BENGUET STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

Department of Biology

BIO 12 GENERAL BIOLOGY: LECTURE MANUAL 3 PREPARED BY:

CHAPTER III: CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
LEARNING Cell Theory JESSA A. BALANGGOY-
MATERIAL Cell Structure PAGULAYAN
Cellular Metabolism Faculty-in-Charge
3
Email: [email protected]
Cell Cycle and Cell Division
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• describe structures and functions of a cell and its organelles;
• differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; and
• illustrate the stages of cell division.
INTRODUCTION
I. CELL THEORY
Cytology – is the study of the structure and function of cells. Cell is the basic structural and
E functional unit of living things. Cell study became possible when the microscope was invented.
X Janssen (1590) invented the first useful microscope. It was Robert Hooke (1665) who described
P cells in cork and in other plant tissues.
L
O 1590 – Johann and Zacharias Janssen (Dutch spectacle makers)
R
- Janssen youngster – telescope (compound optical device)
E
Compound Microscope – ability to make objects appear larger
1660-1667 – study of cells by Robert Hooke (English physicist) in a cork (bark of an oak tree)
- The cells he saw looked like cubicles (cellae). He was the first person to see outlines of cells
and the cell wall was the first structure that he discovered
1673-1674 – Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (Holland)
- improved the lenses further; single lens with good quality
- built 500 microscopes
- lead to the discovery of bacteria & protists, human RBC & sperm
- foundation of microbiology and cell biology
1830-1831 – Robert Brown (Scotland)
- circular structure in cells from orchid plants
- discovered the nucleus
1835 – Jan Evangelista Purkinje – discovered the protoplasm
1839 – German biologists: Matthias Schleiden (botanist) – cells are the basic units of plants,
discovered the nucleolus and Theodore Schwann (zoologist) – compared animal cells to plant
cells
1855-1858 – Rudolph Virchow (German physiologist) – all cells come from pre-existing cells
- cell division

These discoveries & developments led to the Cell Theory:

1. All living organisms are made up of one or more living units called cells.
2. Each cell can maintain its living properties independent of the rest, but the properties of life
of any organism are based on the properties of life of its individual cells.
3. The smallest clearly defined unit of life is the cell.
4. Cells arise only from other cells.
• The average size of a cell is 7.5 µ (1µ = 0.001mm)

II. CELL STRUCTURE

Two Main Regions of the Cell
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 A. CYTOSOME (outer cell body) – contains the cytoplasm
1. Cell Membrane/ Plasmalemma
- thin membrane that encloses the cell, defining the boundaries between extracellular
and intracellular spaces which separates the living matter from the environment and
also limits size
- functions for support, protection and passage of substances to and from the cell
- semi-permeable (permeable to water but selectively-permeable or impermeable to
other substances)
- made up of bilipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers
- Cell Wall – found outside the cell membrane in plant cells, bacteria and fungi made of
cellulose substances
2. Cytoplasm
- ground substance or matrix that serves as the general storage and working area of the
cell
- contains the following structural bodies/ cytoplasmic organelles:
a. Endoplasmic reticulum – network of tubules or channels that occupies the entire
cytoplasm. It has two portions:
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (R.E.R) – studded or peppered with
ribosomes in its outer surface; for protein synthesis
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (S.E.R) – lacks ribosomes in its outer
surface; produces lipids (i.e., cholesterol) and carbohydrates (i.e.,
glycogen)
b. Mitochondria (mitochondrion – singular) – slender rods or filaments enclosed
by two membranes – the outer is smooth and the inner forms are thrown into folds
called cristae. It contains enzymes that are ultimately involved to synthesize ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). Due to this function, mitochondrion is the powerhouse
of the cell where cellular respiration takes place.
c. Golgi apparatus (named after Camillo Golgi, 1898) – consists of flattened
smooth-surfaced vacuoles stacked one upon another. It is the site for processing
and packaging of cell secretions/ products (e.g., proteins synthesized in ribosomes
and lumen of endoplasmic reticulum – transported to Golgi apparatus where they
become enclosed in membranes).
d. Lysosomes – vesicles surrounded by a membrane and contain hydrolytic enzymes
that break down large food molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids); absent in plant cells.
e. Centrioles – granular bodies located just outside the nucleus; involved in
movement of chromosomes during cell division; absent in plant cells.
f. Plastids – round or oval bodies that contain pigments; absent in animal cells
• chloroplasts – contain green pigments (chlorophyll) which traps light for
photosynthesis
• chromoplasts – contain red, yellow and orange pigments; characteristics of
carrots, flowers, tomatoes, etc.
• leucoplasts – contain pigments for colorless appearance (e.g., starch grains
in rice, potatoes, radish)
B. NUCLEUS (inner cell body) – contains the nucleoplasm
- specialized spherical mass of protoplasm usually located at center of cell containing both
biochemical reactions that occur in the cell and the reproduction of the cell.
a. nuclear membrane – surrounds the nucleus separating it from adjacent cytoplasm
forming a controlled avenue for the continuous interchange of materials between
them
b. nucleoplasm – nuclear sap
- suspended are nucleolus (nucleoli – plural) which are deeply stained
spherical bodies containing RNA (ribonucleic acid); site where ribosome
sub-units are assembled, hence it regulates protein synthesis

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 - also referred to as “pacemaker of cell” and chromosomes (composed of
protein and DNA which bears the genes – determiners of hereditary
characteristics).
Types of Organisms according to Nucleus
1. Prokaryotic – lack a membrane-bound nucleus e.g., bacteria and blue-green algae
2. Eukaryotic – nucleus is enclosed by a membrane separating it from the surrounding
cytoplasm

Types of Organisms according to the Cellular Composition

1. Unicellular – one cell only
2. Multicellular – has more than one cell

III. CELLULAR METABOLISM

❖ Cellular metabolism – refers to the sum total of chemical and physical processes/ reactions that occur
in living organisms and maintain life. It involves 2 phases:
A. Constructive phase or anabolism – involves building activities of cell like synthesis of proteins
and other macromolecules which results in growth and repair of cell structure. In all these
processes, simple molecules are organized into more complex molecules.
B. Destructive phase or catabolism – involved the breaking down of large molecules and in the
process, energy is released which is used in the chemical action of the cell.

In order for these two processes/phases to occur, cells require a continuous supply of nutrients that are
obtained from the surrounding extracellular fluid. Living cells, like man-made machines, do not work
and consequently require fuel. This fuel is in the form of organic molecules which is derived/ supplied
in the diet (for animals) or manufactured by the cell (for plants). This fuel traverses the cell membrane
in order to enter the cell.

Transport across the Cell Membrane

One of the great wonders of the cell membrane is its ability to regulate the concentration of substances
inside the cell. These substances include ions such as Ca++, Na+, K+, and Cl–; nutrients including sugars, fatty
acids, and amino acids; and waste products, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), which must leave the cell. The
membrane’s lipid bilayer structure provides the first level of control. The phospholipids are tightly packed
together, and the membrane has a hydrophobic interior. This structure causes the membrane to be selectively
permeable. A membrane that has selective permeability allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass
through it unaided. In the case of the cell membrane, only relatively small, nonpolar materials can move
through the lipid bilayer (remember, the lipid tails of the membrane are nonpolar). Some examples of these
are other lipids, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases, and alcohol. However, water-soluble materials—like
glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes—need some assistance to cross the membrane because they are repelled
by the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer.

There are 4 principal ways how substances TRAVERSE THE CELL MEMBRANE:
1. Passive Transport – when substances move across by forces that arise outside the cell.
e.g diffusion, osmosis
2. Active Transport – metabolic energy is required to activate transfer across the membrane
3. Endocytosis/ Wholesale ingestion – involves moving larger molecule/particles into the cell.
e.g phagocytosis, pinocytosis
4. Exocytosis – involves discharge of materials from the cell

1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
a. Diffusion
If some salt or sugar is dropped into a beaker of water, the former will spread through the water until
the concentration of salt/sugar is uniform throughout. All molecules dispersed in a liquid or gaseous
media due to the constant collision of molecules. A molecule moves in a straight line until it meets
another particle and then bounces off/back and takes a new direction. Ultimately, every component
in the solution reaches equal concentration everywhere in the solution.

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 Parts of a Solution
a) Solute – any substance that is dissolved in a dissolving medium
- Could be solid, liquid or gas
b) Solvent – any substance that dissolves the solute
- Could either be liquid or gas
If a living cell, surrounded by a membrane, is immersed in a solution having more solute molecules than
the liquid inside the cell, a concentration gradient exists between the fluids. The solutes in the solution
containing more solute molecules will strike the membrane from the outside creating a powerful driving
force. Hence, the solute is pushed toward the inside, the side having a lower concentration of solute
molecules.

Diffusion, therefore, is defined as the movement of solute molecules from a region/area of greater/higher
concentration of solutes to a region/area of lesser/lower concentration of solutes.

Figure 3.15. Simple Diffusion across the Cell (Plasma) Membrane

The structure of the lipid bilayer allows only small, non-polar substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid
bilayer due to their size and/or polarity (Figure 3.18). A common example of facilitated diffusion is the
movement of glucose into the cell, where it is used to make ATP. Although glucose can be more concentrated
outside of a cell, it cannot cross the lipid bilayer via simple diffusion because it is both large and polar. To
resolve this, a specialized carrier protein called the glucose transporter will transfer glucose molecules into
the cell to facilitate its inward diffusion. There are many other solutes that must undergo facilitated diffusion
to move into a cell, such as amino acids, or to move out of a cell, such as wastes. Because facilitated diffusion
is a passive process, it does not require energy expenditure by the cell.

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 Figure 3.18. Facilitated Diffusion
(a) Facilitated diffusion of substances crossing the cell
(plasma) membrane takes place with the help of proteins
such as channel proteins and carrier proteins. Channel
proteins are less selective than carrier proteins, and
usually mildly discriminate between their cargo based
on size and charge. (b) Carrier proteins are more
selective, often only allowing one particular type of
molecule to cross.

b. Osmosis occurs when a semi-permeable membrane

(such as the cell membrane) separates an unequal
concentration of dissolved substances. Most cell
membranes are semi-permeable, i.e., permeable to water
but selectively permeable or impermeable to solutes. As
a rule, gases (like CO2 and O2) and lipids are the only
solutes that can penetrate biological membranes.

Most membranes are nearly impermeable to

salts, sugars, and other macromolecules. Such water-
soluble molecules pass through the pores in the
membrane; but in most membranes, these pores are too
small to allow solutes to pass through by diffusion. If
such membrane is placed between two unequal concentrations of a solution, the only way to attain
equal concentration on both sides of the membrane is for the solvent to move to the side/area/region
of lower concentration of solutes (more dilute solution) to the area of higher concentration of solutes
(more concentrated solution).

Osmosis, therefore, is defined as the movement of solvent molecules from the region of
greater/higher concentration of solvent (lesser concentration of solute) to a region of lower
concentration of solvent (greater concentration of solutes) through a semi-permeable membrane.

The tonicity of a solution involves comparing the concentration of a cell’s cytoplasm to the
concentration of its environment. Ultimately, the tonicity of a solution can be determined by
examining the effect a solution has on a cell within the solution.

By definition, a hypertonic solution is one that causes a cell to shrink. Though it certainly is more
complex than this, for our purposes in this class, we can assume that a hypertonic solution is more
concentrated with solutes than the cytoplasm. This will cause water from the cytoplasm to leave the
cell, causing the cell to shrink. If a cell shrinks when placed in a solution, then the solution
is hypertonic to the cell.

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 If a solution is hypotonic to a cell, then the cell will swell when placed in the hypotonic solution.
In this case, you can imagine that the solution is less concentrated than the cell’s cytoplasm, causing
water from the solution to flow into the cell. The cell swells!

Finally, an isotonic solution is one that causes no change in the cell. You can imagine that the
solution and the cell have equal concentrations, so there is no net movement of water molecules into
or out of the cell.

Normally, the red blood cells (RBCs) are suspended in the plasma which is an isotonic
solution (salts and other solutes in both the plasma and RBCs have the same concentrations, or
osmotic pressure (OP) of the plasma is the same as that of RBCs). Isotonicity makes it impossible for
water to pass through the membrane. However, if the RBCs are removed from the plasma and placed
in a concentrated or hypertonic salt solution, water leaves the cells and enters the salt solution by
osmosis. As a result, the cell shrinks (plasmolysis). If, on the other hand, RBCs are placed in a dilute
or hypotonic solution, water enters the cells by osmosis causing the cell to swell and finally burst
(hemolysis).

2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
In diffusion, the passage of solutes is from the region of greater concentration to a region of lower
concentration of solutes. At times, though, some solutes cross the membrane against the forces of
passive diffusion, i.e., the concentration of solutes is higher inside the cell than the outside but still
these solutes continuously pass from the outside to the inside. An example is K-ions (potassium ions):
% K-ions is 20-50x higher inside than outside the cell. Movement in such cases is by active transport.

Metabolites enter the cell through reversible combination with membrane proteins called carriers.
These protein carriers completely penetrate the cell membrane with their margins exposed to both
membrane surfaces. The translocation across the membrane could be effected by:

a. Carrier mechanism – the carrier binds with the metabolite then rotates 180° to the
opposite side to discharge its fare. The carrier then rotates back and repeats the process.

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 Sodium-Potassium Pump
The sodium-potassium pump is found
in many cell (plasma) membranes.
Powered by ATP, the pump moves
sodium and potassium ions in opposite
directions, each against its
concentration gradient. In a single
cycle of the pump, three sodium ions
are extruded from and two potassium
ions are imported into the cell.

b. Fixed pore mechanism – the carrier is fixed in place within the structure of the
membrane and that the carrier undergoes a conformational change that translocate the
binding site across the membrane and the bound metabolite along with it at the same time.
Once the metabolite has been translocated, the binding site is freed and restored to its
original conformation, ready for another transport event. Carriers are highly specific and
the binding between carrier and metabolite is transient. During the process, there is
expenditure of energy.

3. ENDOCYTOSIS/ WHOLESALE INGESTION – a collective term that describes two similar

processes:
A. Phagocytosis – literally means “cell-eating”, (bringing “into the cell”) is the process of a cell
ingesting
material by enveloping it in a portion of its cell membrane, and then pinching off that
portion of membrane.
- The cell membrane forms pseudopodia to engulf solid material. The solid
material which moves into the cytoplasm is then digested by intracellular
enzymes.
- Common method of feeding among protozoans and also the they white blood
cells (WBCs) engulf cellular debris and microbes in the blood.
B. Pinocytosis – literally means “cell-drinking”
- Similar to phagocytosis only drops of fluids are the ones taken in
- Both processes require metabolic energy.

Phagocytosis and pinocytosis take in large portions of extracellular material, and they are typically
not highly selective in the substances they bring in. Cells regulate the endocytosis of specific
substances via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is endocytosis by a
portion of the cell membrane that contains many receptors that are specific for a certain substance.
Once the surface receptors have bound sufficient amounts of the specific substance (the receptor’s

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 ligand), the cell will endocytose the part of the cell membrane containing the receptor-ligand
complexes. Iron, a required component of hemoglobin, is endocytosed by red blood cells in this way.

Figure 3.20. Three Forms of

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a form of active
transport in which a cell envelopes
extracellular materials using its cell
membrane. (a) In phagocytosis, which
is relatively nonselective, the cell takes
in a large particle. (b) In pinocytosis,
the cell takes in small particles in fluid.
(c) In contrast, receptor-mediated
endocytosis is quite selective. When
external receptors bind a specific
ligand, the cell responds by
endocytosing the ligand.

4. EXOCYTOSIS – a process by which substances, after being acted upon by lysosomal enzymes, are
packaged then discharged out of the cell (lysosome cell).
In contrast with endocytosis, exocytosis (taking “out of the cell”) is the process of a cell
exporting material using vesicular transport (Figure 3.21). Many cells manufacture substances that
must be secreted, like a factory manufacturing a product for export. These substances are typically
packaged into membrane-bound vesicles within the cell. When the vesicle membrane fuses with the
cell membrane, the vesicle releases its contents into the interstitial fluid. The vesicle membrane then
becomes part of the cell membrane. Cells of the stomach and pancreas produce and secrete digestive
enzymes through exocytosis (Figure 3.22). Endocrine cells produce and secrete hormones that are
sent throughout the body, and certain immune cells produce and secrete large amounts of histamine,
a chemical important for immune responses.

Figure 3.21. Exocytosis

Exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse. Material
destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell.
The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane,
and the contents are released into the extracellular space.

Figure 3.22. Pancreatic Cells’ Enzyme

Products
The pancreatic acinar cells produce and
secrete many enzymes that digest food.
The tiny black granules in this electron
micrograph are secretory vesicles filled
with enzymes that will be exported from
the cells via exocytosis. LM × 2900.
(Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan
Medical School © 2012)

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 IV. CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
❖ Cell Cycle – refers to the complete sequence of events involving interphase, cell division
(mitosis/meiosis), cell growth, cell senescence/aging and cell death.

C. Interphase – called the metabolic stage of the cell cycle because although it shows no sign of cell
division at this stage, metabolism is strictly taking place. Thus, it is not actually proper to call it
a “resting stage”. It is a period of preparation before the cell will undergo cell division. The
chromatin network appears as isolated granules or as networks forming coiled filaments called
chromonemata. These are actually chromosomes at their maximum length and minimum
thickness. Interphase consists of three (3) phases:
a. G1 (Gap 1) or first growth stage – where enzymes and raw materials are made ready for DNA
replication
b. S-phase or synthesis stage – the stage of DNA replication
c. G2 (Gap 2) or second growth stage – where proteins needed for aster and spindle formation
is synthesized

Figure 1. Image credit: "The cell cycle: Figure 1" by OpenStax

College, Biology (CC BY 3.0)

D. Cell Division – the process that makes possible the multiplication of the cell number and growth
and development of a multicellular organism. Types of cell division:
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
c. Amitosis

Cellular activities maintain the life of the cell. However, as somatic cells (cells of the body except the
sex/germ cells or gametes) are damaged, diseased or worn out, they are replaced by cell division, a
process whereby the cells reproduce themselves. Somatic cell division, or mitosis, involves two steps
– nuclear division (karyokinesis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to produce two identical
cells. Each cell thus produced has the same number and kind of chromosomes as the cell from which
they were derived. Through mitosis, dead and injured cells are replaced and also, new cells are added
for tissue/organ growth.

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 CELL DIVISION
A. MITOSIS - is a process of indirect type of cell division. Indirect in the sense that the produces
generated after the process are two similar daughter cells; each with the same number of chromosomes
(e.g., in man = 46, in frog = 24). Mitosis is responsible for growth, development, repair of damaged
tissues and most important is the transmission of hereditary characteristics of the organism by virtue
of the presence of genes contained in the chromosomes Figure 2. Stages of mitosis are:

Figure 2. Mitosis

a. Prophase – the first stage of mitosis during which the chromosomes are condensed but yet
attached to the mitotic spindle.
Early Prophase – the chromonemata still appears as one though they start to thicken and
elongate and later two chromatids are formed attached to a single centromere though this
double nature of the chromosome is not be very apparent. In animal cells, centriole either
divides (if one) or separates from each other and spindle fibers appear. The nucleolus becomes
smaller.

Middle Prophase – each chromosome becomes visibly double and the chromatids continue
to thicken and shorten; centrioles (in animal cells) become wider apart from each other
reaching the opposite ends of the cell; spindle fibers from centrioles spread and become
longer; nucleolus becomes much smaller; nuclear membrane starts to disintegrate.

Late Prophase – chromosomes become more condensed; nuclear membrane fades and so
with the nucleolus; centrioles (in animal cell) travel farther from each other approaching the
opposite ends of the cell.

b. Metaphase – stage of chromosome alignment at the metaphase plate

Early Metaphase – at this stage, the chromosomes orient themselves along the metaphase
plate. The centrioles (in animal cells) have reached the opposite ends of the cell.

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 Late Metaphase – chromosomes arrange themselves along the metaphase plate with the
centromeres occupying a central portion in the equatorial plane and attached to the spindle
fibers.

c. Anaphase – stage of chromosome separation and migration to the opposite poles

Early Anaphase – chromatid pairs split/separate from each other through the pulling force
of the spindles and they begin to migrate to the opposite poles. Each chromatid Is now
considered an individual chromosome.

Late Anaphase – the chromosomes form two distinct groups at each pole. The significant
feature of this stage is that one chromatid (now called chromosome) from each chromosome
finds its way into each daughter cell, hence, giving each cell an identical complement of
chromosomes.

d. Telophase – stage of nuclear reconstitution and start of cytoplasmic division

Early Telophase – chromosomes have reached the opposite poles and they lie close to each
other forming a clump. In animal cells, a constriction appears on the cell membrane at the
location of the equatorial plane. In plant cells, a phragmoplast is formed by spindle
microtubules and Golgi-derived vesicles carrying cell wall precursors associate with
microtubules, accumulate in the equatorial region and fuse to form the early cell plate.

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 Late Telophase – in an animal cell, cell constriction becomes deeper (cell furrowing) and a
centriole appears on one side of nucleus. In plant cells, cell plate grows or extends outward
or towards the periphery until it fuses with the plasma membrane. Nuclear membrane reforms
around each group of chromosomes. Nucleolus appears in each developing cell; spindle fibers
disappear. Chromosomes begin to uncoil, characteristic to that in the interphase stage.

The above changes that occur in the nucleus are collectively called karyokinesis.

Cytokinesis – refer to the division of the cytoplasm of a plant or animal cell into two. In
animal cell, further cell furrowing pinches the cell into two to form two daughter cells,
whereas in plant cell, the cell plate that forms within the phragmoplast grows outward until it
fuses with the plasma membrane. The cell plate eventually becomes the middle lamellae
between the two daughter cells.

Cell growth, senescence and death

Mitosis is most active during embryonic development in injured tissues, and in the production
of tumors like cancer. The rate of mitosis slows down as the body matures (cell undergo
senescence or aging). This is due to the slowing down of metabolic processes or to a decrease
in the synthetic power of enzymes. These factors lead eventually to the death of cell.

B. MEIOSIS is a special type of cell division by which eggs and sperm cells are produced. Comprises
two successive nuclear divisions with only one round of DNA replication, which produces four (4)
haploid daughter cells from an initial diploid cell.

Meiosis or gametogenesis results in the formation of sex cells or gametes. Gametogenesis occurs
through spermatogenesis (sperm cell production) in male animals and oogenesis (egg cell
production) in female animals. Meiosis involves two successive cell divisions – Meiosis I or
Reductional Division (separation of homologous chromosomes) and Meiosis II or Equational
Division (separation of chromatids) to produce four haploid cells.

DIVISIONS OF MEIOSIS
a. First Meiotic Division (Reductional Division) – this is the first phase of meiosis
wherein one cell which is diploid divides into two daughter cells, each of which is
monoploid. This is due to the separation of whole chromosomes (homologous
chromosomes) and not chromatids which occurs in mitosis.

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 a. Second Meiotic Division (Equational Division) - this is a continuation of the
first phase wherein the two daughter cells that have resulted from the first phase
each divide into cells, thus four cells are formed each having the same number of
chromosomes as their parent cells. This is due to the separation of chromatids per
chromosome; thus, the chromosome number is maintained. These four daughter
cells are all haploid and are commonly referred to as sex cells or gametes. The
diploid condition is restored when two gametes unite in fertilization.

In animal reproductive cells, meiosis is involved in gametogenesis. The two types of

gametogenesis are:
1. Spermatogenesis – occurs in the male gonads/testes which comprises steps or changes
leading to the production of spermatids which differentiate into mature male gametes

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 (sperm cells). There are 4 haploid spermatids produced after meiosis of one
spermatogonium.

Spermatogenesis: During spermatogenesis, four

sperm result from each primary spermatocyte, which
divides into two haploid secondary spermatocytes;
these cells will go through a second meiotic division
to produce four spermatids.

2. Oogenesis – occurs in the female gonad (ovaries) which comprises steps leading to the
polar bodies and ootids. A haploid ootid matures into a female gamete (egg cell). There
are three polar bodies and one ootid produced after meiosis of one oogonium.

For simple unicellular organisms, such as protozoans, one cell division, called Amitosis, reproduces
an entire organism.

C. AMITOSIS – is a direct type of cell division. It involves a constriction of the cytoplasm and of the
nucleus into two or more parts or cells with approximately equal amounts of nuclear and cytoplasmic
materials. In this process, chromosomes are not formed and the chromatin material is not divided in
a strict quantitative way.

Types of Amitosis:
1. Binary Fission – the body of the parent is divided into two approximately equal parts, each of
which grows into individual similar to the parent. Common among protozoans.

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 2. Budding – unequal division organism wherein the new individual arises as an outgrowth (bud)
from the parent. This bud develops organs like that one of the parents and then detaches itself.

Forms:
a. External budding – the bud is formed on the surface of the parent. e.g hydra
b. Internal budding - the bud is formed within the parent’s body (called gemmules/ internal
buds). Several gemmules may be formed surrounded by a dense covering in the body wall.
When the body of the parent disintegrates, each gemmule gives rise to a new individual.
e.g fresh sponges

3. Sporulation or Multiple Fission – an organism breaks into more than two parts, each capable of
becoming a complete animal. e.g Plasmodium

4. Conjugation – a cell division that involves two phases:

a. Sexual Phase – two individuals fuse temporarily and exchange nuclear materials. Although
two parents are involved, they cannot be designated as male or female.
b. Asexual Phase – after nuclear exchange, the two animals separate where each divide into
two to produce 4 offspring.

Assessment: Summative
Instructions: Quiz will be posted in the GCR as Google Form. This will be time-limited.
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