Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals

and Applications, 4th edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 2

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 A drop forms when
liquid is forced out
of a small tube.
The shape of the
drop is determined
by a balance of
pressure, gravity,
and surface
tension forces.
© Corbis RF

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Have a working knowledge of the basic properties of

fluids and understand the continuum approximation.
• Have a working knowledge of viscosity and the
consequences of the frictional effects it causes in fluid
flow.
• Calculate the capillary rise (or drop) in tubes due to the
surface tension effect.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it Continuum
is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with is
large relative to the space between Despite the relatively large gaps
the molecules. This is the case in between molecules, a substance
practically all problems. can be treated as a continuum
In this text we will limit our because of the very large number
consideration to substances that can of molecules even in an extremely
be modeled as a continuum. small volume.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 © PhotoLink/Getty Images RF

The length scale associated with most flows, such as seagulls in

flight, is orders of magnitude larger than the mean free path of
the air molecules. Therefore, here, and for all fluid flows
considered in this book, the continuum idealization is appropriate.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–2 ■ DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density Specific gravity: The ratio of the density

of a substance to the density of some

m
V
 kg m
3
 standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C).
Specific volume 
v V m  1  SG 
H O
2

Specific weight: The weight of a unit

volume of a substance.

s  g N m  3

Density is mass per

unit volume; specific
volume is volume
per unit mass.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–1
The specific gravity of some substances at
20°C and 1 atm unless stated otherwise
Substance SG
Water 1.0
Blood (at 37°C) 1.06
Seawater 1.025
Gasoline 0.68
Ethyl alcohol 0.790
Mercury 13.6
Balsa wood 0.17
Dense oak wood 0.93
Gold 19.3
Bones 1.7–2.0
Ice (at 0°C) 0.916
Air 0.001204

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Density of Ideal Gases
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and density (or specific volume) of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known
equation of state for substances in the gas phase.

Pv  RT or P   RT
The universal
R  Ru /M Ru  8.314 kj/kmol  K gas constant

PV  mRT or PV  NRuT
P1V1 /T1  P2V2 /T2 For a fixed mass

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Temperature Scales
Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in the
SI system.
Rankine scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in
English system.

T (K)  T (C)  273.15  T (R)/1.8

T (R)  T (F)  459.67  1.8 T (K)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance
that obeys the relation Pv = RT.
The ideal-gas relation closely
approximates the P-v-T behavior of real
gases at low densities.
At low pressures and high temperatures,
the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves like an ideal gas.
In the range of practical interest, many
familiar gases such as air, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University. Used
and carbon dioxide can be treated as with permission.

ideal gases with negligible error. Air behaves as an ideal gas, even
at very high speeds. In this
Dense gases such as water vapor in
schlieren image, a bullet traveling
steam power plants and refrigerant
at about the speed of sound bursts
vapor in refrigerators, however, should
through both sides of a balloon,
not be treated as ideal gases since they
forming two expanding shock
usually exist at a state near saturation.
waves. The turbulent wake of the
bullet is also visible.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–3 ■ VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure

substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. It is
identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture
with other gases. For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of
dry air and water vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum
of the partial pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of
water vapor.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–2
Saturation (or vapor) pressure of water
at various temperatures

Saturation
Temperature Pressure
T, °C Psat, kPa
−10 0.260
−5 0.403
0 0.611
5 0.872
10 1.23
15 1.71
20 2.34
25 3.17
The vapor pressure (saturation
30 4.25
pressure) of a pure substance (e.g.,
40 7.38
water) is the pressure exerted by its
50 12.35
vapor molecules when the system is
100 101.3 (1 atm)
in phase equilibrium with its liquid
150 475.8
molecules at a given temperature.
200 1554
250 3973
300 8581
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 There is a possibility of the liquid
pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor pressure
at some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization.
The vapor bubbles (called
cavitation bubbles since they
form “cavities” in the liquid)
collapse as they are swept away
from the low-pressure regions, Photograph by David Stinebring, ARL/ Pennsylvania State University.
generating highly destructive, Used by permission.

extremely high-pressure waves. Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by

This phenomenon, which is a 23-mm aluminum sample tested at
common cause for drop in 60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
performance and even the erosion located at the cavity collapse
of impeller blades, is called region downstream of a cavity
cavitation, and it is an important generator specifically designed to
consideration in the design of produce high damage potential.
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–4 ■ ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEATS
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their
sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
In daily life, we frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of
internal energy as heat. In engineering, however, those forms of energy
are usually referred to as thermal energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of
its motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result
of its elevation in a gravitational field.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 © Creatas/PunchStock RF Comstock Images/Jupiterimages RF

At least six different forms of energy are encountered in bringing

power from a nuclear plant to your home, nuclear, thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, magnetic, and electrical.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 P
h  u  Pv  u  Enthalpy

V2 Energy of a
eflowing  P /  e  h  ke  pe  h   gz (kJ/kg) flowing fluid
2
du  cv dT and dh  c p dT P/ is the flow energy,
u  cv ,avg T and h  cp,avg T also called the flow work,
which is the energy per
h  u  P /  cavg T  P / unit mass needed to
move the fluid and
h  u  cavg T for a P = const. process maintain flow.

h  p /  For a T = const. process

Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The internal energy u represents the microscopic
energy of a nonflowing fluid per unit mass,
whereas enthalpy h represents the microscopic
energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass.

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©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–5 ■ COMPRESSIBILITY
AND SPEED OF SOUND
Coefficient of Compressibility
We know from experience that the volume
(or density) of a fluid changes with a
change in its temperature or pressure.
Fluids usually expand as they are heated
or depressurized and contract as they are
cooled or pressurized.
But the amount of volume change is
different for different fluids, and we need
to define properties that relate volume
changes to the changes in pressure and
temperature.
Two such properties are:
Fluids, like solids, compress
the bulk modulus of elasticity  when the applied pressure is
the coefficient of volume expansion  increased from P1 to P2.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
  P   P 
  v      
 v  T
 Pa  Coefficient of compressibility
   T (bulk modulus of compressibility
P P or bulk modulus of elasticity) for fluids
   (T  constant)
v /v  /

The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid
while the temperature remains constant.
What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible
substance (v = constant)?
A large value of  indicates that a large change in pressure is needed
to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a
large  is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually
considered to be incompressible.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Water hammer:

Characterized by a sound that resembles the sound produced when a

pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when a liquid in a piping network
encounters an abrupt flow restriction (such as a closing valve) and is
locally compressed.
The acoustic waves that are produced strike the pipe surfaces, bends,
and valves as they propagate and reflect along the pipe, causing the
pipe to vibrate and produce the familiar sound.

Water hammering can be quite destructive, leading to leaks or even

structural damage. The effect can be suppressed with a water hammer
arrestor.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Photo provided courtesy of Oatey Company

Water hammer arrestors:

(a) A large surge tower built to
protect the pipeline against water
hammer damage.
Photo by Arris S. Tijsseling, visitor of the University of Adelaide,
Australia. Used by permission
(b) Much smaller arrestors used
for supplying water to a
household washing machine.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 For an ideal gas, P   RT and (P / )T  RT  P /, and thus
 ideal gas  P (Pa)
The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its absolute
pressure, and the coefficient of compressibility of the gas increases
with increasing pressure.
 P
Ideal gas:  T  constant 
 P
The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal
compression is equal to the percent increase in pressure.
Isothermal compressibility: The inverse of the coefficient of
compressibility.
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change
in volume or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

1 1  v  1   
       1/ Pa 
 v  P  T   P  T
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
The density of a fluid depends more
strongly on temperature than it does
on pressure.
The variation of density with
temperature is responsible for
numerous natural phenomena such
as winds, currents in oceans, rise of
plumes in chimneys, the operation
of hot-air balloons, heat transfer by
natural convection, and even the
rise of hot air and thus the phrase
“heat rises”.
To quantify these effects, we need a
property that represents the © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission

variation of the density of a fluid with Natural convection over

temperature at constant pressure. a woman’s hand.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The coefficient of volume expansion
(volume expansivity): The variation of the
density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.
1  v  1   
      1/K 
v  T  P   T  P
v /v  / 
   at constant P
T T
A large value of  for a fluid means a large
change in density with temperature,
and the product  T represents the fraction of
volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of T at constant pressure.
The volume expansion coefficient of an ideal
gas (P = RT ) at a temperature T is
The coefficient of volume expansion
equivalent to the inverse of the temperature:
is a measure of the change in
1 volume of a substance with
idealgas  1/K  temperature at constant pressure.
T
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the
volume change of a fluid can be determined by taking the specific
volume to be a function of T and P.
 v   v 
dv    dT    dP  ( dT   dP )v
 T  P  P  T
The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in
pressure and temperature can be expressed approximately as
v 
   T   P
v 

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The variation of the coefficient of volume
expansion of water with temperature in the
range of 20°C to 50°C.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.

Control volume moving with the

small pressure wave along a duct.

 P 
c  k 
2
c  kRT
   T
For an ideal gas
For any fluid
Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The speed of sound in air
increases with temperature. At
typical outside temperatures, c is
about 340 m/s. In round
numbers, therefore, the sound of
thunder from a lightning strike
travels about 1 km in 3 seconds.
If you see the lightning and then
hear the thunder less than 3
seconds later, you know that the
lightning is close, and it is time
to go indoors!
© Bear Dancer Studios/Mark Dierker

©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Mach number Ma: The ratio of the
actual speed of the fluid (or an object
in still fluid) to the speed of sound in
the same fluid at the same state.

V
Ma 
c
The Mach number depends on the
speed of sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.

The speed of sound changes

with temperature and varies
with the fluid.

The Mach number can be different

at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. © Purestock/SuperStock RF

©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–6 ■ VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.
Top: © Photodisc/Getty Images RF Bottom: © Digital Vision/Getty Images RF

The viscosity of a fluid is a

measure of its “resistance to
deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.

A fluid moving relative to a

body exerts a drag force on
the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Newtonian fluids: Fluids for
which the rate of deformation is
proportional to the shear stress.

d du
 or 
dt dy
du
 
dy
 N/m 2  Shear
stress

The behavior of a fluid in laminar Shear force

flow between two parallel plates du
when the upper plate moves with F      N
a constant velocity. dy

F y du V  coefficient of viscosity
 u  y  V and  Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
A  dy 
kg/ms or Ns/m2 or Pas
da Vdt du d  du
d   tan d     dt  1 poise = 0.1 Pas
  dy dt dy
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The rate of deformation (velocity Variation of shear stress with the
gradient) of a Newtonian fluid is rate of deformation for Newtonian
proportional to shear stress, and and non-Newtonian fluids (the
the constant of proportionality is slope of a curve at a point is the
the viscosity. apparent viscosity of the fluid at
that point).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Kinematic viscosity
m2/s or stoke
v   / 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s

For liquids, both the dynamic and

kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small
variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for
dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic
viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure.
aT 1/2
 For gases Dynamic viscosity, in general,
1  b /T does not depend on pressure,
  a10b / T c  For liquids but kinematic viscosity does.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to
the pumping power needed to transport a
fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a
fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
the molecular collisions in gases, and it
varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they
can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a
result, the energized liquid molecules can
move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high
The viscosity of liquids temperatures move randomly at higher
decreases and the viscosity velocities. This results in more molecular
of gases increases with collisions per unit volume per unit time
temperature. and therefore in greater resistance to flow.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The variation of
dynamic (absolute)
viscosity of common
fluids with temperature
at 1 atm
(1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/ms
= 0.020886 lbfs/ft2)
Data from EES and F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics 7e.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–3
Dynamic viscosity of some fluids at 1 atm
and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)
Dynamic Viscosity
Fluid 𝜇, kg/m⋅s
Glycerin:
-20°C 134.0
0°C 10.5
20°C 1.52
40°C 0.31
Engine oil:
SAE 10W 0.10
SAE 10W30 0.17
SAE 30 0.29
SAE 50 0.86
Mercury 0.0015
Ethyl alcohol 0.0012
Water:
0°C 0.0018
20°C 0.0010
100°C (liquid) 0.00028
100°C (vapor) 0.000012
Blood, 37°C 0.00040
Gasoline 0.00029
Ammonia 0.00015
Air 0.000018
Hydrogen, 0°C 0.0000088

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 L length of the cylinder
number of revolutions per
unit time

2 R  L 3
4 R nL
 2 3
T=FR =      n
 
This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by
measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer,
a device that measures viscosity.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 2–7 ■ SURFACE TENSION AND
CAPILLARY EFFECT
Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid on
a solid surface, and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched
elastic membrane under tension.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the
surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension (or coefficient of surface tension, σs) and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy [per unit area] and is
expressed in the equivalent unit of Nm/m2.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 (a) © Don Paulson Photography/Purestock/SuperStock RF
(b) NPS Photo by Rosalie LaRue
(c) © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission.

Some consequences of surface tension: (a) drops of water beading up

on a leaf, (b) a water strider sitting on top of the surface of water, and
(c) a color schlieren image of the water strider revealing how the water
surface dips down where its feet contact the water (it looks like two
insects but the second one is just a shadow).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Attractive forces acting on a
liquid molecule at the surface
and deep inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a U-
F
s  shaped wire, and the forces acting
2b on the movable wire of length b.
W  Force  Distance  F  x  2b s  x   s A
Surface tension: The work done per unit
increase in the surface area of the liquid.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–4 The free-body
Surface tension of some fluids in air at 1
atm and 20°C (unless otherwise stated) diagram of
half a droplet
Surface Tension
Fluid 𝜎s, N/m* or air bubble
†Water: and half a
0°C 0.076 soap bubble.
20°C 0.073
1000C 0.059
3000C 0.014
Glycerin 0.063
SAE 30 oil 0.035
Mercury 0.440
Ethyl alcohol 0.023
Blood, 37°C 0.058
Gasoline 0.022
Ammonia 0.021
Soap solution 0.025
Kerosene 0.028
2 s
Droplet or air bubble:  
 2 R   s   R 2 Pdroplet  Pdroplet  Pi  Po 
R
4 s
Soap bubble:  
2  2 R   s   R 2 Pbubble  Pbubble  Pi  Po 
R
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Capillary Effect
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube
inserted into the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top
of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or
wetting) angle, defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface
makes with the solid surface at the point of contact.
Surface Tension Force

The contact angle

for wetting and
nonwetting fluids.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Capillary effect can
be microscopically
explained by
adhesive and
cohesive forces

Photo by Gabrielle Trembley, Pennsylvania State

Liquid molecules @ Ø
solid-liquid
interface are

University. Used by permission.

subject to both
adhesive and
cohesive forces

For water
molecules in glass:
The meniscus of colored water in a
Fadhesive > Fcohesive 4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
Water is a wetting
meets the wall of the capillary tube
fluid and water at a very small contact angle.
rises
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The capillary rise of water and The forces acting on a liquid
the capillary fall of mercury in a column that has risen in a tube
small-diameter glass tube. due to the capillary effect.

2 s
Capillary rise : h cos   R  constant 
 gR
Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube and
density of the liquid.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Summary
• Introduction
• Continuum
• Density and Specific Gravity
• Density of Ideal Gases
• Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• Energy and Specific Heats
• Compressibility and Speed of Sound
• Coefficient of Compressibility
• Coefficient of Volume Expansion
• Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Viscosity
• Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

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