Contents

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Objective ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Experimental Work ............................................................................................................................... 5
List of Equipment and Components ................................................................................................. 5
Experimental Procedure.................................................................................................................... 5
Part one: .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Part two: .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Results.................................................................................................................................................... 6
Observations and Discussion................................................................................................................. 8
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 8

1
Introduction
Theory
• Nodal analysis
Nodal analysis is the mathematical process of determining the voltage distribution between the
circuit nodes. It is used to solve any electrical circuit problem. Because the node voltages in this
approach are relative to the ground, it is also known as the node-voltage method. The voltage
between each circuit node may be measured using the equation defined by the three laws shown
below:
• The Ohm law
• Kirchhoff’s law of voltage
• Current Kirchhoff Law

steps to determine node voltages:

1. Choose a reference node, which is often ground, then express each node’s voltage as a
variable with respect to the reference node.
2. For every node, express Kirchoff’s current law in terms of the voltages at nearby nodes and
the circuit impedances.
3. Rewrite the node voltage system of equations in matrix form.
4. Use an inverse matrix to solve the matrix problem.

The circuit diagram shown below (figure 1) displays 4 impedances, 1 voltage source, and 4
different nodes. The voltages at the other three nodes must be ascertained, as Node A only has
the input voltage.

Figure 1:nodal analysis example

2
 • Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis is the method used to determine the current flowing through a planar circuit. A
circuit drawn on a level surface without any wires crossing one another is known as a planar circuit.
Mesh analysis uses Kirchhoff's voltage law to calculate the currents in each loop. Nodal analysis
uses Kirchhoff's current law to calculate the voltages at each node in an equation. Super mesh
analysis is used to solve big, complicated circuits where two meshes share a component as a source
of current.
When utilizing mesh analysis to solve the provided electrical circuit, the following procedures
must be followed:
1. To define the meshes and assign a clockwise or counterclockwise name to these mesh
currents.
2. To assess the mesh current passing through each element and note its quantity.
3. Using Ohm's law after Kirchhoff's voltage law, write the mesh equations for every mesh.
4. By solving the mesh equations in Step 3, the mesh currents may be derived.

Therefore, utilizing the node voltages, one may ascertain the current flowing through and the
voltage across every element in a particular electrical circuit the figure shown below (figure 2)
represents a mesh analysis on a circuit.

Figure 2: mesh analysis example

3
Superposition principle
The voltage or current in any section of a linear circuit with numerous sources is equal to the total
of the voltages or currents induced by each source functioning independently, according to the
superposition theorem. A circuit that adheres to additivity and homogeneity is called a linear
circuit. When an input is multiplied by a constant, the result is likewise multiplied by the same
constant, which is known as homogeneity. According to the concept of additivity, the result of
adding two inputs is the total of the results for each input.

Because it breaks down complicated circuits into simpler ones, the superposition principle is
helpful. Circuit analysis and design are made simpler as a result. Understanding how several
sources impact the behavior and performance of the circuit is further aided by the superposition
principle. Any linear circuit, whether AC or DC, may be used with the superposition principle

How Is the Superposition principle Applied?

1. Choose one source from the several that are available in the bilateral network. Any one of
the circuit's numerous sources might be taken into consideration initially.
2. Every source, except for the chosen one, has to have its internal impedance substituted.
3. Analyze the voltage drop across or the current passing through a specific network node using a
network simplification technique.
4. For each additional source in the circuit, the same consideration of a single source is repeated.
5. Once each source has provided its answer, add together all of them to determine the total voltage
drop or current flowing through the circuit part.

The example shown below (figure 3) shows the circuit A with two voltage sources, with taking the
source V1 alone and shortening V2 in circuit B the current flowing can be calculated. Then
shortening V1 and leaving V2 in circuit C the current flowing can be calculated which will then
result into the current flowing in circuit A which is the summation of the flow in both circuits B
and C

Figure 3:superposition principal example

4
Objective
The experiment’s objective is the verify the nodal and mesh analysis and superposition principle
of linear circuits.

Experimental Work
List of Equipment and Components
The equipment and materials listed below were utilized to carry out the experiment:
1. DC voltage source
2. Breadboard
3. Digital multimeter (DMM)
4. Discrete resistor
o 1 x 1 kΩ
o 1 x 2 kΩ
o 1 x 3.9 kΩ
o 1 x 5.1 kΩ
o 1 x 10 kΩ

Experimental Procedure
There were two parts to the experiment. While the second portion examined the superposition
concept, the first part examined nodal and mesh analysis.
Using the color-coding system, choose five resistors as listed in Table 1-1 of the datasheet. Then,
using the Digital Multimeter (DMM)'s Ohmmeter function, measure each resistor's resistance
value and enter the results in Table 1-1.
Part one:
1. Assemble the circuit seen in Figure 4 onto the breadboard and adjust the voltage supplies
accordingly.
2. Using the Voltmeter function in the Digital Multimeter (DMM), measure the node-voltages
[𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 ] across the nodes [𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶], respectively.
3. Using the Digital Multimeter's Ammeter function, determine the currents [𝐼𝑅1 , 𝐼𝑅4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑅5 ]
flowing through resistors [𝑅1 , 𝑅4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅5 ], in that order.
4. Fill in Table 1-2 with the measured voltage and current values.
Part two:
1. Turn off (deactivate) voltage source 𝑉2 by substituting it with a 0 𝑉 (short circuit), while
keeping voltage source 𝑉1 turned on (active).
2. Using the voltmeter and ammeter capabilities of the Digital Multimeter (DMM)
receptively, measure the node-voltage 𝑉′𝐴 and the current 𝐼′𝑅4
3. Activate [turn on] the voltage source 𝑉2 and deactivate [turn off] the voltage source 𝑉1 by
substituting a 0 𝑉 (short circuit).
4. Using the voltmeter and ammeter capabilities in the Digital Multimeter (DMM)
receptively, measure the node-voltage 𝑉′′𝐴 and the current 𝐼′′𝑅4
5. Check that 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉′𝐴 + 𝑉′′𝐴 and 𝐼𝑅4 = 𝐼′𝑅4 + 𝐼′′𝑅4 are valid. And complete the table 3-3

5
 Figure 4: circuit diagram
Results
This section provides a summary of the experiment's findings from both the simulation and the
practice. Table 1-1 contains the resistor's resistance measurement and recording. Figure 5 displays
an example of an Orcad simulation result.

Figure 5: Orcad simulation for part one

Table 1:Simulated and measured values of resistors used

resistor 𝑅1 (𝑘Ω) 𝑅2 (𝑘Ω) 𝑅3 (𝑘Ω) 𝑅4 (𝑘Ω) 𝑅5 (𝑘Ω)

simulated 1 2 10 3.9 5.1
measured 0.98 1.96 9.97 3.83 5.07
Error(%) 2% 2% 0.3% 1.79% 0.58%

6
Table 2:Simulated and measured values of currents in part one of the experiment

measurements 𝑉𝐴 (𝑉) 𝑉𝐵 (𝑉) 𝑉𝐶 (𝑉) 𝐼𝑅1 (𝑚𝐴) 𝐼𝑅4 (𝑚𝐴) 𝐼𝑅5 (𝑚𝐴)
simulated 3.845 5 3.284 0.5613 0.842 0.225
measured 3.875 5.05 3.30 0.571 0.860 0.238

Figure 6: Orcad simulation for part two (i)

Figure 7: Orcad simulation for part two (ii)

7
Table 3:Simulated and measured values of currents in part two of the experiment

measurements 𝑉′𝐴 (𝑉) 𝑉′′𝐴 (𝑉) 𝑉𝐴 (𝑉 ) 𝐼′𝑅4(𝑚𝐴) 𝐼′′𝑅4 (𝑚𝐴) 𝐼𝑅4 (𝑚𝐴)
[𝑉 𝐴 + 𝑉 ′′𝐴 ]
′
[𝐼 𝑅4 + 𝐼 ′′𝑅4 ]
′

simulated 1.942 1.904 3.846 0.4252 0.4168 0.842

measured 1.945 1.929 3.874 0.433 0.429 0.862

Observations and Discussion

It was anticipated that the currents would be somewhat higher than the predicted values because
Table 1-1's real resistance was 0.3%–2% less than the theoretical resistance.
o By conducting the node-voltage method on the first part of the experiment:
𝑉𝐴 −𝑉1 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉2 𝑉𝐴 −𝑉𝐶 3.872−10 3.875−5 3.872−3.30
Node A: + + = + + ≅0
𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅1 // 𝑅2 9.97 5.07 0.653

Node B: 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉2 5.05 ≈ 5
𝑉𝐶 −0 𝑉𝐶 −𝑉𝐴 3.30−0 3.30−3.872
Node C: + = + ≈0
𝑅4 𝑅1 // 𝑅2 3.83 0.653

o By conducting the mesh analysis method on the first part of the experiment:
I1 = −IR4 I2 = IR5 I3 = −IR1
Loop 1: 𝑅4 𝐼1 + 𝑅2 (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) + 𝑅3 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) + 𝑉1 = 0
Loop 2: 𝑅5 𝐼2 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 +𝑅3 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Loop 3: 𝑅1 𝐼3 +𝑅2 (𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
o By conducting the superposition principle second part of the experiment:
𝐼𝑅4 = [𝐼 ′𝑅4 + 𝐼 ′′ 𝑅4]
𝐼𝑅4 = [𝐼 ′𝑅4 + 𝐼 ′′ 𝑅4]

Conclusion
The process of calculating the voltage in terms of branch currents between nodes in a circuit is
known as nodal analysis. In nodal analysis, we use Kirchhoff's Current Law. Super nodes arise
when there is a voltage source situated between two nodes. A current that circles the central mesh
is called a mesh current. All mesh currents should loop in an anticlockwise manner according to
sign convention. A negative mesh current indicates that the direction of the mesh current we
utilized was wrong. It suggests that the direction of the mesh current flow is opposite. By
examining the contribution of the independent power sources in the circuit to the voltage or current
through the elements in the circuit, superposition analysis has been shown to be a useful technique
for computing the voltage or current through the element.