratio between the density of that substance and the density of water. Since the specific gravity of water is
1.00—also the density of water in g/cm3—the specific gravity of any substance (a number, rather than a
number combined with a unit of measure) is the same as the value of its own density in g/cm 3.
Comparison of densities make it possible to determine whether a piece of jewelry alleged to be solid gold
is really genuine. To determine the answer, one must drop the sample in a beaker of water with graduated
units of measure clearly marked. Suppose the item has a mass of 10 g. The density of gold is 19 g/cm 3,
and because density is equal to mass divided by volume, the volume of water displaced should be equal to
the mass divided by the density. The latter figure is equal to 10 g divided by 19 g/cm 3, or 0.53 ml.
Suppose that instead, the item displaced 0.88 ml of water. Clearly it is not gold, but what is it?
Given the figures for mass and volume, its density is equal to 11.34 g/cm 3—which happens to be the
density of lead. If, on the other hand, the amount of water displaced were somewhere between the values
for pure gold and pure lead, one could calculate what portion of the item was gold and which lead. It is
possible, of course, that it could contain some other metal, but given the high specific gravity of lead, and
the fact that its density is relatively close to that of gold, lead is a favorite gold substitute among jewelry
counterfeiters.