ELECTRICAL MACHINES II

EEM2601 (STUDY GUIDE)

PREFACE

1. What is Electrical Machines II all about?

Welcome to Electrical Machines II. So far, you have completed 12 years of schooling,
and in addition you have built up a knowledge base relating to Electrical Engineering.
You may be tempted to view all this learning as a collection of unconnected topics or
subjects, and to think that this course is unrelated to anything else you have learnt.
However, this is not the case. When you took Physical Science at school, you learnt
about simple electric circuits. You were also – as early as Grade 10 – introduced to
electromagnetic induction and Faraday’s law. In S1 and S2 you built on this foundation
by adding knowledge about inductance, Lenz’s law, magnetic circuits, and AC circuits
and their manipulation using complex numbers (I hope you still remember how to use
them!) In Machines II, you will learnt about DC machines – this information is very
important in learning the principles governing the way in which electrical machines
work, although in practice these machines are increasingly taking a back seat because
of the ease with which AC induction motors can be controlled using modern power
electronic and microprocessor methods. You will also be introduced to the analysis of
single-phase transformers. We will be doing some important work on single-phase
transformers, after which we will cover information relating to single-phase
transformers, after which we will go on to cover three-phase transformers in some
detail. The reason for this is that most of the power and distribution transformers used
in industry are of this kind. We will also be studying three-phase induction motors in
greater detail and investigating some methods of analysing these very important
machines. Finally, we will touch on synchronous machines in order to give you a taste
of them before you tackle them in detail in the Advanced Diploma Machines.

In more specific terms, once you have completed this module, you will be able to:

• Analyse a single-phase transformer, being able to use equivalent circuit

parameters and the results of the open and short circuit tests to find the basic
parameters of any transformer, as well as its regulation and efficiency under
different load conditions.
 o Perform further analysis of these transformers in terms of no load current,
taking into account magnetic circuit properties and core loss data.
o Calculate temperature rise rates and solve simple thermal problems.
o Determine the all-day efficiency of a transformer.
o Understand the factors to consider when operating transformers in parallel.
o Perform calculations in order to predict the load sharing of two transformers in
parallel.
• Understand the construction and operation of three-phase transformers. Conduct
simple analysis of these transformers connected up in various configurations (e.g.,
star-delta). Understand vector groups as applied to these transformers.
• From equivalent circuit parameters, perform calculations to find voltage regulation
efficiency and other relevant information.
• Make deductions from nameplate information and determine transformer
characteristics.
• Describe both the open and the short circuit tests as applied to these transformers.
Perform calculations to analyse transformer characteristics.
• Understand the construction and operation of a three-phase induction motor.
• Calculate the rotor currents at various slips, and from this, find the rotor copper
loss, the electromagnetic power, and the torque of the motor.
o Know the power flow diagram.
o Perform calculations of the various powers and power losses and efficiency.
• Use an equivalent circuit with motor basic parameters to analyse a motor as
mentioned above.
• Describe the no load and blocked rotor tests on this motor, and analyse the results
by constructing a circle diagram, using any extra information that may need to be
given.
• Understand the construction and operation of synchronous machines.
o Know the equivalent circuit of a cylindrical rotor machine.
o Calculate the emf and power angle of any machine, under any condition of
operation.
o Understand the operation of these machines when operating as stand-alone
units, and on an infinite bus.
As you have seen, this module is structured around a set of outcomes that you need
to achieve. These outcomes were formulated after consideration of the actual skills
that you, as an engineering technologist, will need in the workplace. The overall
outcomes for the module are given above, and more specific outcomes or skills are
listed at the beginning of each study unit.

To achieve these outcomes, I would like you to approach your studies actively, rather
than just reading information passively. It has been shown that the more actively we
are involved in reading and learning, the more clearly we understand what we are
learning, and the more effectively we can apply our knowledge and skills in real-life
situations. To help you work through this learning guide actively, I have included
activities in the text, both as part of each study unit and at the end of some study units.
Your prescribed textbook also contains exercises and, as you will see, the activities in
the text sometimes refer you to those exercises. By completing these activities you will
ensure that what you are learning is meaningful to you, and you will start to develop
the practical workplace skills that you will require as a qualified engineering
technologist.

ECSA Graduate Attributes

The Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA) has stated generically 1 to 10

graduate attributes (GAs) that may be assessed in various engineering disciplinary or
cross-disciplinary contexts in a provider-based or simulated practice environment. In
this module GA 1 will be assessed.

The learning resources for this module

Your main learning resources for this module will be your prescribed textbook and this
study guide. These resources will be supported by tutorial letters. Supplementary
material will also be posted from time to time on myUnisa. You will also be able to
communicate with your tutor by telephone and e-mail.
The prescribed textbook to be used in conjunction with the study guide is:
Le Roux, BJ. 2007. Electrical Machines. 2nd and 3rd edition. Vanderbijlpark: Lerato.
Other resources include:
1 Solutions of problems in electrical machines by WJ Potter. Pitman. 1961.
2 HUGHES electrical and electronic technology by E Hughes, 10th ed. Pearson
Prentice Hall. 2008.
3 Worked examples in electrical engineering by WT Pratt. Hutchinson. 1963.
4 Principles of electrical machines and power electronics by PC Sen, 3rd ed.
Wiley. 2013.
5 Electric machinery by AE Fitzgerald, C Kingsley & SD Umans, 4th ed.
McGraw Hill. 1983.
6 Electric machinery fundamentals by SJ Chapman, 5th ed. McGraw Hill. 2012.
7 Performance & design of alternating current machines by MG Say, 3rd ed.
Pitman. 1963.
8 A textbook of electrical technology (Vol 2) by BL Theraja and AK Theraja, 23rd
ed. S. Chand. 2002.

How resources are referenced in this guide

If we are referring to page 745 in Hughes (numbered 2, above), this will be referenced
as follows: (2:745). If we are referring to page 26 in Le Roux, this will be referenced
as follows: (PT:26). (PT is short for “prescribed text”.)

NOTE: If some of these references seem to you to be a bit old, just remember:
Newton’s laws of motion were discovered about 300 years ago, but we still learn these
laws at school and university today. This is because these laws are fundamental to
our understanding of classical physics. And here’s the point: this course is not aimed
at making you an expert in electrical machines. The older references cited here
provide you with foundational material – and a foundation is the thing on which you
build the superstructure. If, later on, you are employed in a transformer test facility (for
instance), or as a motor design engineer (one of my former students became the
manager of a test facility, and another, a design engineer), you will have ample
opportunity there to expand on this knowledge. And then you will be teaching me!
The textbook is a comprehensive guide to the subject field. You will not be required to
study the whole textbook. However, you will need to study the chapters that are
mentioned at the beginning of each study unit, and any other recommended reading.

Your study guide, textbook and tutorial letters contain everything you need to complete
this module. However, you will benefit from making use of the module website on
myUnisa. This will allow you to:

• submit assignments (I recommend that you submit your assignment

online, as this will ensure that you receive rapid feedback and
comments – however, when you submit a hard copy, the marker is
better able to communicate with you in writing, and give you helpful
feedback in that way),
• access your official study material,
• have access to the Unisa library functions,
• chat to your lecturer, e-tutor and fellow students in online discussion forums,
and
• access a variety of learning resources.

Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional resources
uploaded throughout the semester.

There are two myUnisa sites for EEM2601. The first is the module site, where you will
find the study material, tutorial letters and past examination papers by clicking on
Official Study Material. On this site, you may also post queries to the lecturer by
selecting the Discussion Forum option. The site name usually follows the format
module code-year-semester, for example:
EEM2601-17-SI

The second site is your e-tutor site, where you can communicate with your e-tutor and
fellow students. This site has the same name, but with “-1E” or “-2E” added at the end,
depending on the semester, for example:
EEM2601-17-SI-1E
Your e-tutor is there to support your learning, and you can post any questions to him
or her in the discussion forum for the site, in the appropriate forum for general
questions. In another forum, you will be able to communicate with your fellow students.

On the e-tutor site, your e-tutor may give you the opportunity to engage in additional
discussions or to complete specific online tasks or activities; please participate fully,
as this will make a huge contribution to your learning. Both the lecturer and e-tutor
may also send you announcements from time to time.

How to go about studying this module

Distance learning is not easy, and you should not underestimate the time and effort
involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan how you will
approach and complete this module. Consult the brochure entitled Study @ Unisa for
suggestions about general time management and planning.

This is a semester module offered over 15 weeks, and it requires at least 120 hours
of study time. This means that you will have to study at least 8 hours per week for this
module.

Here is a suggested schedule that you could use as a guideline for studying this
module.

ACTIVITY HOURS

Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and the 3

introduction to the study guide

Skimming the learning units and the textbook, forming a 5

thorough general impression of the whole

First reading of study units 1–8 and the textbook, and 21

participating in the online e-tutor site (3 hours per learning
unit)

In-depth study of study units 1–3, making summaries and 18

completing learning activities, and participating in the online
e-tutor site (6 hours per learning unit)
 Completing Assignment 01 4

Completing Assignment 02 8

In-depth study of study units 4–7, making summaries and 32

completing learning activities, and participating in the online
e-tutor site (8 hours per learning unit)

Completing Assignment 03 8

Examination revision 18

Final exam 3

Total 120

The assignments for this module will take the form of written work, and they should
give you an idea of how well you are progressing with regard to achieving the learning
outcomes.

Your work for each learning unit should involve the following:
• First skim through the unit and take note of the main concepts that you need
to understand.
• Read through the unit in more detail and make your own summary of it. Focus
on the examples that are presented.
• Complete all the activities in every unit and complete any online tasks that
might be assigned to you on your e-tutor site.
• Should you feel that you need further information or clarification of a topic, you
are welcome to post a query to your e-tutor on the e-tutor site. I also
encourage you to do your own internet searches for explanations, images or
videos related to the topic. Go to www.google.com or
https://images.google.com, or similar search sites, and type in keywords
related to the topic.
• Maintain contact with your e-tutor and your fellow students throughout the
semester. Share your questions, concerns and insights with them: learning is
more effective when it is a social and collaborative activity! Should there be
 any questions that your e-tutor cannot answer, you are also welcome to
contact the lecturer.

As you work, build up your own study and exam preparation portfolio. This portfolio
will not be assessed, but it will be an extremely valuable tool for you in completing your
assignments and revising for the examination.

What is a portfolio? A portfolio is a folder or file in which you gather and compile
additional and/or summarised information during the year as you work through the
learning material.

Your portfolio should comprise:

• answers to each activity in each learning unit
• a summary of the key points in each learning unit
• your marked assignments (or a copy of each assignment you made prior to
submitting it)
• your reflections on each learning unit
• where relevant, any extra reading material taken from the internet, additional
books, or scientific journals
• a list of new vocabulary or glossary of new terms defined or explained in your
own words

Revise the content of your portfolio regularly to ensure that you achieve the learning
outcomes of this module.

6. Support services available to Unisa students

For more information about the various student support systems and services
available at Unisa (e.g. student counselling, tutorial classes, language support),
consult Tutorial Letter 101 and the brochure Study @ Unisa.
• Fellow students

It is always a good idea to have contact with fellow students. You can do this by
selecting the Discussion menu option on your e-tutor site. You can also use the
Discussion Forum to find out whether there are students in your area who would like
to form study groups.

• Library

You will find all the services offered by the Unisa library listed in Study @ Unisa.

To log in to the library web site, you will be required to provide your login details,
namely your student number and your myUnisa password, in order to access the
library's online resources and services. This will enable you to:
• request library material
• view and renew your library material
• use the library's e-resources

• Unisa Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)

DCCD supports prospective and registered students before, during and after their
Unisa studies. There are resources on their website, and also printed booklets
available to assist you with
• career advice and how to develop your employability skills
• study skills
• academic literacy (reading, writing and quantitative skills)
• assignment submission
• exam preparation

You can access the DCCD website from the main Unisa site at www.unisa.ac.za. Click
on About, then on Service Departments, and then on Counselling and Career
Development.
• Student health and wellness

Your physical health is an important factor in your learning success. Obtaining an

educational qualification is difficult and may at times involve stress, and so it is vital
that you should try to maintain a healthy lifestyle to ensure that you will cope physically
with the demands of your studies.

If you suspect that you may suffer from a chronic condition, or if you know that you
suffer from such a condition but are unsure about medical options and treatment, you
could approach Unisa for further information and support. See Unisa's Student Health
and Wellness website, which you can access from Unisa's main website: click on
About, Service Departments, Student Affairs and then on Student Health and
Wellness. Here you will find details of Unisa's health and wellness clinics, and also
some health and wellness resources.

If you have a health-related condition such as HIV/AIDS, or have a close family

member with this or another health condition, then you need to take cognisance of this
in planning your studies. It is unwise to cram tasks, as this creates enormous stress,
which has a negative effect on both your academic performance and your health.
Planning your studies is essential so that you work consistently and make progress.

It would be wise to know your health status (your HIV/AIDS status, blood pressure,
cholesterol level, whether you have diabetes, etc.). If you are informed by medical
tests, with the necessary medical and supportive interventions you can prolong your
life and improve both the quality of your life and your success in your studies.

If you would like to obtain basic information about the prevention of, testing for and
treatment of HIV/AIDS, you could follow the web links below:

• http://www.aidsconsortium.org.za/docs/AC%20Pamphlets/HIV%20treatment%
20Wise%20-%20March%202010.pdf
• http://www.aids.org/topics/aids-factsheets/
• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/sites/www.westerncape.gov.za/files/docume
nts/2005/7/living_aids_2.pdf
• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/general-publication/frequently-asked-
questions-about-hiv-and-aids
 LEARNING UNIT 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the construction and operation of a DC machine.

• Derive the emf equation of an armature windings.
• Understand magnetisation characteristics.
• Calculate the development of electromagnetic torque
• Understand the separately excited generators
• Understand the self-excited dc generator
• Understand the causes of failure to build voltage

DC MACHINES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The sole purpose of generators is to supply a direct current (DC) source. When
a DC machine converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, it is called a
generator. The term generator seems to denote that the machine generates
electric energy, but actually it does not. It must be clarified that a generator is a
converter of energy and not a producer of energy – a prime mover produces
the energy. The use of DC generators to produce bulk electricity has
disappeared due to the economic advantages, efficiency and relative simplicity
offered by alternating current (AC) generation. A DC machine is actually an AC
machine equipped with a special device called a commutator (mechanical
rectifier), which converts AC to DC. By combining series, shunt and separately-
excited field windings, they can be designed to give a variety of voltage-current
or torque-speed characteristics for both dynamic and steady-state operation.
Small DC generators can be found in ships, aircrafts, automobiles, laboratories,
etc.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF A DC GENERATOR

The following is a schematic diagram of a DC generator:
Figure 2.1: DC machine (Construction of DC Machine (Generator & Motor) |
StudyElectrical | Online Electrical Engineering Study Site n.d.).

1.2.1 Main frame/stators/yoke

The outermost part of a generator is cylindrically shaped. Its functions are to
carry magnetic flux produced by the poles, houses and to protect the inner
parts. It is made from cast iron or steel to ensure high permeability. The
maximum flux density requirements in the frame dictate the thickness of the
main frame.

1.2.2. Field poles

Poles are laminated to reduce eddy-current losses and attached to the frame
by means of counter-sunk screws. The number of poles required in generators
depend on the speed and the atmosphere of the output for which the generator
is designed. For example, in a two-pole generator there is one voltage maximus
per revolution of the armature, while in a four-pole generator there are four
voltage maximus per one revolution. If the armature speed is kept constant, the
main objective of the main poles is to produce the required excitation to induce
the required Electro-motive Force (emf).
Poles determine the rate at which the individual coils cut the magnetic flux.
Hence the output voltage increases as the number of poles in an armature
speed increases. A higher number of poles reduce the weight of the yoke, the
overall diameter and length of the machine, and the cost of copper in the field
and armature windings. When there are more poles, less distortion of the field
 is experienced. The laminated pole core and pole windings is are illustrated in
figure 2.2.
The following are disadvantages of a higher number of poles:
• The frequency of flux reversals is increased, therefore higher core losses
are experienced.
• Labour changes increase.
• The occurrence flashover between brush arms increases.

Figure 1.2: Laminated pole core and pole windings (What are the main parts of a DC
generator and their functions_ - Quora n.d.).

1.2.3 Interpoles/commutating poles

These poles are placed between the main field poles and serve to counter the
effects of the armature reaction, as illustrated in figures 2.3.
Figure 1.3: Interpoles (What are the main parts of a DC generator and their functions_
- Quora n.d.)

Figure 1.4: Compensating winding (5.7 Theory of Commutation n.d.).

1.2.4 Armature
The armature is the rotating part of a DC machine. Armature conductors are
placed in slots, axially punched in the laminated armature. Laminations are
insulated from one another and from the conductors by a thin layer of insulation
coating. The number of slots is selected on the basis of the numbers of coils
and commutator segments.
 Figure 1.5: Armature (How to Check a Motor Armature for Damaged Windings
_ Groschopp n.d.)
As the armature conductors rotate in a uniform magnetic field produced by the
main poles, an emf is induced due to their flux-cutting action. There is a small
air-gap between the armature and poles (about 1 mm for 1 kw machines). The
armature coils are made up of enamelled copper wire. The coils or multiple
turns are placed in armature slots.

1.2.5 Commutator
The commutator is a mechanical rectifier placed between the armature and the
external circuit. The commutator is cylindrical and it is made out of wedge-
shaped, high-conducting, hard-drawn copper segments. The segments are
insulated from one another by a thin layer of mica.
Figure 2.6 is a sectional view of a commutator. The segments are held together
by two V-shaped rings that fit into the V grooves cut into the segments. The
commutator connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary part-
through brushes and converts AC to DC

Figure 1.6: The commutator (Hydraulic-Electric Analogies_ DC Motors, Part 5 n.d.).

1.2.6 Brushes
 The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and make the connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit. They are rectangular
and are usually made of high-grade carbon, which is a conducting material. The
brushes are held in a particular position around the commutator by brush
holders. They serve to collect current from the rotating commutator and supply
it to the stationary external load cot. Brushes may be classified as carbon,
carbon graphite, graphite, metal graphite and copper brushes. Copper brushes
are used only for machines designed for large currents at low voltages. These
brushes wear rapidly, and they cut the commutator very quickly. Graphite and
carbon graphite brushes are widely used because they are self-lubricating.

Figure 2.7: Brushes and brush holders

1.2.7 Armature winding

Armature winding is insulated conductors housed in armature slots. These
conductors are arranged so as to develop the desired emf by relative motion in
a heteropolar magnetic field (a field system consisting of the number of poles
arranged alternately N-S field system; a machine that uses such a system is
called a heteropolar machine). These conductors may be distributed in different
ways in slots on the periphery of the machines.

Terminology used to describe armature winding:

• Conductors: Conductors are the individual lengths of wire lying within the
magnetic field. The symbol Z is used for the total number of conductors in the
emf equation.
• Turn: A turn is two conductors that form a loop so that the emf induced
in them is doubled.
• Coil: A coil is also known as a winding. It is formed when the two ends
of the number of turns are connected to the adjacent commutator segments.
• Coil side: The coil side is a single turn or a multi-turn embedded in two
different slots nearly a pole pitch apart.
• Coil group: A coil group may have one or multiple single coils.
• Winding: A winding is a number of coils arranged in a coil group.
• Inductor: The wires making up a coil side and inducing voltage are called
inductors.
• Front-end connector: A front-end connector is a wire that connects the
end of a coil to a commutator segment.
• Pole pitch: This is the number of conductors per pole; that is, if Z = 54
for six poles, then pole pitch = 54/6 = 9 conductors per pole.
• Coil span/coil pitch: When the coil span of a winding is equal to its pole
pitch, the coils are called full-pitched coils. Full-pitched coils have the
advantage that they allow maximum emf to be induced in a coil.

Figure 1.8: The coil pitch (Theraja 2003)

1.2.8 Types of armature winding
Armature windings are always of a non-salient pole type and are usually
symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference of the
armature. Conductors are housed in slots over the armature surface and
connected to one another by coil ends. Before placing coils in the slots, the
slots are given U-shaped slot liners of leatheroid to ensure mechanical
protection of the coils. After the coils have been draped into the slots, wedges
or wood or hard fibre are driven into the slots to hold them in place.
Generally there are two types that exit, namely lap and wave windings. The
appearance in construction of the two windings is the manner in which the coil
ends are connected to the commutator.

Figure 1.9: Lap and wave windings (Hasan 2017)

Lap winding
The coil ends are connected to adjacent commutator segments and there are as many
paths in parallel through the armature winding as there are poles. The winding is called
a lap winding because the sides of successive coils overlap each other. This type of
winding gives large currents (low voltage) as it gives more parallel paths, which is why
lap windings are applied to machines with large currents and low voltages.

The following are important points about lap winding:

• The coil pitch yb must be approximately equal to the pole pitch, that is yb
𝑍
= .
𝑃

• The number of commutator segments are equal to the number of coils.

Wave winding
Wave winding differs from the lap winding only in the way it is connected to the
commutator. The starting and ending of a coil are connected to almost two pole pitches
or 360° apart. Figure 2.9 illustrates simplex arrangements for four-pole and six-pole
DC machines. The number of commutator segments must be selected in accordance
with the pair of poles so that the commutator pitch has a value slightly more or less
than 360°. Commutator segments = commutator pitch x pole pairs.
1.3 EMF EQUATION OF AN ARMATURE WINDING
When an armature is rotated through one revolution, each conductor cuts the
magnetic flux emanating from the N-pole and the S-pole. A conductor rotating
at “N” revolutions per minute in a “p” pole field having a flux of “Ф” per pole will
𝑃Ф𝑛
produce a voltage of e = (v).
60

If there are “Z” conductors in “c” parallel paths, then the total voltage in the
𝑝Ф𝑛𝑍
armature winding is E = = (ZpФ⍵m)/2𝜋𝑐 per revolution,
60
2𝜋𝑁
where ω = ((𝑟𝑎𝑑|𝑠) and
60
𝑍𝑝Ø2𝜋𝑁 2Ф𝑍𝑁𝑝
flux E = (V) = ,
60𝜋𝑐 60𝑐
2𝑍𝑃
which can also be written as E = kФN, where k = .
60𝑐

For a given DC generator, the induced voltage is a function of the armature

speed and the flux per pole. In a wound machine with Nf windings per pole, this
flux can be increased or decreased by controlling the field current, whereas in
a permanent magnet machine the flux would be constant.

1.4 MAGNETISATION CHARACTERISTICS

The magnetisation of a DC machine can be obtained by running the machine
as generator at its rate speed with no load and a varying field current. The curve
is usually obtained by exciting the field winding separately. The armature
current is OA since the machine is running at no load and the terminal voltage
is always equal to armature-generated voltage at varying field current.
However, above a certain point (saturation) the relationship between field
current and armature voltage becomes non-linear, as shown in figure 2.10. The
shape of the curve is determined mainly by the characteristics of the magnetic
 core. Magnetisation curve characteristics are performed the same way as no-
load characteristics curves. The no-load and load characteristics curves are
performed to determine their potential application. The only meaningful no-load
(open circuit) characteristics are shunt and separately excited ones.

Figure 1.10: Open-circuit characteristics curve

The load characteristic curves are shown in figure 2.11. The figure shows over
compound, level-compound, under compound, series and differential-compound
generators under load. If a shunt generator is loaded beyond a certain point, it breaks
down because the terminal voltage collapses. In a series generator, the load current
flows through the field windings, which implies that the field flux and hence the induced
emf increase with the load until the core begins to saturate magnetically. Compound
generators have the combined characteristics of shunt and series generators. In a
differential compound generator, the shunt and series field windings are in opposition,
hence the terminal voltage drops rapidly with the load.
Figure 1.11: External characteristics curve for a DC generator
The cumulative compound generator, on the other hand, has shunt and series
windings that help one another. The mmf’s of the two fields may be adjusted so that
the terminal voltage on full load is less than the no-load voltage, as in under compound
generators, or the full-load voltage may be equal to the no-load voltage, as in level-
compound generators. Finally, the terminal voltage on full load may be greater the no-
load voltage, as in over-compound generators.
Example 1.1
A 50 kW, 250 V short-shunt compound generator has RA = 0.06 Ω, Rser 0.04Ω and Rf
= 125 Ω. Calculate the induced armature emf at rated load and terminal voltage.
Assume 2 V total brush contact drops.
Solution:
𝑝 50𝑘
IL = = = 200 A
𝑣 250
𝑉𝑡 +𝐼𝑙 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟 250+200 𝑥 0.04
If = = = 2.064 A
𝑅𝑓 125

In = IL + If = 200 + 2.06 = 202.064 A

EA = Vt + IA RA + IL Rser + 2 = 250 + 202.06 x 0.06 + 200 x 0.04 + 2
= 272, 124 V
1.5 DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TORQUE
The torque produced as the result of the electromagnetic effect is called
electromagnetic torque (Tem) and it is measured in Nm.
Power developed = work done per second = ⍵Tem.
The load on a generator, however, is defined in terms of its armature current.
Assume the generator supplies a load current of IA when induced emf is E.
Pem = EAIA
By equating electrical and mechanical power,
Pem = ⍵Tem = EAIA
2Ф𝑍𝑁𝐷
Tem = 60𝐸𝐴 𝐼𝐴 /2𝜋𝑁 where E =
60𝑐
𝐼𝐴
= 60 {2Ф𝑍𝑁𝑝|/60𝑐}
2𝜋𝑁
Ф𝑍𝑃𝐼𝐴
=
𝜋𝑐
𝐼𝐴
= 0.318ФZP for a given machine Z, c and p are fixed
𝑐

= KФIA.
1.7 SEPARATELY EXCITED GENERATORS

Figure 1.12: Separately excited generators

The open-circuit (no-load) characteristics curves of a generator can be obtained by
running a generator on a no-load at rated speed. Increase the field current gradually
in steps from zero to maximum and back to zero. Plot the armature emf versus the
field current (which is directly proportional to flux). Plot the emf in the armature as the
field current in increased yields to a linear curve OA as shown below. OA in the
unsaturated part until A (knee point) where the curve becomes non-linear or saturated
until OB. When decreasing the field current in steps, the curve follows the path BCR.
The value of the emf at OR is not zero, not even when the field has reached zero point.
The emf OR is due to residual magnetism (remanence) in the field poles.
Figure 1.12: Magnetisation characteristics curve

The revolution of generator terminal voltage with load current is termed load (external)
characteristics and the curve is shown below.

Figure 1.13: Load characteristics curve of a separately excited generator

The terminal voltage drop as the load current increases is due to armature resistance
voltage drop. IARA and armature reaction
V = EA -IARA,
where VT → terminal voltage,
EA → generated emf,
IA → armature current (same as load current), and
RA → armature resistance.

1.8 SELF-EXCITED DC GENERATOR

Conditions for self-excitation are the following:
• There must be some residual magnetism in the armature system.
 • The residual magnetism must be in proper direction that is, aid the build-
up of voltage
• The external resistance of a series generator should be less than its
critical resistance.
• For shunt, fixed resistance should be less than critical resistance.

1.9 CAUSES OF FAILURE TO BUILD VOLTAGE

• No residual magnetism. If there is little or no residual magnetism
because of inactivity or jarring in shipment, no voltage will be induced.
• Reversal of field connection. The reversal of connection of field winding
destroys the existing residual magnetism, which causes generator failure to
build up.

1.10 THE EMF EQUATION OF AN ARMATURE WINDING

Where an armature is rotated through on revolution, each conductor cuts the
magnetic flux emanating from all the N-poles as well as the magnetic flux
entering all the S-poles. Consequently,
Ф → useful flux per pole, entering and leaving the armature,
p → number of pole pairs, and
N → speed of rotation in rpm.
60
That is, the time of one revolution = seconds and the time taken by a
𝑁
60 1
conductor to move one pole pitch = x seconds.
𝑁 2𝑝

Therefore, the average rate at which a conductor cuts the flux

60 1
= Ф: ( × ) webers/second, and
𝑁 2𝑝

average emf generated in each conductor

2Ф𝑁𝑝
= V.
60

If Z → total number of armature conductor,

c → number of parallel paths through winding between positive and
negative brushes,
→ 2 for a wave winding, and
→ 2p for lap winding,
 𝑍
where → number of conductors in series in each path,
𝑐

the total emf = average emf/conductor X number of conductors in series/paths

2Ф𝑁𝑃 𝑍
= x
60 𝑐
2ф𝑍𝑁𝑝
E= (V).
60𝑐

Example 1.2
A four-pole wave-connected armature has 51 slots with 12 conductors per slot
and it is driven at 900 rpm if the useful flux per pole is 25 mWb.
Calculate the value of the generated emf.
Solution:
Z = 12 x 51 = 612 conductors,
2Ф𝑍𝑁𝑝 2 𝑋 0.025 𝑋 612 𝑋 900 𝑋 2
therefore, E = = = 459 V.
60𝑐 60 𝑋 2

1.12 SELF-EXCITING GENERATORS

In a DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the
generator itself, the field coil is interconnected with the armature coils. There
are three main types of generators, namely shunt, series and compound
generators. They all use residual magnetism in the armature for voltage build-
up.

1.12.1 Series generators

In this type of generators, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding so that the current flowing through the field for excitation is
the same as the current flowing through the armature windings.
Figure 1.13: Equivalent circuit of a series generator (What is Compound Wound
Generator_ - Long & Short Shunt Compound Wound - Circuit Globe n.d.).

The series field winding is designed to have a fewer number of turns, but uses thick
wire to be able to carry full-load current.
IA = Iser = IL = I……………. (1)
VT = EA - I (Rser + RA)...... (2)
Pdev = EA ………………… (3)
Pout = VT I………………… (4)

• Magnetic characteristics: If a curve is drawn between flux per pole and

field current, the magnetic characteristics are as shown.
• Internal characteristics: A curve drawn between the armature current (IA
= IF) and the generated emf is called the internal or total characteristics curve,
as shown.
• External or load characteristics: A curve is drawn between current and
terminal voltage since VT = I (RA + Rser), where I (RA + Rser) is the voltage drop
per different values of load current represented by line OA. So, if the ohmic drop
lines are deducted from internal characteristics, the external characteristics are
obtained, where the terminal voltage first increases as the load current
increases, then reaches maximum value and finally decreases. If the load
circuit resistance is reduced sufficiently, the terminal voltage may fall to zero.
Figure 1.14: Characteristics curves of a series generator

Example 1.3
A series generator has total resistance of 0.5 Ω. When it runs at 1 000 rpm, it delivers
5 kW at 100 V. If the speed is increased to 1 500 rpm and the power delivered is now
8 kW, find the new current and terminal voltage.
Solution:
𝑃 5 000
At 1 000 rpm, IL = = = 50 A,
𝑉 100

EA = VT + IA (RA + Rser) = 100 + 50 (0.5) = 125 V.

𝑃 8000
At 1 500 rpm, I2 = = …. (1),
𝑉2 𝑉2
8000
EA1 = V2 + I2 (0.5) + + 0.5 I2 …. (2).
𝐼2
𝐸𝐴1 Ф1 𝑁1 𝐼𝐹1 𝑁1 8000 50 × 1 000 𝐼2 ×1 500
Therefore, = = → + 0.5 I2 / 125 = =
𝐸𝐴2 Ф2 𝑁2 𝐼𝐹2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝐼2 × 1 500 50 ×1000
50 𝐾 1 500
8 000 + 0.5 𝐼2 2 = 125 ( )( ) I2
1 500 5 000

I2 = 49.61 A
8 000 8 000
and V2 = = = 161.24 V.
𝐼2 49.61

2.12.2 Shunt generator

In this type of generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding so that the field voltage is the same as terminal voltage (see figure 2.15
below).
Figure 1.15: Shunt generator equivalent circuit
Under no-load, the armature current is the field current. For a shunt-wound generator,
the field current is kept at ± 2.5% full-rated load current, where
IA = IL + If ………………………………(5)
𝑉𝑇
If = ……………………………………(6)
𝑅𝐹

VT = EA - IA RA ………………………..(7)
Pdev = EA IA …………………………..(8)
Pout = Vt IL ……………………………..(9)
The curve plotted between the generated emf and the shunt field current is illustrated
in figure 2.16 below.
Figure 1.16: Voltage build-up of a shunt generator at no-load
The line OP represents shunt field resistance. OA is the residual magnetism. This
residual emf induced causes current OA to flow in the field circuit. This is illustrated by
a horizontal line from point A that meets the field resistance line at point “a” and a
perpendicular line from point “a” that meets the current axis at a’, where the field
current is Oa’ and the generated emf is a’ a’’, which produce field current Ob’, which in
turn produces a high voltage b’ b’’. Thus, it is observed that the effect is cumulative and
the values of the induced emf and field current increase until they reach point D, the
point of intersection of the shunt field resistance line and the magnetic characteristics
line obtained.

Critical field resistance

The maximum amount of voltage that a generator can generate is given by the point
of intersection of the field resistance line with the open circuit characteristics line. If
line OA represents the field resistance, then the maximum emf generated is Oa. If the
field resistance is increased to a value represented by the line OB, the generated
voltage will be Ob1, and if it is further increased so that the line representing the field
resistance becomes tangent to the curve, as line OC, then the generated emf is Oc1.
and the value of resistance given by this line is called critical resistance. If the field
resistance is further increased beyond critical resistance as represented by line OD,
the generator will not excite because the line OD has no point of intersection with the
magnetic characteristics line.

Figure 1.17 Critical field resistance curves.

External characteristics
Under no-load, the armature current is equal to the field current, which is usually a
small fraction of the load current. Therefore, the terminal voltage under no-load VNL is
nearly equal to the induced emf EA owing to a negligible IARA drop. As the load current
increases, the terminal voltage decreases for the following reasons:
1. the increase in armature winding and brush contact drop
2. the demagnetisation effect of the armature reaction
3. the decrease in field current due to the first two effects
The effect of each of these case factors is shown in figure 2.18 below. For a successful
operation, the shunt generator must operate in the saturated region. Otherwise, the
terminal voltage under load can fall to zero.
Figure 1.18: External characteristics of a shunt generator
For a successful operation, the shunt generator must operate in the saturated region.
Otherwise, the terminal voltage under load can fall to zero. This can be explained as
follows: Suppose the generator is operating in the linear region and there is a 10%
drop in terminal voltage as soon as the load draws some current. A 10% drop reduces
the flux by 10%. A 10% reduction in flux decreases the induced emf by 10% and
causes the terminal voltage to fall even further.
Soon the terminal voltage falls to a level (zero) that is not able to supply any
appreciable load. The saturation of the magnetic material comes to the rescue. When
the generator is operating in the saturation region, a 10% drop in the field current may
result in only a 2% drop in flux and the system stabilises at a terminal voltage
somewhat lower than VNL, but still at a level suitable for successful operation.
As the generator is loaded, the load current increases to a point called the breakdown
point while load resistance decreases. Any further decrease in the load resistance
results in a decrease in load in the load resistance. When the load resistance is
decreased all the way to zero (short-circuit) the field current goes to zero and the
current through the short circuit is the ratio of residual voltage to the armature circuit
resistance.

Example 1.5
The demagnetisation curve of a shunt generator at 1 200 rpm is given by figure 2.17.
The other parameters are Rf = 30 Ω, RA = 0.2 Ω, N = 200 turns/pole and Prot = 1 200
W. Demagnetisation mmf per pole due to armature reaction is 50% of the load current.
External field resistance Rfx is adjusted to give a no-load voltage of 170 V. Determine
Rfx if the generator supplies a rated load of 100 A. If VT = 142.4 V, find the voltage
regulation and efficiency.
Figure 1.17: The demagnetisation curve of a DC machine at 1 200 rpm
Solution:
From the demagnetisation curve, the current corresponding to the no-load voltage of
170 V is 3.5A. Rf (in total).

𝑉𝐼 170
Rf = = = 48.57 Ω
𝐼𝐹 3.5

Rfx = Rf(T) - Rf = 48,57 – 30 = 18,57 Ω

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿 170−142.4
%Vreg = = = 0.162 pu
𝑉𝑁𝐿 170

Pout = VTIL = 142.4 × 100 = 14240 W

𝑉𝑇 142.4
IF = = = 2.93 A
𝑅𝐹𝑇 48.57

IA = IL + IF = 102.93 A
Pcu = IF2 RF + IA2 RA = 2.932 × 48.57 + 102.932 = 2536. 47 W
EA = VT + IA RA = 142.4 + 102.93 × 0.2 = 162.986 V
Pdev = EA IA = 102.93 × 162.986 = 16776.473 W
Pin = Pdev + Prot = 17976.473 W
𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡
%Ƞ = = 79.21%
𝑃𝐼𝑛

2.12.3 Compound generator

In this type of generator there are two field windings (two separate coils on the core of
each pole). One of them (with many turns of fine wire) is connected across the
armature coils; and the other (with a few turns of thick wire) is connected in series with
the armature coils. Compound generators may be connected either to short-shunt,
with the shunt winding in parallel with the armature done, or long-shunt, with the shunt
winding in parallel with both the series and the armature coils as shown in figure 2.18
below.

Figure 1.18: Compound generator

There are two types of compound generators, namely cumulative compound generator
and differential compound generators. In cumulative compound generators, the series
coils assist the shunt winding, while in differential compound generators, it is opposite.
See figure 2.19 below.

Figure 2.19: Current distribution in the series and shunt field winding of (a) cumulative
and (b) differential compound generators

(a) Short-shunt compound generators

Series field current Iser = IL ………………………(1)
𝑉𝑇+𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟
Shunt field current Ish = ……………..(2)
𝑅𝑠ℎ

IA = IL + Ish ………………….(3)
 VT = EG – IARA –Iser Rser …….(4)
Pdev = EA IA…………………..(5)
Pin = Pdev + Prot………………(6)
Pout = VT IL…………………..(7)
(b) Long-shunt compound generator
𝑉𝑇
Ish = ………………………………..(8)
𝑅𝑠ℎ

IA = Iser = IL + Ish………………………..(9)
VT = EG – IA (RA + Rser)……………….(10)
Pdev = EGIA………………………………(11)
Pout = VTIL………………………………..(12)
In compound generators, most of the flux is created by the shunt field. The series field
winding provides control over total flux – different levels of compounding can be
obtained by limiting the current through the series winding. There are three distinct of
degrees of compounding. They are the following:
▪ Under-compound generator: When the full-load voltage in a compound
generator is lower than the no-load voltage, it is called an under-compound
generator.
▪ Flat- or level-compound generator: When no-load voltage is equal to full-
load voltage and it is used where the distance between the generator and load
is short, the generator is a flat- or level-compound generator.
▪ Over-compound generator: When the full-load voltage is higher than the
no-load voltage, the generator is said to be over-compounded. This generator
is widely used when the load is connected via a long transmission line.
Figure 1.20: External characteristics of a DC generator
Example 1.6
A 240 V short-shunt cumulative-compound generator delivers 100 A to the load. The
shunt current is 3 A, Ra = 0.05 Ω, Rser = 0.01 Ω and R divert = 0.04 Ω. The generator
is connected to the load via a feeder of 0.03 Ω. Determine Rf, and the efficiency if Prot
= 2 kW.
Pout = VTIL = 240 × 100 = 24 kW
IA = IF + IL = 100 +3 = 103 A
Vdivert.= ILRdivert = 100 × 0.03 = 3 V
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟 0.01
I d = IL = = 100 ( ) = 20 A
𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑟+𝑅𝑑 0.05

Iser = IL – id = 80 A
EA = Vt + Vdir + Vser + IARA = 240 + 3 + 80 × 0.01 + 103 × 0.05 = 248.95 V
VF = EA – IARA = 248.95 – 103 × 0.05 = 243.8 V
𝑉𝐹 243.8
Therefore, RF= = = 81.267 Ω.
𝐼𝐹 3

Pcu = IA2RA + IF2RF + Iser2Rser + Id2Rd + IL2Rdiv = 1641.85 W

Pdev = EAIA = 25641.85 W
Pin = Pdev + Prot = 27641.85 W
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 24𝑘
%ђ = = = 86.82%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 27.64

1.13 ARMATURE REACTION

When there is no current in the armature winding, the flux produced by the field winding
is uniformly distributed over the pole surface, as shown in figure 2.20. For a two-pole
DC machine, the induced emf in a coil that lies in the neutral plane (a plane
perpendicular to the field flux) is zero. This is the neutral position under no-load, where
the brushes must be positioned for proper commutation. If a generator is driven by a
prime mover in a clockwise direction, the direction of the current in the armature
conductors under load is as shown in figure b. The armature flux distribution due to
the armature mmf is also shown in figure b. The flux due to field windings is not shown
intentionally. The magnetic axis of the armature flux (q-axis) is perpendicular to the
magnetic axis of the field winding flux (d-axis).
Figure 1.20: The armature reaction

Since both fluxes exist at the time, when the armature is loaded the resultant flux is
distorted as indicated. The armature flux has weakened the flux in one half of the pole
and has strengthened it in the other half. The armature current has therefore displaced
the magnetic field axis of the resultant flux in the direction of ratio of the generator. As
the neutral plane is perpendicular to the resultant field, it has also advanced. The effect
of armature mmf on the field distribution is called the armature reaction.

Exercise 1.1
1. What is an electrical machine?
2. Describe the following:
(i) frame/stator/yoke
(ii) poles and pole coils
(iii) armature
(iv) commutator
(v) brushes
3. What is the advantage of DC motors over AC motors?
4. What is the use of commutator in a DC machine?
5. What are the functions of the following?
(i) pole tips
(ii) armature slots
(iii) lamination sheets
 (iv) commutator
(v) yoke
(vi) eye bolt
(vii) fan
(viii) ball bearings
(ix) pole winding
6. Why are field poles in DC machine laminated?
7. Do commutators convert AC to DC or DC to AC?
8. Explain the function of the yoke in DC machines.
9. Name the properties of interpoles in order to identify them in DC
machines.
10. Explain the TWO methods of changing the speed of a shunt motor.
11. Draw and label the general arrangement of a DC machine.
12. Sketch the magnetising characteristics curve of a DC generator.
13. Draw a circuit diagram of a series motor using a diverter for speed
control.
14. With the aid of a circuit diagram, show how armature reaction occurs.
15. Name two ways of controlling the speed of a shunt motor.
16. Name the FOUR main losses in a DC machine.
17. Why is it important to know what the main losses in a DC machine are?
18. What are level-compound, under-compound and over-compound
generators?
19. What is the danger of running a series motor on no load?
20. Name THREE ways of correcting the armature reaction.
21. Explain why a first-time generator might not excite.
22. Why is the value of the field winding given in ohm and not in
reactance?
23. Name TEN possible causes of sparking in DC machines.
24. State the condition for maximum efficiency in DC machines.
25. What is meant by the pitting of rings and how is it cured?
26. What is the reason for brush vibration?
27. Give reasons for possible short circuits between the turns in the
armature of a DC machine.
28. Explain the back emf as found in series motors.
 29. Explain how magnetic flux is produced in DC machines.
30. What advantages do shunt motors have over series motors?
31. Name FIVE possible causes of excessive temperature rise in a DC
machine.
32. Name THREE types of self-excited machines.
33. How can the direction of a DC shunt machine be reversed?
34. How can the direction of a series motor be reversed?
35. Assume that a shunt motor rotates clockwise. What happens if …
(i) field winding terminals are reversed?
(ii) armature windings are reversed?
(iii) the supply terminal is reversed?
(iv) both field and armature terminals are reversed at the same time?
36. Why is the shaft power always less than the power developed in the
armature?
37. Why does the magnetic curve start at a voltage higher than 0 volts?
38. State the emf equation of the DC generator.

Exercise 1.2
1. A 10 kW, 250 V, self-excited DC shunt generator has total rotational
losses of 400 W. The armature circuit includes brush contact resistance of 0.5
Ω and field resistance of 250 Ω.
Calculate:
(i) shaft input power (11490.5 W)
(ii) machine efficiency (87.03%)
(iii) armature current for maximum efficiency (36.06 A)
(iv) machine output power for maximum efficiency (9013.87 W)
2. A four-pole compound generator has armature, shunt field and series
field resistances of 0.1 Ω, 200 Ω and 0.3 Ω respectively. It delivers 5 kW at
200 V and allows 1 V drop per brush contact resistance, calculate the
following for the long and short shunt
(i) Induced emf (212.4 V & 212.1 V).
(ii) Total power (5722.4 W & 5722.4 W).
(iii) Machine efficiency (87.4% & 87.62%).
 (iv) Flux per pole if the armature has 100 lap-connected conductors
running at 750 rpm. Assume rotational losses of 200 W (169.92 mWb).
3. A short-shunt compound generator has armature, shunt field and
series field resistances of 0.4 Ω, 45 Ω and 0.3 Ω respectively. It delivers 5 kW
at 240 V.
Calculate:
(i) induced emf (256.772 V)
(ii) torque (43 Nm)
(iii) machine efficiency when driven at 1 500 rpm; stray losses are 4% of
electromagnetic power; and PFE and PWIND are 10% of armature losses
(70.89%)
4. A six-pole, lap-wound, 220 V shunt machine takes an armature current
of 2.5 A at no load and rotates at 969 rpm. When loaded, it takes an armature
current of 54 A from the supply and runs at 950 rpm. The resistance of the
armature circuit is 0.18 Ω and there are 1 044 armature conductors. If the
induced emf is 210.28 V, calculate the flux per pole. (12.72 mWb)
5. A long-shunt generator is running at 1 000 rpm and supplies 22 kW at
a terminal voltage of 220 V. The resistances of the armature, shunt field and
series field are 0.05 Ω, 110 Ω and 0.06 Ω respectively. The overall efficiency
at the above load is 88%.
Determine:
(i) the copper losses
(ii) the core and mechanical losses
(iii) torque exerted by the prime mover (238.73 Nm)
6. A shunt machine has armature and field resistances of 0.04 Ω and 100
Ω respectively. When driven at 600 rpm, the machine delivers 50 kW at 460
V. Calculate:
(i) the machine efficiency when running as a generator (93.84%)
(ii) efficiency and speed when running as a motor taking 50 kW from the
same supply of 460 V, assuming rotational losses of 400 W (93.6%)
7. A self-excited long shunt machine has armature, field, series and inter-
pole resistances of 0.1 Ω, 250 Ω, 0.3 Ω and 0.15 Ω respectively. When
connected to 400 V and driven as a generator at 600 rpm, it delivers 20 kW.
Calculate the generator torque, efficiency and speed when running as a motor
 and taking 20 kW from the same supply. Assume PMECH = 2% of generator-
rated power. (351.803 Nm, 88.9%, 522.965 rpm)
8. A short-shunt compound generator has armature, shunt and series
field resistances of 0.8 Ω, 45 Ω and 0.6 Ω and supplies 5 kW load at 250 V.
Calculate:
(i) Generated emf in the armature (282.66 V).
(ii) Electromagnetic power when driven at 1 500 rpm. PFE and PWIND are
4% of electromagnetic power and windage losses are 10 % of the
armature losses (7298.85 W).
(iii) Torque required to drive the load (46.466 Nm).
(iv) Efficiency (65.41%).

9. A DC shunt, self-excited generator delivers 20 A at 250 V when driven

at 1 500 rpm. The field current is 1 A and armature resistance is 0.4 Ω. If core,
friction and windage losses are 250 W, determine the power required to drive
the machine at the above load. (5674 W)
10. A four-pole DC generator gives 410 V on open-circuit when driven at
900 rpm. Calculate the flux per pole for a wave-connected armature that has
39 slots with 16 conductors per slot. (0.0219Wb)
11. The resistance of the field circuit of a shunt-excited DC generator is
200 . When the output of the generator is 100 kW, the terminal voltage is
500 V and the generated emf is 525 V.

Calculate:
(i) the armature resistance (0.123)

(ii) the value of the generated emf when the output is 60 kW, if the
terminal voltage is then 250 V (534.5 V)

12. A short-shunt compound generator has armature, shunt field and

series field resistances of 0.8 , 45 , and 0.6  respectively, and supplies a
load of 5 kW at 250 V. Calculate the emf generated in the armature. (282.7 V)

13. A shunt generator is to be converted into a level-compound generator

by adding a series field winding. From a test on the machine with a shunt
excitation only, it is found that the shunt current is 4.1 A to give 440 V on no-
load and 5.8 A to give the same voltage when supplying a full-load current of
200 A. The shunt winding has 1 200 turns per pole. Determine the number of
series turns per pole. (10)

14. Calculate the number of series turns per pole required for a 100 kW,
460 V level-compound generator. Without a series winding it is found that the
shunt current has to be 2 A on no-load and 6.25 A on full-load to maintain 460
V. The number of turns per pole for the shunt winding is 2 000. If the series
coils were wound eight turns per pole and had a total resistance of 0.01 ,
what value of diverter resistance would be required to give level
compounding? (6, 0.0296)

15. A 300 kW, 500 V eight-pole DC generator has 768 armature

conductors that are lap-connected.

Calculate:
(i) the demagnetising mmf

(ii) the cross-mmf per pole if the brushes are given a lead of 5°e from the
GNP

(iii) the number of turns required for the com-pole if the mmf for the com-
pole is 1.3 times the armature mmf (3600A(t), 2800A(t), 8)

16. The wave-connected armature of a four-pole DC generator is required

to generate an emf of 520 V when driven at 660 rpm. Calculate the flux per
pole required if the armature has 144 slots with two coil sides per slot, each
coil consisting of three turns. (0.0274 Wb)

17. A 115 V, long-shunt compound generator supplies a load of 400 A at

rated voltage. The IF is 10 A, RA is 0.05 Ω and RSER is 0.02 Ω, and the
rotational loss is 2 kW. Determine the machine efficiency. (77.5 %)
 LEARNING UNIT 2
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the construction and operation of DC motors.
• Derive the equation of the magnitude of force experienced by one conductor.
• Derive the equation of the developed torque due to one conductor.
• Understand the types of DC motors.
• Understand the DC motor speed-current characteristics curve.

DC MOTORS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy,
whereas a generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. There is no
fundamental difference between the construction or operation of the two machines. In
fact, the same machine may be used as a generator or a motor. Early electric power
systems were direct current systems, so the first motors were DC motors. Their
popularity declined due to the development of AC power systems. DC motors never
completely disappeared because of their smooth, efficient and wide-range speed
controls, quick reversals and high starting torque, but mainly because they are the only
type of motor that can be used for automotive and aircraft applications.

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR

If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, as shown in figure
2.1 below, a mechanical force is experienced by the conductor. The conductor moves
in the direction of force determined by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Figure 2.1: The working principle of a DC motor (Electrical4u 2018).
The magnitude of force experienced by one conductor is given by
F = Biℓ(Newton’s). ……………………………………………… (2.1)
The developed torque due to one conductor is given by
T = Fxr = Biℓxr. …………………………………………………2.2
If Z is the total number of conductors, then developed torque is
T = Biℓrxz × 2. (Z is always a coil, hence 2z.)
If i is the current in each conductor,
then ℓ is total current in c (number of parallel paths).
𝐼 𝛷𝐼 𝛷
Therefore, T = B ℓr2Z = ℓ2Zr (where B= ).
𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝐴

If A is a cross-sectional area of flux per path at radius r, let p be the number of poles;
2𝜋𝑟ℓ
then A = .
𝑝
Ф𝐼 2Ф𝐼𝑍𝑝 𝐼
Therefore, T = 2𝜋𝑟𝑐ℓ l2Zr = = 0.318ФZp .
2𝜋𝑐 𝐶
𝑝

For a given machine, Z, p and c are fixed.

∴ Tdev = KΦI and torque change formula is
𝑇1 Ф1 𝐼𝐴1
= , but in shunt motors Φ⍶IF, hence
𝑇2 Ф2 𝐼𝐴2
𝑇1 𝐼𝐹1 𝐼𝐴1
= ; and in series motors IF = IA, hence
𝑇2 𝐼𝐹2 𝐼𝐴2
2
𝑇1 𝐼𝐴1 𝐼𝐴1 𝐼𝐴1
= = 2 .
𝑇2 𝐼𝐴2 𝐼𝐴2 𝐼𝐴2

2.3 Types of DC motors

There are three main types of DC motors, namely shunt, series and compound motors.
The permanent magnet (PM) motor is a special type of shunt motor with a uniform
(constant) flux density. A separately excited motor is not practical to employ, mainly
because it requires two power sources. A separately excited motor does not exist and
will be treated as a special type of shunt motor simply because it is possible.

2.2.1 Permanent-magnet DC (PMDC) motors

PMDC motors are motors whose magnetic poles are made up of permanent magnets
fixed to the stator. The stator serves as a return path for the flux. The armature of this
motor is the same as that of a conventional DC motor. A PMDC motor is illustrated in
figure 2.2 below.

Figure 2.2: PMDC motor

Fractional PMDC motors are constructed to operate on 6 V, 12 V and 24 V powered

by batteries, solar or rectifiers. Torque is developed by interaction between IA and flux
produced by permanent magnets.

Figure 2.3: PMDC motors offer the following advantages:

• No field windings are required and no field losses occur.
• They are small (and therefore save space), affordable and easy to
connect.

The disadvantages of PMDC motors include the following:

• Their excessive armature current may demagnetise the poles.
• There are limitations to the flux density produced by permanent
magnets.

PMDC motors are used in automobiles as starters, windshield wipers and blowers in
heaters or air conditioners. They are also used to control windows and in electric tooth
brushes and PC disc drives.

3.2.2 Separately excited DC motors

 These motors have coils similar to those of shunt motors, but their armature
and field coils are fed from different supply sources. Their field voltage rating is
ten times lower than that of the armature.

Figure 2.4: Separately excited DC motors (Electronics Tutorial 2017).

2.2.3 Series-wound DC motors
The motor is made up of field coils that consist of a few turns of thick wire and are
connected in series with the armature circuit. The cross-sectional area of the field wire
has to be fairly large in order to carry the load or armature current, as shown in figure
3.4 below.

Figure2.5: Series-wound DC motor

In a series motor,
EA = VT –IA (RA + Rser)
Pem = EAIA = VTI1 –IA2 (RA +Rser).
The performance and therefore the suitability of a DC motor are determined from its
characteristics, namely torque-armature, current, speed armature and speed torque.
Speed-current characteristics
The value of flux varies with the load current according to the ordinary magnetisation
curve. Due to armature reaction, the actual curve representing the equal useful flux
falls below the open circuit.
Figure 2.6: DC motor speed-current characteristics curve

Example 2.1
A 500 V, DC-series motor running an open circuit at 1 000 rpm gives the V-I
relationship below. The armature series resistance of the motor is 0.2 Ω. Plot the
torque-speed curve of the motor.
IF 50 A 100 A 150 A 200 A 250 A 300 A
EA 150 V 295 V 402 V 480 V 530 V 565 V

Solution:
(i) Back emf E at a speed to be determined = VT IARA, therefore

EA1 = VT – IA1RA = 150 – 50 × 0.2 = 490 V

EA2 = VT – IA2RA = 295 – 100 × 0.2 = 480 V.
Similarly:
EA3 = 470 V
EA4 = 460 V
EA4 = 450 V
EA5 = 440 V
𝑁1 1000
(ii) N2 = × (𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 ) = × (500 − 50 × 0.2) = 980 rpm
𝐸1 500
𝑁1 1000
Therefore, N2(1) = × 490 = × 490 = 3 266.67 rpm.
𝐸1 500
𝑁1 1000
N2(2) = × 480 = × 480 = 1 627.118 rpm.
𝐸1 295
𝑁1 1000
N2(3) = × 470 = × 470 = 1 169.154 rpm.
𝐸1 500

Similarly:
N2(4) = 958.33 rpm
 N2(5) = 849.06 rpm
N2(6) = 779 rpm
𝑃 𝐸𝐴 𝐼𝐴 ×60 (𝑉𝑇 −𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 )𝐼𝐴 ×60 60 (500−50 ×0.2)×50
(iii) T= = = =
⍵ 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋 3 266.667

Similarly:
T1 = 71.6 Nm
T2 = 281.75 Nm
T3 = 575.9 Nm
T4 = 917.12 Nm
T5 = 1 265.5 Nm
T6 = 1 618 Nm
Table 3.1
IF (A) 50 100 150 200 250 300
EA (NL) 150 295 402 480 530 565
EA (FL) 490 480 470 460 450 440
N2 (rpm) 3 267 1 627 1 169 958 849 779
T (Nm) 71.6 281.75 575.9 917.12 1 265.5 1 618.2
Torque-armature-current characteristics
Look at the expression T = kФIA (mechanical torque). It is obvious that the field current
is directly proportional to the flux, that is IF α Ф and the armature current IA. In a series
motor, IA = IF, hence T α 𝐼𝐴2 and hence the torque-armature-current curve is a parabola,
as shown in figure 3.7 below.

Figure 2.7: Torque-armature-current characteristics curve

TαIA2 also implies a high starting torque for a series motor. Series motors are therefore
used when large starting torque is required for accelerating heavy masses quickly, for
example in hoist electric railways, forklifts and electric vehicles.
Speed-torque characteristics
These are also known as mechanical characteristics and their curve can be drawn just
like the curves of the first two characteristics, as shown in figure 3.8 below.

2.8: Speed-torque characteristics curve

Speed sharply falls as the torque increases for smaller values of loads. The speed
drops linearly but slowly with increasing torque. Series motors should therefore be
applied where the load is always coupled to a motor.

2.2.4 Shunt-wound DC motor

The field coil is connected in parallel with the armature. The field coil has a large
number of turns of thin wire so as to provide higher resistance.
The field coil experience full terminal voltage where
𝑉𝑇
Ish = = VT − IARA
𝑅𝑆

and Pin = V −IL, Pem = EAIA, POUT = PEM − Prot.

Figure 2.6 Shunt-wound DC motor

2.2.4.1 Speed-armature-current characteristics

If the applied voltage is kept constant, field current will be constant. Therefore flux will
have a maximum value on no-load but will decrease slightly due to armature reaction
as the load increases. However, for most purposes flux is considered to be constant.
Look at the emf equation:
2Ф𝑍𝑁𝑝
E=
60𝑐

Speed is directly proportional to emf and inversely proportional to Φ. Therefore, when

there is an increase in the armature current, the speed slightly falls due to an increase
in voltage drop in armature. The speed-armature current curves coincide with the EA
– IA curve. The drop-in speed from no-load to full load is small, because the volt-drop
in the armature between no-load and full load is itself small. DC shunt motors are
therefore taken as constant-speed motors.

Figure 3.9: Speed-armature-current characteristics

2.2.4.2 Torque-armature-current characteristics

From the expression T α ФIA, which is the product of flux per pole and armature
current. In a shunt motor flux is considered to be constant, so torque increases
linearly when the load current increases.
Figure 2.10: Torque-armature-current characteristics

Speed-torque characteristics
Since T α ΦIA, the speed-torque curve is the same as the speed-armature-current
curve.

Figure 2.8 Speed-torque characteristics

Shunt motors should never be started on heavy loads as heavy loads need high
starting currents. This type of motor is used in applications that require medium
starting torque, such as centrifugal pumps, blowers, pans, wearing machines and
printing presses. It is imperative that the field circuit of a shunt motor must never be
opened while it is running. Should the field circuit be opened, the flux will drop
drastically (to zero) and the speed will increase to dangerously high levels.

Compound-wound DC motors
These motors have both the shunt and the series coils. The shunt winding is normally
the stronger of the two (it has more ampere turns). There are two types of compound-
wound DC motors, namely cumulative-compound and differential-compound motors.
Cumulative-compound motors are those in which the field coils are connected in such
a way that the direction of the current flow is the same in both of the coils.
Figure 2.11 Compound-wound DC motors
Differential-compound motors are motors in which the field coils are connected in such
a way that the directions of current flows are opposite in the coils.

Figure 2.12: Differential-compound motor

The series-field coil weakens the shunt-field coil in this type of connection. Just as in
generators, compound motors may be connected through long or short shunt
connection. It must be noted that long or short connections have very little effect on
motor performance.
Operating characteristics of cumulative-compound motors
These motors combine the characteristics of shunt and series motors. As the load
increases, the flux increases due to series-field winding and causes a torque greater
than it would have with a shunt-field coil alone. The increase in flux due to series
winding and an increase in load current, causes the speed to fall more rapidly than it
would have on a shunt motor alone.
Figure 2.13: Operating characteristics of cumulative-compound motors

Example 2.2
A shunt generator is to be converted to a level-compound motor by adding a series
field coil. The shunt current is 4.1 A to give 440 V on a no-load and 5.8 A to give the
same voltage when the machine supplies 200 A. The shunt coil has 1 200 turns/pole.
Find the number of series turns required per pole.
Solution:
Ampere turns required at no-load to generate 440 V:
Ampere turns = 4.1 × 1 200 = 420 At
Ampere turns required at full load to generate 440 V
Ampere turns = 5.8 × 1200 = 6 960 At
Hence the additional ampere turns required at full load = At(FL) − At(NL) = 6 960 – 4 920
= 2 040 At.
𝐴𝑡(𝐹𝐿−𝐴𝑡(𝑁𝐿) 2040
Therefore, series turns = = = 10.2 = 11 turns.
𝐼 200

Exercise 2.3
1. The armature of a DC motor has a resistance of 0.1 Ω and is
connected to a 230 V supply. It takes a no-load armature current of 1.8 A at a
speed of 998 rpm. If the full-load armature current is 75 A at a rated voltage of
230 V, calculate:
(i) back emf in the armature at full load conditions. (222.5 V)
(ii) electromagnetic power at full-load speed if the flux is reduced by
4% due to armature reaction (1006 rpm)
 2. A 460 V, 780 rpm, 120 A series motor has field and armature
resistances of 0.05 Ω and 0.09 Ω respectively. Calculate the speed when
torque is 60% of its full-load value and resistance of 0.1 Ω is connected in
parallel with the field.

3. A 600 V shunt motor runs at 650 rpm without the excitation resistor in
the field and draws an armature current of 6 A. Calculate the value of the
resistor required in series with the shunt winding so that the motor may run at
800 rpm when taking an armature current of 50 A. The shunt-winding
resistance is 200 Ω and that of the armature is 0.4 Ω. (53.37 Ω)

4. In a brake test on a DC motor the effective load on a brake pulley is

625 N, the effective diameter of a pulley 650 mm and the speed 720 rpm. The
motor draws 65 A at 240 V.

Calculate:
(i) Pout (15.3 kW)
(ii) efficiency at this load (98.2%)

5. A six-pole armature is wound with 498 conductors. The flux and the
speed is such that the average induced emf in each conductor is 2 V. The
current in each conductor is 120 A. Find the total current and generated emf
of the armature for

(i) a wave winding

(ii) a lap winding

(240 A, 498 V, 720 A, 166 V, 119.52 kW)

6. A four-pole armature is wound with 564 conductors and is driven at 800
rpm; the flux is 0.02 Wb. The current in each conductor is 60 A. Calculate the
total current, the emf and the electrical power generated in the armature if the
conductors are connected using

(i) a wave winding

 (ii) a lap winding

(120 A, 301 V, 240 A, 150 V, 36.12 kW)

7. An eight-pole, lap-connected armature has 96 slots with six conductors
per slot and is driven at 500 rpm. The useful flux per pole is 0.09 Wb.
Calculate the generated emf. (432 V)

8. An eight-pole, lap-connected DC generator has 640 armature

conductors. The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch is 0.7. Calculate the mmf per
pole of a compensating winding to give uniform air gap density when the total
armature current is 900 A.

9. The no-load speed of a 240 V, DC shunt motor is 820 rpm and the
current is 2 A. Calculate the resistance in series with the field to increase the
speed of the motor to 1 000 rpm for the armature current of 30 A. The
armature and field resistances are 0.4 Ω and 160 Ω respectively. (44.7 Ω)

10. A six-pole, 500 V wave-connected shunt motor has 1 200 armature

conductors and a useful flux per pole of 20 mWb. The armature and field
resistances are 0.5 Ω and 250 Ω respectively. What are the speed and torque
developed by the motor when it draws 20 A from the same supply mains?
Assume magnetic and mechanical losses of 900 W.
Determine:
(i) developed torque
(ii) output power
(iii) efficiency at this load (84.42%)
11. A six-pole armature is wound with 240 conductors. Determine the
number of conductors per path if
(i) the machine is lap wound (40)
(ii) the machine is wave wound (120)
(iii) the coil span in the machine has 24 slots (4)

12. A 250 V DC shunt motor takes a no-load current of 4 A. It has an

armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and a field resistance of 250 Ω. Calculate the
efficiency and percentage change in speed when the motor takes a full-load
current of 50 A. (82.43 % & 9.255 %)
13. A 240 V shunt motor runs on no-load at 800 rpm with no external
resistor in the field circuit. The armature current is 2 A. Calculate the value of
the resistor required in series with the shunt winding so that the motor may
run at 950 rpm when taking an armature current of 30 A. The field resistance
and the armature resistances are 160 Ω and 0.4 Ω respectively. (39.34Ω)
 LEARNING UNIT 3
LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• List the power losses in DC machines.

• Analysis and draw the power flow diagram of dc machines.
• Calculate all the losses incurred during power flow.
• Perform tests on dc machines.

THE EFFICIENCY OF DC MACHINES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Generators and motors convert mechanical power to electrical energy, or
electrical energy to mechanical energy. However, not all mechanical energy
can be converted to useful electrical energy. A part of the power is dissipated
in the form of heat. The basic power equation of the machine is the following:
Pin = Pout + Plosses equation
Power losses are generally caused by electric current flowing through different
parts of the machine. Losses also occur due to rotation.
3.2 POWER LOSSES IN DC MACHINES
3.2.1. (Electrical) Copper losses
Power is dissipated in the form of heat when electric current passes through. Armature
loss (IA2RA) where IA is the armature current and RA is the armature resistance Brush
contact losses are included.
Field copper losses
IF2RF and Iser2Rser where IF and RF are shunt-field current and shunt-field resistance
respectively while Iser and Rser are series field current and series resistance of the
series coil. IA2Rint and IA2Rcom are the Interpoles and compensating winding losses
(should the machine have them).
3.2.2 Rotational losses
These losses vary according to speed and the load on the shaft. There are two types
of rotational losses, namely magnetic or core losses and mechanical losses.
Magnetic/core losses
These include hysteresis losses that result from the type of material used for the poles,
armature or stator, and eddy-current losses caused by circulating currents in the
armature-core laminations.
Mechanical losses
These are losses caused by friction on the bearing, air friction or windage. They are
the result of the motion of moving parts and friction between brushes and commutator
segments.

3.2.3 Stray losses

These losses are caused by distortion of the flux owing to the armature reaction.

3.3 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM OF DC MACHINE ANALYSIS

Figure 4.1 POWER FLOW DIAGRAM-Generator

Figure 4.2: POWER FLOW DIAGRAM-Motor

Some of the input power is converted into heat through copper, iron and rotational
losses, and the rest becomes useful output power.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
ђGEN = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 ⍵𝑇
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⍵𝑇
ђMOT = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑛−𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ђ= = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡+𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

This above power flow diagram is very important and you must know it well. It is the
key to understanding the induction motor. Let’s work through an example to make sure
that you understand the information:
Example 3.1
A certain 11 kW, 380 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, four-pole induction motor has an
efficiency, power factor and speed of 91%, 0.87 and 1 476 r/min respectively. The
mechanical losses, which are the result of friction and windage, are 150 W. Determine:
(i) The electrical input power.
(ii) The gross mechanical power.
(iii) The rotor copper loss.
(iv) The electromagnetic power.
(v) The total stator power loss.
(vi) If one-third of this loss is stator iron, determine the stator resistance per
phase.

Solution
While working through this problem, refer to the power flow diagram above. The
formula used are given here. You will later learn where they come from.
Pout 11
Pin = = = 12.088 kW
(i)  0.91

(ii) Pgm = Pout + Pmechanical loss = 11 000 + 150 = 11 150 W

(iii) Here we must derive the formula we will use.

Electromagnetic power minus the rotor copper loss is equal to the gross

mechanical power: Pem − PRC = Pgm .

 Also, the rotor copper loss is equal to the electromagnetic power times

the slip: PRC = Pem  s .

 s 
From this, we can say that PRC = Pgm  
1 − s 
.

(See if you can arrive at this conclusion.)

1500 − 1476 
But we have to find the slip: s =  = 0.016 p.u.
 1500 
 0.016 
PRC = 11150   = 181.3 W
(iv) 1 − 0.016 

PRC 181.3
Pem = = = 11331 W
(v) s 0.016

PStator loss = Pin − Pem = 12088 + 11331 = 757 W

(vi) Two-thirds of this stator loss are copper, that is

.
PStator copper loss = 1 3  757 = 252.3 W

Now the stator phase current is

Pin 12088
I1 ph = = = 12.2 A ,
3  V ph  Cos 3  380  0.87

Pstator copper 252.3

and the resistance per phase is R1 ph = = = 0.565 A .
3 I 2
1 ph 3  12.23

The example above should give you a very good idea of the relationships that exist in
the power flow diagram and how you can use the diagram to find a lot of information.
Remember: When you get a question like this in an assignment or an examination,
the chances are that it will take a different form, so you will not be following the same
sequence of operations to solve the new problem. You must apply principles. You
must understand the relationships and apply them. Let’s look at another example:

Example 3.2
The output torque (at the shaft) and rated power of a 550 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, six-
pole induction motor is 368 Nm and 37.5 kW respectively.
The mechanical losses are 460 watt. Make a neat, labelled sketch of the power flow
diagram of an induction motor, and calculate the following:
(i) The rated full-load speed and slip.
(ii) The rotor copper loss.
(iii) If the efficiency and power factor of the motor are 89% and 0.86
respectively, and the stator is delta connected, find the resistance per phase of
the stator. Take the stator iron loss to be 1 200 watt.
(iv) The developed torque.
(v) Explain the difference between the output (or brake) torque and the
developed torque.

SOLUTION
The power flow diagram is given above.

60  Pout 60  37500
(i) NR = = = 973 r / min.
2    Tout 2    368
60  f 60  50
The synchronous speed is N = = = 1000 r / min.
p 3
N − N R 1000 − 973
The slip is s = = = 0.027 p.u.
N 1000

 s   0.027 
(ii) PRC = Pgm   = (37500 + 460)  1 − 0.027  = 1053 W .
1 − s 
Note: The gross mechanical power is equal to the sum of the output power and
the mechanical losses.
(iii) Please pay careful attention. You have been given a lot of information
on purpose. Instead of guiding you by telling you first to find the input power,
then the electromagnetic power, I am asking for the last piece of information,
namely the resistance of the stator winding.
Solve the problem as follows:
To determine the resistance of the stator winding, you first need to determine
the stator copper loss and the stator phase current. Start by finding the current.
 To do this, you need the input power, the rated voltage and the power factor.
Determine the input power as follows:
Pout 37.5
Pin = = = 42.135 kW ,
 0.89
Pin 42135
therefore the line current is I1 = = = 51.43 A
3 Vph  Cos 3  550  0.86

.
The stator is delta-connected, therefore the phase current is
I1 51.43
I1 ph = = = 29.69 A .
3 3

Now determine the stator copper loss. Look at the power flow diagram. You
have the input power. If you can determine the electromagnetic power, you will
be able to determine the total stator loss, which is the difference between Pin
and Pem. But what is Pem?
Pem = Pgm + PRC = 37960 + 1053 = 39013kW

PTotal stator = Pin − Pem = 42135 − 39013 = 3122 kW

The stator copper loss is
PStator copper = PTotal stator − PStator iron = 3122 − 1200 = 1922 kW .
PStator copper 1922
Finally, the stator winding resistance R1 = = = 0.727  .
3 I 2
1 ph 3  29.692

(iv) The developed torque is the torque of the electromagnetic power and
the gross mechanical power:
60  Pem 60  39013
T = = = 373 N .m
2    N 2    1000
(v) You could say that the developed torque is the gross torque developed
in the motor before the mechanical loss (essentially a rotational loss), which is
parasitic of torque. Therefore, brake torque = developed torque – mechanical
loss toque.
Conditions for maximum efficiency
Consider a shunt generator.
PGEN = VTIL (W) output power
PGEN = POUT + Plosses
= VTIL + IA2 (RA) + Ish2 Rsh+ pc
Pc is the constant losses,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 1
Therefore, ђ = = = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑃 .
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 +𝐼𝐴 2 𝑅𝐴 +𝑃𝑐 1+ 𝐴 𝐴 + 𝐶
𝑉 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿

Efficiency will be at a maximum when the denominator is at a minimum. That is,

𝑑 𝐼 𝑅𝐴 𝑃𝐶
when (𝐴 + )=0
𝑑𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑍
𝑅𝐴 𝑃𝐶
OR − 2 =0
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐴

OR PC = IA2RA.
Efficiency will be at a maximum when variable losses are equal to constant losses.
Therefore, IA = IL.
𝑃𝐶
Therefore, IL = √ (neglecting the shunt current, which is small).
𝑅𝐴

Example 3.3
A DC motor drives a 100-kW generator that has 87% efficiency.
Determine:
(i) Motor rating.
(ii) If the overall efficiency of the motor generator set is 74%, what is the
motor efficiency?
(iii) Calculate the losses in each machine.
Solution:
(i) Motor rating is the motor shaft output power, which is the same as the generator
shaft power.
𝑃𝐺𝑒𝑛 100𝑘𝑊
Motor rating = = = 114.942 kW
Ƞ 0.87
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 Ƞ 0.74
(ii) Motor efficiency = = = 0.85
Ƞ𝐺𝑒𝑛 0.87
114.94
Therefore, motor output = = 135.135 kW.
0.85

(iii) Generator (losses) = 114.94 – 100 = 14.94 kW

Motor (losses) = 135 – 114.94 = 20.192 kW

3.4 TESTING DC MACHINES

The most important performance tests to be conducted on DC machine are the
following:
 Magnetisation or open circuit test
 Load characteristics
 Determination of efficiency curve
 Temperature rise test

Further tests, such as the insulation resistance test and commutation tests, might be
performed by the manufacturer.

There are three methods of determining the efficiency of a DC machine:

1. Direct method: This method is used only on small machines, because a
full load is applied to the machine and the output measured. In the case of a
generator, the input mechanical power is measured by connecting some form
of dynamometer to the prime mover and applying a water resistance load. In
the case of a motor, a brake is applied to the pulley to measure the output.
2. Indirect method: This method determines the power losses of the
machine measured at no-load.
3. Regenerative method: This method requires two identical machines –
one is operated as a motor and coupled to the other, which operates as a
generator. The output is feedback to the supply, therefore the total power drawn
by the power supply is for supplying the internal losses of the two machines.

Exercise 3.1
1. A six-pole, 400 V, wave-connected shunt motor has 1 200 armature
conductors and a useful flux per pole of 15 mWb. The armature and field
resistances are 0.4 Ω and 200 Ω respectively. Rotational losses are
900 W.
Determine:

(i) speed
(ii) developed torque when drawing 25 a from the mains
 (iii) efficiency

2. A 250 V, long-shunt compound generator supplies a load of 400 A. The

generator has armature and series field resistances of 0.05 Ω and 0.07 Ω
respectively. If it takes only 1 A to excite the machine while allowing a 1 V per
brush drop, determine the machine efficiency. Assume 2 kW rotational losses.

3. A 450 V, 15 kW, self-excited long-shunt generator runs at 750 rpm and

has armature, shunt and series resistances of 0.08 Ω, 300 Ω and 0.12 Ω
respectively. To correct armature reaction, the generator is further equipped
with compensating windings of 0.08 Ω, while the frictional losses account for
2.5% of the generator power. Calculate the developed torque and efficiency of
the generator.
4. A short-compound generator has armature, shunt and series-field
resistances of 0.04 Ω, 300 Ω and 0.05 Ω respectively. The generator delivers
25 kW at 550 V. Compensating windings of 0.07 Ω are added to improve the
effects of the armature reaction.

Calculate:

(i) induced emf

(ii) developed torque

5. A six-pole compound generator has armature, shunt and series-field

resistances of 0.07 Ω, 250 Ω and 0.25 Ω respectively. The generator delivers
15 kW at 500 V and allows a 1 V per brush drop. Assume 300 W rotational
losses.
Calculate for long and short shunt:
(i) induced emf
(ii) developed power
(iii) machine efficiency
 (iv) flux per pole if the armature has 200 lap conductors and runs at
700 rpm.

6. A self-excited shunt generator delivers 200 A at 400 V when driven at

1 200 rpm. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω. It takes only 1 A to excite the
machine. Assume 0.4 kW rotational losses.
Determine the machine efficiency and the original torque required to drive this
load.

7. A 10 kW, 250 V DC shunt generator has total rotational losses of 400 W.

The armature circuit includes brush contact resistance of 0.5 Ω and field
resistance of 250 Ω.
Calculate:

(i) shaft input power

(ii) machine efficiency
(iii) armature current for maximum efficiency
(iv) machine output power for maximum efficiency

8. A four-pole, separately excited DC generator gives 410 V on open

circuit when driven at 900 rpm. Calculate the flux per pole for a wave-connected
armature that has 39 slots with 16 conductors per slot.

9. A long-shunt generator runs at 1 000 rpm and supplies 30 kW at

terminal voltage of 330 V. The resistances of the armature, shunt field and
series field are 0.04 Ω, 110 Ω and 0.05 Ω respectively. The overall efficiency at
the above load is 90%.

Determine:

(i) the full-load copper losses

(ii) the core and mechanical losses
(iii) torque exerted by the prime mover
10. A six-pole, 550 V wave-connected shunt motor has 1 100
armature conductors and useful flux per pole of 15 mWb. The armature
and field resistances are 0.1 Ω and 275 Ω respectively. The motor draws
32 A from the supply mains. Assume a 1 V per brush drop, and magnetic
and mechanical losses of 1-kW.

Determine:

(i) speed
(ii) torque developed
(iii) output power
(iv) efficiency at this load

11. A shunt machine has armature and field resistances of 0.05 Ω and 160
Ω respectively. On full load, the machine delivers 46 kW (400 V). Assume
rotational losses of 400 W.

Calculate:

(i) generator efficiency

(ii) motor efficiency when taking 46 kW from the same supply

12. A 1600 rpm driven short shunt generator supply 15 kW load at 400 V.
The generator has shunt, armature and series field resistances of 100 Ω, 0.05
Ω and 0.03 Ω respectively.

Calculate:

(i) generated emf

(ii) torque required to drive this load
(iii) efficiency if the rotational losses are twice the armature losses

13. A short-shunt compound generator has armature, shunt-field

and series-field resistances of 0.06 Ω, 100 Ω and 0.075 Ω
respectively, and delivers 50 kW at 600 V. Allow 1.5 V per brush drop.
Determine the developed torque.

14. A six-pole, 400 V, wave-connected shunt motor has 1 000

armature conductors and useful flux per pole of 20 mWb. The
armature and field resistances are 0.6 Ω and 240 Ω respectively.
What will the speed and torque developed by the motor be when it
draws 20 A from the same supply mains? Assume mechanical losses
of 600 W.

Determine:

(i) developed torque

(ii) output power
(iii) efficiency at this load

15. A shunt machine has armature and field resistances of 0.05 Ω and 160
Ω respectively. On full load, the machine delivers 46 kW (400 V). Assume
rotational losses of 400 W.

Calculate:
(i) generator efficiency

(ii) motor efficiency when taking 46 kW from the same supply

16. A short-compound generator has armature, field and series resistances

of 0.8 Ω, 45 Ω and 0.6 Ω respectively, and supplies 5 kW at 250 V. The generator
efficiency is 65%, hence an upgrade is necessary. The windings are replaced by
0.1 Ω, 125 Ω and 0.09 Ω respectively. Determine the machine’s improved
efficiency. Assume 108.31 W windage losses.

17. A 500 V, eight-pole, wave-connected shunt motor has 1 200 armature

conductors and useful flux per pole of 35 mWb. The armature and field
resistances are 0.25 Ω and 500 Ω respectively. What would the speed,
 developed torque by the motor and machine efficiency be when it draws 25 A
from the same supply? Assume 1 kW rotational losses.

18. A six-pole generator has armature, shunt-field and series-field

resistances of 0.15 Ω, 300 Ω and 0.2 Ω respectively. It delivers 12 kW at 400 V
and allows 0.5 V drop per brush contact resistance. Assume rotational losses of
350 W if the armature has 1 000 wave-connected conductors running at 750
rpm.

Calculate for long and short shunts:

(i) developed power

(ii) machine efficiency
(iii) flux per pole

19. A six-pole, 400 V, wave-connected shunt motor has 1 000

armature conductors and useful flux per pole of 20 mWb. The
armature and field resistances are 0.6 Ω and 240 Ω respectively.
What will the speed and torque developed by the motor be when it
draws 20 A from the same supply mains? Assume mechanical losses
of 600 W.

Determine:

(i) developed torque

(ii) output power
(iii) efficiency at this load
 STUDY UNIT 4

REVISION OF SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the construction and operation of a single-phase transformer.

• Derive the emf equation.
• Appreciate the existence of a no load current.
• Calculate the modified primary current.
• Understand the internal impedance and perform calculations.
• Refer impedances to either side of a transformer.
• Draw the equivalent circuit and perform calculations.
 • Understand what voltage regulation means, and determine this, given relevant
data.
• Understand what efficiency means, and determine this, given relevant data.
• Describe open and short circuit tests in detail.
• Use the results of these tests to analyse the tested transformer in detail.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The material dealt with in this study unit is not covered in your prescribed text, so
what is given here is "stand-alone" information.

However, any edition of HUGHES would be a good text to consult. I have included
several unworked problems from HUGHES at the end of this unit – please work
through them all. If you need help in understanding any of the concepts, please
contact your tutor.

In an electrical power system consisting of generating stations, transmission lines,

distribution (reticulation) systems and consumers, the voltage level has to be changed,
depending on the need. For instance, Eskom generators are normally rated at 20 kV.
This is because 20 kV is about the optimum design voltage for these machines.
However, we cannot transmit electric power at this voltage, because the generator full
load current at this voltage is 22 kA, and the cross-sectional area of copper bar needed
to conduct this current is simply too great. Also, the voltage drop over a long distance
would render the system inoperable. A worked example would help to illustrate my point:

EXAMPLE 4.1

Let's say a 3-phase, 50-Hz turbo generator, rated at the above-mentioned voltage and
current, must supply power 200 km from the supply. Investigate the implications of a
transmission line at this current.

SOLUTION

The cross-sectional area of busbar needed to conduct this current might be something
like six bars per phase, each with a cross-sectional area of about1 0.00375 m2, or a

.
total of 18 x 0.00375 = 0.0675 m2. Over a 200 km length, the volume of copper needed
would be.13 500 m3. That is equivalent to a block of copper almost 24 metres cubed. It
would have a mass of about 120 thousand tons – or 600 kg per metre length. Now just
think: The steel towers have to be able to support this mass. So, before we even start
looking at the electrical implications, we realise that the mechanical problems are
insurmountable (to say nothing of copper thieves, who would think that this is heaven!)
However, just in case you would like to look at the electrical problems, let's say this
copper has a resistivity of 0.02µΩ.m. Let us ignore for the moment the inductance and
capacitance of this line. The total resistance of the line will then be:

 . 0.02  10−6  200000

R= = = 0.178 Ω/phase.
a 0.00375  6

The voltage drop per phase, at 22 000 ampere, would be:

22 000 x 0.178 = 3910 V. Now your transmission voltage is 20 kV, and this is the line-to-line
voltage! The phase voltage would be 12.7 kV! So, you are using up about one-third of this
voltage just to transmit the power to the load end (and that is over only 200 km!) Also, the
power loss on this line would be P = 3 I 2 R = 3 x 22 0002 x 0.178 = 258 MW. This would
be about one-third of the power rating of the generator!

Can you see that it would be foolish to transmit this power under these conditions?
But what would happen if we were to change the voltage from 20 kV to 400 kV? Can
you see that because the amount of power stays constant, the current would now
reduce to 1100 ampere? Let's say that the conductor size needed to safely carry this
current was 1000 mm2. The new resistance per phase would be:

 . 0.02  10−6  200000

R= = 4  The total voltage drop would then be
a 1000 10− 6

1100 x 4 = 4400 V. (You will notice that in fact the volt drop itself has increased very
slightly. But considered as a percentage of the transmission voltage, the difference is
400000
very insignificant.) Here, the system voltage per phase is = 231 kV . Consequent-
3
ly, the voltage at the end of 200 km would be 231 – 4 = 227 kV!2 Furthermore, the power
loss on the line would be P = 3 I 2 R = 3 x 11002 x 4 = 14.5 MW, a small fraction of the
loss, if we (foolishly) tried transmitting at the lower voltage.

The point we are making here is that, although it is practical to generate power at
20 kV, it is totally impractical to transmit at this voltage. We need a device that will be
able to transform the voltage from one level to another. A transformer does this with
ease and extremely efficiently.

Of course, once the power has reached the other side, it cannot be used at this high
voltage. It must once again be transformed to other voltages. In the distribution system,
132 kV and 88 kV may be used. Heavy engineering industry and municipalities may be
supplied at these voltages, but transformers would reduce the voltage even more, to
22 kV or 11 kV. And domestic dwellings (as you might know), are supplied at 220 V.

We see, then, that the electrical transformer is used throughout an electrical system.

4.2 HOW IS A TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTED?

AND HOW DOES IT WORK?

Figure 4.1: A single-phase transformer

Faraday discovered that if current changes in a coil, it induces a voltage in another coil
close by. This is called the principle of electromagnetic induction, also known as mutual
inductance. Now, if I wind two coils on a common iron core, as shown in Figure 1.1, and
I supply the one coil (called the primary) with an alternating current (normally
considered to be sinusoidal in shape), then an alternating emf of the same frequency
will be induced in the other winding (called the secondary). If the secondary circuit is
closed through a suitable load (this could be any impedance), current will flow through
the load, and a proportional current will flow through the primary, too.

Now, some relationships exist between the voltages and turns and current. You may
remember learning this formula at school:

V1 N1 I 2
= = (1)
V2 N 2 I1

Let us investigate where we get this formula from:

For the time being, let us assume that the emf induced in the coil is synonymous with
V1 and V2, the supply and secondary load voltages, respectively. We know that an
induced emf may be expressed in this way:

N  d
E= . We see from this that the voltage is proportional to the number of turns.
dt
V1 N1
So, we can say that V1  N1 . Likewise, V2  N2 . It follows, then, that =
V2 N 2

Then, considering V and I:

Ideally, the input power of a transformer is equal to the output power. (We will look
more critically at this proposition in a little while, but for now, let us assume this to be
perfectly true.) Then V1  I1  Cos1 = V2  I 2  Cos2 . But the power factor on the primary
is equal to that on the secondary, and therefore,
V1 I 2
V1  I1 = V2  I 2 and (manipulating) : =
V2 I1

We may also consider I and N in terms of the magneto-motive force of the magnetic
circuit, that is, that m.m.f.1 = m.m.f.2 . Expressed another way:
 N1 I 2
I1  N1 = I 2  N 2 and (manipulating) : =
N 2 I1

V1 N1 I 2
(Now you know where the relationship, = = comes from!)
V2 N 2 I1

4.3 THE EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Before we do anything else, let us derive a formula for the emf equation of a
transformer. It is based on:

d
E= If we assume our flux wave form to be sinusoidal,
dt

The flux changes from +  m to -  m weber, in half the periodic time. Therefore, the
average emf per turn is:

d  2 m
= 1 (weber per second).
dt 2T

1 d
But the periodic time, T = , where f = frequency, in hertz. Therefore = 4. f .
f dt
(volt, or weber per second)
RMS
Now, because the flux wave is sinusoidal, and the form factor, k f = = 1.11 , then
Ave.

the RMS emf per turn is: E = 4.44 f . (volt).

turn
And if there are N turns, the total emf is: E = 4.44  f   m  N (volt).
 NOTE: Remember that Bm = maximum flux density, in tesla (or weber per square

metre), and that  m = Bm  a . When doing calculations, you will need this. But you
must also know that, because the iron core of a transformer is laminated (and each
lamination has a thin layer of (electrical) insulation on it), the total area of the core
(gross) is more than the actual, useful area (i.e., the net area). So, the net, useful
area of the core (carrying flux) is equal to the gross area, multiplied by the stacking
anet
factor, kstack. So, k stack = . Armed with this information, you should be able to
a gross

tackle many of the questions at the end of this unit.

4.4 FROM THE IDEAL TO THE REAL

Of course, all of the above relationships are ideal. But it just so happens that in the
case of transformers, these approximations are very nearly true. However, electrical
engineers have to consider the transformer as it behaves in practice. Why this is
the case will become clearer as we go along.

4.4.1 No load current

If we supply a transformer at rated voltage and frequency (i.e., the voltage and
frequency stipulated on the nameplate, or given in the manufacturer's specifications),
while keeping the secondary winding open (i.e., no current flowing), we will see (if we
are measuring) that some current does in fact flow in the primary. The value of this
current will be very small compared with the full load rated value: between about 3%
and 10% of full load – the smaller the transformer, the greater the no load current.

We will also observe, if we measure the power with a wattmeter, that some power is
used up, even when no power is being transferred to the secondary. This power is a
loss, and the loss is mostly in the iron, and is due to eddy currents induced in the iron,
as well as a hysteresis loss due to the energy needed to magnetise and de-magnetise
the core because of the alternating flux.
 Figure 4.2: The hysteresis loop
The hysteresis loop is a trace of the magnetic flux density vs. magnetic field strength
(intensity), starting with the iron core being demagnetised at 0. As the current through
the coil is increased ( H  I ), so the flux density increases. However, this does not
occur linearly, because the iron starts saturating until the flux density reaches a point
where a large change in H produces a very small increase in B. This is called the
saturation point.

Now, if the current is decreased, the flux density does not follow the same path it took
as it increased, and when H is returned to zero, there is some magnetic flux still in the
iron. This flux density is called the residual, or remanent flux density, OB. In order to
demagnetise to core, the current must now be reversed to OC. This is called the
coercive force. If the core is now to be magnetised in the opposite polarity, the current
applied (for the coercive force) must be increased, and the iron will then saturate in
the opposite direction. The current is then once again reduced to zero, and reversed
until the saturation point, A, is attained once more.

It can be shown that the shaded area in the hysteresis loop is a product of B x H (or
the integral of the shaded area), and dimensionally this is reduced to joule per metres,

cubed. (Try it out):

B = tesla, or weber per square metre

H = Ampere per metre

But weber = volt.second

Therefore, B x H = volt.second per square metre x ampere per metre
= volt.ampere.second per cubic metre.
= joule per cubic metre.

QED (Quite easily done!!)

Note on the laminated core: You might have noticed from Figure 1.1 that the iron core
is laminated. What does this mean, and why do we bother to do this? I have just
mentioned the eddy current loss. Iron (actually, it will be a special kind of transformer
core steel) is a conductor of electricity. And when a magnetic flux alternates, it induces
a voltage into the iron – not only into the coils. Because the iron is a conductor, currents
will flow. These will give rise to I2Rt heating in the core, and if it is not limited in some
way, this will result in excessive heating of the core, causing the transformer to fail.
You may remember that the resistance of a material is inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area. If the core is constructed from thin laminated plates, each
insulated from the plates on either side of it, the cross-sectional area presented to
these eddy currents is reduced significantly, and the loss due to these currents is
limited to acceptable values.

4.4.2 Representing the no load current in a phasor diagram and equivalent circuit
 Figure 4.3(a): The no-load current in a transformer

Figure 4.3(b): The equivalent circuit of a transformer, showing the operation on

open circuit.

In Figure 4.3 (a) and (b) the voltage E1 can be taken as the rated voltage V1, applied to
the transformer. The no load phase angle is very large, and it follows from this that the
no load power factor is low. The no load current can be divided into two components,
namely the magnetising current and the core current. The former is in phase with the
core flux, and is responsible for setting up the magnetic flux. The latter component is
responsible for the transformer losses, and is in phase with the applied voltage.
You may be wondering: "Why, if the resistance of the primary winding is low, is the no
load current not high?" Well, you can see that we have a highly inductive circuit.
Remember that the inductance of a circuit is directly proportional to the square of the
turns, and inversely proportional to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

N2 N2   a
L= = However, the reluctance is inversely proportional to the permeability
S 
of the core, and the transformer core has a very high permeability. Consequently, the
inductance is high, and the inductive reactance is high too.

Just for the record, here are some formulas for the iron loss in a transformer:

Piron = {Peddy current + Physteresis } = ( Pe + Ph ) = ke  f 2  Bmax

2
+ kh  f  Bmax
x

We see from this expression that the iron loss is dependent on both the frequency and
the flux density in the core. Furthermore, considering our emf equation, we can also
see that the flux density is proportional to the volts-to-hertz ratio. It follows, then, that
the iron loss is dependent on the voltage and frequency applied to a transformer.
(This is important! Remember it!)

4.4.3 The primary current, when secondary load current flows

V1 N1 I 2
It is clear, then, that the relationship = = does not hold at no load, and for
V2 N 2 I1
currents much less than rated, full load value. In fact, the relationship at all times (as
regards current, in this case – later on we will investigate voltage) is an approximation.
Let us look at a worked example:

EXAMPLE 4.2

A 10-kVA, 400/80-volt, single-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a no load current of

1 ampere at a power factor of 0.27 lagging. If a load current of 10 ampere flows on the
low voltage side at a power factor of 0.75 lagging, find the value and phase angle of
the primary (HV) current. Assume the magnetising current to be sinusoidal.

SOLUTION
Below is a phasor diagram, showing you what is going on:

Figure 4.4: What happens to the primary current, when a transformer is loaded.

As soon as load current flows in the secondary, there is a de-magnetising effect in the
core, and the primary current must compensate for this demagnetisation (there must

always be an mmf balance in the transformer so that I1  N1 = I 2  N2 .) But now we

have a problem, because a no load current is already flowing (the mmf balance on no

load consists of I o  N1 = mmf core ).

I normally work with complex numbers3 when solving these sorts of problems. First,

find the no load phase angle: o = Cos −1 0.27 = 74.3o

The no load current can then be expressed as: I o = 1 −74.3 ampere

o

The primary current that must flow in response to the 10 ampere load current will be
I 2 V2 10  80
I 2' = = = 2 ampere
V1 400
And the phase angle of the load is o = Cos −1 0.75 = 41.41o . This current in complex
'
form is then: I 2 = 2 −41.41 ampere .
o

The resultant current then is: I1 = 1 −74.3 + 2 −41.41 = 2.89 −52.24 ampere
o o o

I have intentionally made the load current small so that there would be a noticeable
difference between the theoretical primary current (2 ampere) and the actual current
(2.89 ampere). But what would happen if the 2 ampere grew to, say, 25 ampere?
(Try it out.) You would find that the actual primary current would be
25.85 −42.61o ampere . Notice that the percentage difference is far less, and that the
primary current phase angle is much closer to that of the load. It follows that the closer
to full load the transformer works, the more accurately the current ratios conform to
theoretical values. Now let us consider voltage drops in a transformer.

4.5 VOLTAGE DROPS IN THE TRANSFORMER

So far, we have assumed that the emfs E1 and E2 are identical to the supply and load
(terminal) voltages V1 and V2, respectively. However, in a practical transformer, this is
not the case.
4.5.1 Winding resistance
In the first place, the windings have resistances R1 and R2. These may be measured
using a variable DC source, and measuring the voltage across the winding and the
current through it. Then we apply Ohm's law to find the resistance. It is customary to
also measure the temperature at which the readings are taken because the resistance
will change to a different value when at working temperature. (Of course, the effective
resistance due to AC being used, producing skin, and proximity effect is slightly greater
than this DC resistance. But we will not worry our heads about this right now.) When
currents flow in these windings, IR drops result, I1R1 and I2R2 volt.

4.5.2 Leakage flux

Magnetic flux is contained mostly in the iron core. However, there is a bit of leakage flux.
This leakage flux results in reactive volt drops in the transformer, I1X1 and I2X2 (volt).
 Figure 4.5: Diagram showing leakage flux in a transformer

Figure 4.6: Transformer equivalent circuit ignoring no load current

Figure 4.5 indicates the leakage flux on both the primary and secondary windings.
Figure 4.6 shows an equivalent circuit, including winding resistances and leakage
reactances (R1 + jX1) Ω and (R2 + jX2) . These series impedances give rise to internal
volt drops in the transformer which are proportional to the load current. We can use
this information to predict:

1. the voltage needed to circulate full load currents, when the other side is
short circuited
2. the voltage regulation of the transformer, at any load and power factor
3. the prospective currents that will flow under short circuit conditions

But in order to perform calculations more easily, we transfer the impedance from one
side to the other. Then we add the two impedances together, and find an equivalent
impedance. Here is how it works:

TABLE 4.1
FORMULAS FOR TRANSFERRING IMPEDANCE FROM ONE SIDE OF A
TRANSFORMER TO THE OTHER

Resistance, reactance or impedance, Resistance, reactance or impedance,

referred to the primary referred to the secondary

2 2
V  V 
Re1 = R1 + R2  1  Re 2 = R2 + R1  2 
V2   V1 

2 2
V  V 
X e1 = X 1 + X 2  1  X e 2 = X 2 + X1  2 
 V2   V1 

Z e1 = Re1 + jX e1 = Z e1 e  Z e 2 = Re 2 + jX e 2 = Z e 2 e 

2 2
V  V 
Z e1 = Z1 + Z 2  1  Z e 2 = Z 2 + Z1  2 
V2   V1 

2 2
V  V 
Z e1 = Z e 2  1  Z e 2 = Z e1  2 
V2   V1 

Key:

R1 & R2 = Primary and secondary winding resistances, respectively

X1 & X2 = Primary and secondary winding leakage reactances, respectively
Z1 & Z2 = Primary and secondary winding impedances, respectively
Re1 = Equivalent resistance, referred to the primary
Re2 = Equivalent resistance, referred to the secondary
Xe1 = Equivalent reactance, referred to the primary
Xe2 = Equivalent reactance, referred to the secondary
Ze1 = Equivalent impedance, referred to the primary
Ze2 = Equivalent impedance, referred to the secondary
V1 = Primary rated voltage (i.e., the nameplate voltage)
V2 = Secondary rated voltage (i.e., the nameplate voltage)
e = the internal (short circuit) phase angle of the transformer
Note (rather, WARNING!!!!): Some texts apply the "turns ratio", "kT" to these formulas,
V1 N1
because = = kT . However, great confusion is caused because some texts use
V2 N 2
V2 N 2
the formula: = = kT . So, whenever I use the formulas to refer impedances from
V1 N1
one side of a transformer to the other, I always use the formulas as given in Table 1.1
2
– never " kT " .

Here is a test to see if you are on the right track: If you are referring an impedance
from a low voltage side to the high voltage side, the referred impedance will be
increased (in proportion to the square of the voltage ratio). If you are referring an
impedance from a high voltage side to the low voltage side, the referred impedance
will be decreased.

V  V 
Question: Why is  1  or  2  squared? (See Table 1.1.) Because the power loss
V2   V1 

expressed as I1  R2 * must be equal to the power loss I 2  R2 . Remember that power

2 ' 2

loss is proportional to the square of the current. Furthermore, the inductance of a coil
is proportional to the number of turns, squared.

'
* R2 = Secondary winding resistance, referred to the primary winding

R1' = Primary and winding resistance, referred to the secondary winding

' '
The same principle applies to the leakage reactances, X 2 and X 1

Below, in Figure 1.7(a) and (b) are modified equivalent circuits as per labels.
 Figure 4.7(a): Equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the primary

Figure 4.7(b): Equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the secondary

EXAMPLE 4.3

A 100-kVA, 2200/440-volt, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has the following primary

and secondary series impedances:

Z1 = (0.47 + j 1.45)  and Z2 = (0.02 + j 0.058) 

Calculate:

4.3.1 The equivalent impedance, referred to the high voltage side.

4.3.2 The equivalent impedance, referred to the low voltage side.
4.3.3 The rated full load currents, I1 and I2.
4.3.4 The voltage Vsc* that must be applied to the HV side that will circulate full
load currents on the (short circuited) lv side.
4.3.5 Express the above voltage as a percentage of the rated voltage.
 4.3.6 Now carry out instructions 1.3.4 and 1.3.5 on the lv side. What do you
notice about the percentage values?
4.3.7 Find the primary base impedance and the percentage impedance.
4.3.8 Find the secondary base impedance and the percentage impedance.
4.3.9 Compare all percentage values calculated so far. Is there a connection?

SOLUTION
2
V  V 
4.3.1 Z e1 = Z1 + Z 2  1  NOTE: If the voltages are given, use  1  , but if the
V2   V2 

N 
number of turns is given, use  1 
 N2 
2
 2200
= (0.47 + j1.45) + (0.02 + j 0.058) 
 440 
= (0.47 + j1.45) + (0.5 + j1.45)
= (0.97 + j2.9) 

2
V2 
4.3.2 Z e 2 = Z e1  
 V1 
2
 440 
= (0.97 + j 2.9) 
 2200
= (0.0388 + j0.116) 

S 100
4.3.3 I1 = = = 45.45A
V1 2.2
S 100
I2 = = = 227.3 A
V2 0.44

4.3.4 Vsc1 = I1  Ze1 = 45.45  (3.058) = 139V

*

Vsc*1 139
4.3.5 Percentage impedance, %Z =  100 =  100 = 6.32%
V1 2200
 4.3.6 Vsc2 = I 2  Ze 2 = 227.3  (0.1223) = 27.8V
*

Vsc* 2 27.8
Percentage impedance, %Z =  100 =  100 = 6.32%
V2 440
Both percentage values are identical.

V1 2200 Z 3.058
4.3.7 Z Base1 = = = 48.4 and %Z = e1  100 =  100 = 6.32%
I1 45.45 Z Base1 48.4

4.3.8

V2 440 Z 0.1223
Z Base2 = = = 1.936 and %Z = e 2  100 =  100 = 6.32%
I 2 227.3 Z Base2 1.936

The percentages are all the same. The percentage impedance quoted on the nameplate
of a transformer is an indication of the voltage that needs to be applied to a transformer
on short circuit that will circulate full load currents. It also gives us the value of the
equivalent impedance, expressed as a percentage of base impedance.
4.6 FULL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

If we combine the shunt and series parts of the equivalent circuits, we get a complete
equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 1.10 below. Figure 1.8 shows the relating phasor
diagram. (To simplify the diagram, the no load current and components are not shown.)
Examine these two diagrams in order to see the relationships.

Figure 4.10: Transformer full equivalent circuit

4.7 VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

It is clear from the above discussion that as soon as we load a transformer, the output
voltage changes from the value given on the nameplate. The reason for this drop
(which could, theoretically, be a rise) in voltage is that the transformer has an internal
impedance. As soon as current flows in the windings, there is a voltage drop, and the
terminal voltage dips. This dip in voltage depends on the power factor of the load, and
also whether this power factor is leading or lagging. We call the measure of this change
in voltage the voltage regulation of the transformer.

It can be proved that the voltage regulation of a transformer may be obtained by using
the following formula:

 R  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 
per unit Voltage regulation =  = I1  e1 
 V1 
or
  Re 2  Cos2  X e 2  Sin2 
 = I2  .
 V 2 

When we get to discussing the short circuit test of a transformer, I'll give you another
formula to use. Here is a worked example:

EXAMPLE 4.4

A certain 400-kVA, 3300/420-volt, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has a primary

impedance of (0.22 + j0.6) , and a secondary impedance of (0.00416 + j0.0097) .
If this transformer is fully loaded, determine the per unit voltage regulation and secondary
terminal voltage if the load power factor is:

4.4.1 0.8 lagging

4.4.2 unity
4.4.3 0.8 leading

SOLUTION

Now, we can either put all the impedance on the high voltage (HV) side, and use the
first formula given to find the voltage regulation, or we can put all the impedance on
the low voltage (lv) side. Then we can use the second formula.

Let us first refer impedances to the HV side:

2
 V1   3300 
2
Re1 = R1 + R2   = 0.22 + 0.00416
 420  = 0.22 + 0.257 = 0.477 
V2 
2
V  2
X e1 = X 1 + X 2  1  = 0.6 + 0.0097  3300  = 0.6 + j 0.6 = 1.2 
 420 
V2 
S 400
Now, we want the full load HV current: I1 = = = 121 A
V1 3.3

1.4.1 What is the phase angle of the load? 2 = Cos−10.8 = 36.87o

  Re1  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 
And the per unit Voltage regulation =  = I1  
 V1 

 0.477  0.8 + 1.2  0.6 

= 121   = 0.0404 p.u.
 3300

And the secondary terminal voltage is: V2 FL = V2 (1 −  ) = 420 (1 − 0.0404 ) = 403 V

Notice that the rated voltage (i.e., that voltage stated on the nameplate of the
transformer) is termed V2, and the full load terminal voltage V2FL.

Let us repeat the process carried out above, but using lv values:

Let us first refer impedances to the lv side:

2
V  2
Re 2 = R2 + R1  2  = 0.00416 + 0.22  420  = 0.00416 + 0.003564 = 0.00772 
 3300 
 V1 
2
V  2
X e 2 = X 2 + X 1  2  = 0.0097 + 0.6  420  = 0.0097 + j 0.0097 = 0.0194 
 3300 
 V1 
S 400
Now, we want the full load HV current: I 2 = = = 952 A
V2 0.42

What is the phase angle of the load? 2 = Cos−10.8 = 36.87o

 Re 2  Cos2  X e 2  Sin2 
And the per unitVoltage regulation =  = I 2  
 V2 

 0.00772  0.8 + 0.0194  0.6 

= 952   = 0.0404 p.u.
 420
(Identical to the previous result on the HV side)

4.4.2 At a power factor of 1.0 pu, the phase angle then is 0o. I am now going to
continue with this problem, using Ze1.

 Re1  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 

And the per unit Voltage regulation =  = I1  
 V1 

 0.477  1.0 + 1.2  0 

= 121   = 0.0175 p.u.
 3300

The secondary terminal voltage is: V2 FL = V2 (1 −  ) = 420 (1 − 0.0175) = 412.7 V

(Notice that the terminal voltage has increased.)

4.4.3 Now let's see what happens if the load is operating at a leading power factor:

 Re1  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 

And the per unit Voltage regulation =  = I1  
 V1 
2 = Cos −1 0.8 = 36.87o

 0.477  0.8 − 1.2  0.6 

= 121   = −0.0124 p.u.
 3300

The secondary terminal voltage is: V2 FL = V2 (1 −  ) = 420 (1 − −0.0124 ) = 425.2 V

(Notice that the terminal voltage has increased such that it is now greater than the no
load voltage!)

NOTE: When we use these formulas for voltage regulation, the numerators in brackets
are added if the power factor is lagging, and subtracted if it is leading. But if the formula
that relates to the short circuit test (coming up!) is used, then the opposite applies.

Condition for MAXIMUM regulation: Condition for ZERO regulation:

X e2 Re 2
2 = Tan−1 2 = −Tan−1
Re 2 X e2

The efficiency of a transformer

In any system, the output power is equal to the input power minus the losses. The per
unit efficiency is:

Output power Output power

= =
Input power Output power + losses
In a transformer, there are two types of losses: Copper losses, PCu, due to

( I12  R1 ) + ( I 22  R2 ) , and iron losses, Po, due to eddy currents and hysteresis losses.

S  p. f .
Our formula then becomes:  = , where S = the rated output kVA of
S  p. f . + Po + PCu*
the transformer, pf is the load power factor, and P*cu = the rated full load copper loss.
EXAMPLE 4.5

A 500-kVA transformer has an iron loss of 3.76 kW and a full load copper loss of
5.94 kW. Find the efficiency of this transformer if the load remains at a power factor of
0.8 lagging, but at:

4.5.1 full load

4.5.2 75% of full load
4.5.3 50% of full load
4.5.4 25% of full load
4.5.5 10% of full load
4.5.6 5% of full load
4.5.7 125% of full load
4.5.8 Graph these results: Per unit efficiency on the vertical axis, against
percentage of full load.

SOLUTION

4.5.1 At full load:

S  p. f . 500  0.8
= = = 0.97632 p.u.
S  p. f . + Po + PCu* 500  0.8 + 3.76 + 5.94

4.5.2 At 75% of full load:

n  S  p. f . 0.75  500  0.8

= = = 0.97691 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu o.75  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 0.752  5.94
2 *

4.5.3 At half load:

n  S  p. f . 0.5  500  0.8

= = = 0.97445 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu 0.5  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 0.52  5.94
2 *

4.5.4 At quarter of full load:

n  S  p. f . 0.25  500  0.8

= = = 0.96033 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu 0.25  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 0.252  5.94
2 *
 4.5.5 At 10%:

n  S  p. f . 0.1  500  0.8

= = = 0.91284 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu 0.1  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 0.12  5.94
2 *

4.5.6 At 5%:

n  S  p. f . 0.05  500  0.8

= = = 0.84123 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu 0.05  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 0.052  5.94
2 *

4.5.7 At 125%:

n  S  p. f . 1.25  500  0.8

= = = 0.97458 p.u.
n  S  p. f . + Po + n  PCu 1.25  500  0.8 + 3.76 + 1.252  5.94
2 *

4.5.8
Transformer efficiency (%) vs loading (p.u.)
1
0,98
0,96
0,94
0,92
0,9
0,88
0,86
0,84
0,82
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4

Notice how the efficiency of a transformer is quite constant over a wide range of
loading (from about 50% of full load to 125%). Also, the efficiency only really starts
deteriorating at between 10% of full load, and no load.

4.8 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

A transformer operates at maximum efficiency when the variable copper loss is equal
to the constant iron loss. We can express this mathematically:
 Po
nmax = . The transformer in this example, then, will operate at maximum efficiency
Pcu*

3.76
at a fraction, n, of full load: nmax = = 0.796 p.u. See if you can calculate the
5.94
maximum efficiency of this transformer. (Answer: 0.9769158 pu.) (Why work to 6 or 7
significant figures?)

An accepted standard for design is that the power transformers (generation and
transmission) are designed to work at maximum efficiency at full load. However,
distribution transformers are designed to work at maximum efficiency at 75% of full
load. However, this probably depends on the application.
4.9 THE OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

We have just seen how to calculate the voltage regulation and efficiency of a
transformer, given the relevant data. But if you were given a transformer without the
data, how would you find the regulation and efficiency under any load condition?
Surely you would have to carry out a battery of tests on the loaded transformer, and
measure the actual voltages, currents and powers for each load condition? So, if you
have (for instance) a 4 MVA transformer, operating at 66 kV and 6.6 kV, you would
need test equipment that was able to deliver and consume this sort of power. The HV
and lv full load currents would be 60.6 ampere and 606 ampere, respectively. For each
specific load, a test would have to be carried out. This would be time consuming, and
cost a lot of money in terms of paying for electrical energy, to say nothing of labour
costs. Also, the capital cost of the test equipment would be significant.

But if only two tests were carried out on a transformer (the open and short circuit tests),
only a fraction of the power (and therefore energy) would be needed. The time needed
to perform these tests would be greatly shortened, and it has been found that the
results obtained from these tests are more accurate than those obtained using load
tests.
Below is a description of these tests, and how to use the results obtained to analyse the
transformer under test. The schematics for the connections of these tests are given below.

Figure 4.11: Diagrams showing the open, and the short circuit tests of a transformer

4.9.1 The open circuit test

Have a look at figure 1.11 above. Supply the transformer with rated voltage and
frequency. We have to use rated values, because the open circuit impedance is not linear.
Also, the iron loss is dependent on the frequency and the flux density. The flux density is
proportional to the voltage. We discussed this earlier on in this unit. I have included the
formula for the iron loss in this discussion for you to consider.

Piron = {Peddy current + Physteresis } = ( Pe + Ph ) = ke  f 2  Bmax

2
+ kh  f  Bmax
x

The current flowing (only on the side being supplied) is a small fraction of the rated full
load current – about < 5%. The wattmeter reading indicates the iron loss. (There is a

little copper loss due to I o  R1 , but this is usually negligible.) From this test, we can
2

also find the equivalent shunt resistance and reactance, and therefore the components
of the no load current responsible for

1. m
agnetising the core, and
2. s
upplying the iron loss.

Once we have performed the SCT, we can also predict the probable efficiency at any
load.
4.9.2 The short circuit test

Refer to the diagram above, on the right. In this test, we still use rated frequency, but
the supply voltage is reduced to about 5% of the rated value, that is, the value quoted
on the nameplate. Actually, if you want to use the value of voltage that will supply full
load currents, find the percentage impedance (%Z) stated on the nameplate. Supply
this percentage of the rated voltage on short circuit, and this will circulate full load
currents. The wattmeter reading gives the copper loss. If the currents flowing are not
full load, then the copper loss (obviously) is not the full load value. I normally indicate
full load copper loss like this:

Psc* or Pcu*

and the voltage that produces full load currents, like this:

Vsc* .

A good question might be: How do we know that the wattmeter reading does not include
an iron loss reading? Remember: The iron loss is approximately proportional to the
square of the flux density. But the flux density is proportional to the voltage. Therefore, if
the voltage is about 0.05 pu of the rated value, the iron loss will be proportional to the
square of this, namely, about 0.0025 pu. We can therefore neglect this.

Now let us do an example.

EXAMPLE 4.6

Let us use the 4 MVA transformer mentioned in the introduction. The results of the
tests are given below. Use the results to find … we will follow our noses here.

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

Vsupply 6.6 kV Vsupply 480 V Applied to lv side.

No load current 12.4 A I1 & I2 Full load values

Wattmeter reading 38.7 kW Psc 68.8 kW

First, we will find the no load phase angle:

 Po   38700 
o = Cos −1   = Cos −1   = 61.78
o

V 
 1 o
I  6600  12.4

Now we can express the no load current in polar form: I 0 = I o −o = 12.4 61.78o A .

This current can now be split up into two components:

I 0 = ( I core − jI mag ) = ( 5.863 − j10.926 ) ampere

The equivalent circuit representing this situation looks like this:

 V  6600
The shunt resistance is: Rcore =  1  = = 1126 
 I core  5.86
 V1  6600
And the shunt reactance is: X mag =  = = j 604
 mag 
I − j10.93

NOTE: Here, Rcore and Xmag are in parallel with one another, not in series!!!

Now consider the short circuit test:

S 4  106
What are the full load currents? The HV full load current is: I1 = = = 60.6 A ,
V1 66000

S 4  106
and the lv current is: I1 = = = 606 A
V1 6600

 Psc   68800 
The short circuit phase angle is: e = Cos −1   = Cos −1   = 76.3o

 sc1 sc1 
V I  480  606 
Because the applied voltage produced full load currents, we designate it: Vsc* . We can

use this to find the percentage impedance of the transformer (also known as the
Vsc* 480
impedance voltage). %Z =  100 =  100 = 7.27% .
Vrated 6600

Now we can also find the value of the internal impedance of this transformer as seen
from the lv side (because the short circuit test was carried out on that side):

Vsc* 480
Z e1 = = = 0.792  . By now, you ought to be familiar with the per unit system, and
I l .v. 606
base quantities. In this transformer, the base impedance, referred to the lv side, is:
VBase 6600 Z 0.792
Zbase = = = 10.89  . But look at this: %Z = e1  100 =  100 = 7.27% .
I Base 606 Z Base 10.89

So, we can arrive at two important conclusions: First, the percentage impedance is the
percentage of rated voltage that will circulate full load currents on short circuit. And
second: the percentage impedance is the transformer internal impedance expressed
as a percentage of the base impedance.

Oh, and I almost forgot! This impedance of the transformer may be expressed either
in polar form: Z e1 = Z e1 e = 0.792 76.30 or in rectangular form:

( Re1 + jX e1 ) = (0.188 + j0.769) 

.

(Remember to look back in the unit. We have dealt with this before.)

4.10 VOLTAGE REGULATION

If you have the short circuit test results, you can use this equation to find the per unit
Vsc*1
voltage regulation:  =  Cos e 2  . If the load power factor is lagging, we minus
V1
the angles, and if it is leading, we add the angles. In a practical circuit, however, the
power factor is most likely to be lagging.
Let's find the pu voltage regulation and secondary (lv) terminal voltage of this
transformer if the load power factor is 0.8 lagging:

480
2 = Cos −1 0.8 = 36.87o and  =  Cos  76.3o − 36.87o  = 0.0562 p.u.
6600

The secondary terminal voltage will be

V2 FL = V2 (1 −  ) = 6600 (1 − 0.0562 ) = 6229 V .

Notice that the terminal voltage has dropped.

4.11 EFFICIENCY

Calculate the efficiency of this transformer on full load, at a power factor of 0.91
lagging.

S  p. f . 4000  0.91
= = = 0.9713 p.u.
S  p. f . + Po + PCu 4000  0.91 + 38.7 + 68.8
*

WHAT IF…?

What if the short circuit test is not carried out at full load currents? Obviously, this
* *
means that the short circuit voltage used is not Vsc ,and the copper loss is not Psc .

We need, then, to convert the test voltage and wattmeter reading to their full load
values, in order to make them useful.

Here are the formulas you will use:

The voltage needed to circulate said (full load) currents is:

 I 
Vsc*1 = Vsc1  1  where I1 is the rated full load primary current, and Isc1 is the current
 I sc1 
reading obtained in the test, on the side designated "1".

The full load copper loss is:

 I 
2 Note that here, the I1:Isc1 ratio is squared because the copper loss
P = Psc  1 
*
sc is proportional to the square of the current!
 I sc1 
Below are a number of useful formulae.

The base impedance referred to

the primary side: and the secondary side:

V12 V1 V22 V2
Zbase1 = = Zbase 2 = =
S I1 S I2
The percentage impedance may also be obtained as follows:

Ze1 Ze 2
%Z = 100 or %Z = 100
Zbase1 Zbase 2

By the way, to find the %R:

Psc*
% R = 100 = %R = I21  R e1 100 . The % resistance of the transformer is a
2

S I1  Zbase1
measure of the full load copper loss:
𝑆 %𝑅
𝑃𝑠𝑐∗ =
100

PROBLEMS (with special thanks to the late Edward Hughes* –

ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY. 4th Ed. LONGMAN. 1972)

1. The design requirements of a 6600 V/400 V, 50-Hz, single-phase, core-type

transformer are: approximate emf/turn, 15 V; maximum flux density, 1.5 teslas. Find
a suitable number of primary and secondary turns, and the net cross-sectional area
of the core.

(462; 28; 42 800 mm2)

2. The primary winding of a single-phase transformer is connected to a 230-

V, 50-Hz supply. The secondary winding has 1500 turns. If the maximum value of
the core flux is 0.002 07 Wb, determine: (a) the number of turns on the primary
winding; (b) the secondary induced voltage; (c) the net cross-sectional core area
if the flux density has a maximum value of 0.465 tesla.

(500, 690 V, 4450 mm2)

3. A 6600 V/250 V, 50-Hz, single-phase, core-type transformer has a core
section
25 cm x 25 cm. Allowing for a space factor of 0.9, find a suitable number of primary
and secondary turns if the flux density is not to exceed 1.2 teslas.

(475, 18)

4. A single-phase 50-Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding

and
400 turns on the secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is
200 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 240-V, 50-Hz supply, determine:
(a) the emf induced in the secondary winding; (b) the maximum value of the flux
density in the core.

(1 200, 0.675 T)

5. A 50-kVA single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 300/20. The

primary winding is connected to a 2200-V, 50-Hz supply. Calculate: (a) the
secondary voltage on no load; (b) the approximate values of the primary and
secondary currents on full load; (c) the maximum value of the flux.

(146.7 V; 22.73 A, 341 A; 0.033 Wb)

6. A 200-kVA, 3300 V/240 V, 50-Hz, single-phase transformer has 80 turns

on the secondary winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate: (a) the
primary and secondary currents on full load; (b) the maximum value of the flux;
(c) the number of primary turns.

(60.6 A, 833 A, 0.0135 Wb, 1100 turns)

7. The following data applies to a single-phase transformer:

peak flux density in the core = 1.41 T,

net core area = 0.01 m2
*current density in conductors = 2.5 MA/m2,
conductor diameter = 2.0 mm,
primary supply (assume sinusoidal) = 200 V, 50 Hz.

*From Electrical Technology, 4th Edition, Longman

 I
*The current density, J = , A/m2 , where I = the current through the
a

conductor, and a = the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Calculate the kVA rating of the transformer and the number of turns on the
primary winding.

(1.57 kVA, 64 turns)

8. The primary of a certain transformer takes 1 A at a power factor of 0.4

when connected across a 200-V, 50-Hz supply and the secondary is on open
circuit. The number of turns on the primary is twice that on the secondary. A load
taking 50 A at a lagging power factor of 0.8 is now connected across the
secondary.

Sketch, and explain briefly, the phasor diagram for this condition, neglecting
voltage drops in the transformer. What is now the value of the primary current?

(25.9 A)

9. A 4:1 ratio step-down transformer takes 1 A at 0.15 power factor on no

load. Determine the primary current and power factor when the transformer is
supplying a load of 25 A at 0.8 power factor lag. Ignore internal voltage drops.

(7 A, 0.735 lagging)

10. 3300 V/240 V, single-phase transformer, on no load, takes 2 A at power

factor 0.25. Determine graphically, or otherwise, the primary current and power
factor when the transformer is supplying a load of 60 A at power factor 0.9 leading.

(4.43 A, 1.0)

11. The no load current of a transformer is 5.0 A at 0.3 power factor when
supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz. The number of turns on the primary winding is 200.
Calculate:
(i) the maximum value of the flux in the core; (ii) the core loss; (iii) the magnetising
current.

(5.18 mWb, 345 W, 4.77 A rms)

12. Calculate: (a) the number of turns required for a choke to absorb 200 V on
a 50-Hz circuit; (b) the length of airgap required if the coil is to take a magnetising
current of 3 A (rms); and (c) the phase difference between the current and the
terminal voltage. Mean length of iron path, 500 mm; maximum flux density in core,
1 T; sectional area of core, 3000 mm2; maximum magnetic field strength for the
iron, 250 A/m; iron loss, l.7 W/kg; density of iron, 7800 kg/m3. Neglect the
resistance of the winding and any magnetic leakage and fringing. Assume the
current waveform to be sinusoidal.

(300, 1.44 mm, 88)

13. Calculate the no load current and power factor for the following 60 Hz
transformer: mean length of iron path, 700 mm; maximum flux density, 1.1 T;
maximum magnetic field strength for the iron, 300 A/m; iron loss, 2.4 W/kg. All the
joints may be assumed equivalent to a single airgap of 0.2 mm. Number of
primary turns, 120; primary voltage, 230 V. Neglect the resistance of the primary
winding and assume the current waveform to be sinusoidal.

(2.3 A, 0.164)

14. The ratio of turns of a single-phase transformer is 8, the resistances of

the primary and secondary windings are 0.85  and 0.0l2  respectively, and the
leakage reactances of these windings are 4.8  and 0.07  respectively.
Determine the voltage to be applied to the primary to obtain a current of 150 A in
the secondary when the secondary terminals are short-circuited. Ignore the
magnetising current.

(176.5 V)
15. A single-phase transformer operates from a 230 V supply. It has an
equivalent resistance of 0.1  and an equivalent leakage reactance of 0.5 
referred to the primary. The secondary is connected to a coil having a resistance
of 200  and a reactance of 100 . Calculate the secondary terminal voltage. The
secondary winding has four times as many turns as the primary.

(900 V)
16. A 10 kVA single-phase transformer, for 2000 V/400 V at no load, has
resistances and leakage reactances as follows. Primary winding: resistance, 5.5
; reactance, 12 . Secondary winding: resistance, 0.2 ; reactance, 0.45 .
Determine the approximate value of the secondary voltage at full load, 0.8 power
factor (lagging), when the primary supply voltage is 2000 V.

(377.6 V)

17. Calculate the voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor for a
transformer which has an equivalent resistance of 2 per cent and an equivalent
leakage reactance of 4 per cent.

(4%)

18. A 75 kVA transformer, rated at 6600 V/230 V on no load, requires 310 V

across the primary to circulate full-load currents on short circuit, the power
absorbed being 1.6 kW. Determine (a) the percentage voltage regulation and (b)
the full-load secondary terminal voltage for power factors of (i) unity, (ii) 0.8
lagging and (iii) 0.8 leading.

If the input power to the transformer on no load is 0.9 kW, calculate the per-unit
efficiency at full load and at half load for power factor 0.8 and find the kVA at
which the efficiency is a maximum.

(2.13%, 225.1 V; 4.22%, 220.3 V; -0.81%, 231.86 V; 0.96 pu, 0.9585 pu, 56.25 kVA)

19. The primary and secondary windings of a 30 kVA, 6000 V/230 V transformer
have resistances of 10  and 0.016  respectively. The total reactance of the
transformer referred to the primary is 23 . Calculate the percentage regulation of
the transformer when supplying full-load current at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.

(2.54%)

20. A 50 kVA, 6360 V/240 V transformer is tested on open and short circuit
to obtain its efficiency, the results of the test being as follows:

Open circuit: primary voltage, 6360 V; primary current, 1 A; power input, 2 kW.
Short circuit: voltage across primary winding, 180 V; current in secondary
winding, 175 A; power input, 2 kW.
Find the efficiency of the transformer when supplying full load at a power factor
of 0.8 lagging and draw a phasor diagram (neglecting impedance drops) for this
condition.

(0.892 pu)

21. A 240 V/1400 V single-phase transformer absorbs 35 W when its primary

winding is connected to a 240-V, 50-Hz supply, the secondary being on open
circuit.
When the primary is short circuited and a 10-V, 50-Hz supply is connected to
the secondary winding, the power absorbed is 48 W when the current has the
full-load value of 15 A.
Estimate the efficiency of the transformer at half load, 0~8 power factor lagging.

(0.981 pu)

22. A 1 kVA transformer has an iron loss of 15 W and a full-load copper loss of
20 W. Calculate the full-load efficiency, assuming the power factor to be 0.9.
An ammeter is scaled to read 5 A, but it is to be used with a current transformer
to read 15 A. Draw a diagram of connections for this, giving terminal markings
and currents.

(0.9626 pu)

23. Discuss fully the energy losses in single-phase transformers. Such a

transformer working at unity power factor has an efficiency of 90 per cent at both
one-half load and at the full load of 500 W. Determine the efficiency at 75 per cent
of full load.

(0.905 pu)

24. A single-phase transformer is rated at 10 kVA, 230 V/100 V. When the

secondary terminals are open-circuited and the primary winding is supplied at
normal voltage (230 V), the current input is 2.6 A at a power factor of 0.3. When
the secondary terminals are short-circuited, a voltage of 18 V applied to the
primary causes the full-load current (100 A) to flow in the secondary, the power
input to the primary being 240 W. Calculate: (a) the efficiency of the transformer
at full load, unity power factor; (b) the load at which maximum efficiency occurs;
(c) the value of the maximum efficiency.

(0.9598 pu, 8.65 kVA, 0.9601 pu at unity power factor)

25. A 400 kVA transformer has an iron loss of 2 kW and the maximum efficiency
at
0.8 power factor occurs when the load is 240 kW. Calculate: (a) the maximum
efficiency at unity power factor, and (b) the efficiency on full load at 0.71 power factor.

(0.9868 pu, 0.9808 pu)

26. A 40 kVA transformer has a core loss of 450 W and a full-load copper loss
of
850 W. If the power factor of the load is 0.8, calculate: (a) the full-load efficiency;
(b) the maximum efficiency; and (c) the load at which maximum efficiency occurs.

(0.961 pu, 0.9628 pu, 23.3 kW)

27. Each of two transformers, A and B, has an output of 40 kVA. The core
losses in A and B are 500 W and 250 W respectively, and the full-load copper
losses are 500 W and 750 W respectively. Tabulate the losses and efficiencies at
quarter, half and full load for a power factor of 0.8. For each transformer, find the
load at which the efficiency is a maximum.

(A, 93.77, 96.24, 96.97%; B, 96.42, 97.34, 96.97%; A, 40 kVA; B, 23.1 kVA)

28. What is meant by the term magnetic hysteresis? Explain why, when iron is
subjected to alternating magnetisation, energy losses occur due to both hysteresis
and eddy currents. The iron loss in a transformer core at normal flux density was
measured at frequencies of 30 and 50 Hz, the results being 30 W and 54 W
respectively. Calculate: (a) the hysteresis loss; (b) the eddy-current loss at 50 Hz.

Note. For a given specimen, with maximum flux density Bm,

hysteresis loss = kh f Bmx and

eddy current loss = ke f2Bm2, where kh, ke and x are

constants.
 Total iron loss = P = kh f Bmx + ke f2Bm2
For a given Bm, P = k'hf+ k'ef2

Hence, if the total iron loss for a given maximum flux density is known at two
frequencies, k'h and k'e can be calculated and the hysteresis and eddy-current
components of the iron loss determined at any desired frequency.

(44 W, 10 W)
29. Explain why the ferrous magnetic circuits subject to alternating
magnetism are usually laminated, and give examples of typical core construction.
The total iron loss in a 460-V, 50-Hz single-phase transformer is 2400 W. When
a 230-V, 25-Hz supply is applied, the total iron loss is 800 W. Calculate the eddy-
current and hysteresis losses at normal voltage and frequency.

(1600 W, 800 W)

30. The iron loss in a certain transformer is 80 W at 25 Hz and 204 W at 60

Hz, the maximum flux density being the same. Calculate the total iron loss at 100
Hz at the same maximum flux density.

(362.8 W)
 STUDY UNIT 5

NO LOAD CURRENT, TEMPERATURE, PARALLEL

OPERATION AND ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• Determine the no load current of a single-phase transformer, using magnetic

circuit and core loss information.
• Appreciate the interest in the thermal characteristics and temperature rise in
electrical machines and systems.
• Perform calculations involving temperature rise.
 • Discuss the requirements for two or more transformers to operate safely in
parallel.
• Perform calculations to find how much load is shared by each of two
transformers that are connected in parallel – first, if the secondary terminal emfs
are equal, and second, if they are different.
• Explain what is meant by all-day efficiency of a transformer, and why it is
important.
• Determine the all-day efficiency of a transformer, given the relevant data.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This study unit is a continuation of themes explored in EEM2601. The emphasis here
is not on mere rote learning, but on understanding. If you understand magnetic
circuits, basic physical relationships and basic mathematical manipulations – if you
understand the relationships between parameters in transformer problems – then you
will find that remembering these things is much easier.

This course is not intended to make a rocket scientist out of you. Most of the content
consists of basic principles that will enable you, once you have graduated, to build on
this solid foundation in the workplace and industry, where you will be able to learn the
particulars of your discipline and gain exposure to state-of-the-art technology. So, if
you see resources that are old, and even "ancient", do not recoil in horror. Remember:
Isaac Newton formulated his laws of motion in the 17th century, but we continue to
learn them. Why? Because they are as valid now as they were when Newton was alive
– in fact, these laws have been valid since the beginning of time.

To those of you whose first language is not English, I apologise for the fact that this
course is presented in English, and not your own language. As a student, I found the
reading and understanding of technical texts really difficult, and I am an English first-
language speaker! I wish I could speak and write to you in your own language, but
unfortunately I can't. Also, there are not texts on this subject in all the South African
languages yet. So, I would like you to keep two dictionaries close at hand as you read
and study this guide: first of all, an English–Zulu or English–Xhosa or English–
Setswana or English– (you get the idea?) dictionary, and second a good English
dictionary, as sometimes your own language will not have a particular word (for
instance, "induction" or "capacitance"), and in those cases the definition in an English
dictionary will help you. One of your jobs as an engineer–technologist will be to read
technical literature, brochures, instructions and reports. Also, you will have to be able
to write reports, and these may have to be in English. A very effective and entertaining
way of learning English is to read novels written in English and watch English-
language TV programmes.

5.2 FINDING THE NO LOAD CURRENT FROM MAGNETIC

CIRCUIT, AND CORE LOSS DATA

Please work through PT (1–7).

Here are some points of clarification:

The primary side of a transformer is the side that is supplied with electric power from
some external source. This could be the high voltage side, or the low voltage side – it
doesn't matter. When we get to three-phase transformers and vector group tables, the
HV side is always mentioned first, then the lv side. However, any transformer could be
supplied on any side, depending on whether you want a step-up or step-down
transformer. Also, in this course, the primary side will normally be implied. But in a
transmission system, power can flow in any direction, and it becomes meaningless to
refer to the primary or secondary side.

Also, Le Roux refers to a leakage reactance "loss", and a magnetising "loss". This can
be misleading, because after all, there can be no power loss in a purely reactive circuit;
the "loss" could then only refer to a volt drop. So, there are only power losses in the
windings due to I2.R.t heating.

Here are some extra notes. I hope that these will help you to understand this section
better.

You might remember that the no load current of a transformer is made up of two
components – the magnetising current, Imag, which is responsible for exciting the magnetic
flux in the core, and Icore, or that current responsible for supplying the core loss. The latter
current is in phase with the supply voltage, while the magnetising current is in phase with
the magnetic flux (actually, it is the other way around – the flux is in phase with the
current!), and this flux lags the supply voltage by 90o. See Figure 2.1 below.

Figure 5.1: The no-load current in a transformer

Now, if we are given a figure for the core loss of the core material used for a particular
transformer, in watt per kilogram, and provided we know the dimensions and the
density of the core, we can calculate the total core loss of the transformer in question,
and then the core current.

Also, if we know or can find the mean length of the core, the effective cross-sectional
area, the magnetic field strength and other data pertaining to the magnetic circuit, we
must be able to find the magnetising current. Once we have both the core and the
magnetising current, we can calculate the no load current.

Now, you may well ask: "Why on earth would I want to know this?" And my answer is:
Because it makes you think about magnetic circuits in a more practical way.
Furthermore, it gives you the opportunity to solve a problem of reasonable complexity.

Let us do an example (which is always the best way to learn how to do something):

EXAMPLE 5.1
A single-phase, core-type transformer has the following characteristics:
V1 = 6600 V V2 = 550 V
Frequency = 50 Hz Equivalent airgap = 1 mm
Gross cross-sectional area of core = 140 cm2 Stacking factor = 0.88
Core loss = 2.1 watt per kilogram Density of core = 7.8 g per cm3
The maximum flux density = 1.1 tesla Magnetic field strength @ Bmax = 650 A/m
Mean length of core = 270 cm

Use the above information to determine:

2.1.1 the number of primary and secondary turns

2.1.2 the magnetising current
2.1.3 the core loss and Icore
2.1.4 the no load current and power factor

Note: State assumptions made.

SOLUTION

5.1.1 When calculating the number of turns, always calculate for the low
voltage side first.

m = Bmax  a  kstacking

NOTE: The gross csa is the area of steel and the insulation between the steel,
together. But it is only the steel part that counts when it comes to the flux in
the core. The stacking factor, then, is always less than 1.

= 1.1  140  10−4  0.88

= 13.55 mWb

NOTE: The csa is given in cm2. This must be converted to m2. Always make
sure you are using the correct units!

E2 550
N2 = = = 182.8 turns
4.44  f  m 4.44  50  13.55  10−3
But you cannot get 0.8 turns – the number of turns must be a whole number.
I will round it off to 184 turns.
Therefore, N2 = 184 turns.
V1 N1
Now we know that = and therefore,
V2 N 2

V1  N 2 6600  184
N1 = = = 2208 turns
V2 550

5.1.2 Because we are given the magnetic field strength of the circuit at the
given maximum flux density, it is logical to find the value of H, for the airgap,
and then the mmf needed to develop this flux.

Bmax 1.1
H gap = = = 875352 A
o 4  10 −7 m

m.m. f . = H i i + H gap gap

= [650  270  10−2 ] + [875352  0.0001]

= 2630 A

NOTE: This is a peak value! We assume it also to be sinusoidal.

m.m. f . 2630
I mag = = = 0.842 A
N1  2 2208  2

5.1.3 Now, we need to find the mass of iron in the core.

m = core Volume core = 7800  2.7  0.014 =259.4 kg

And the total core loss is:

Pcore = Loss per kilogram  mass of iron = 2.1  259.4 = 544.8W

Pcore 544.8
Now, the core component of the current is: I core = = = 0.0825 A
V1 6600

5.1.4 Now we want the no load current:

 I o =  I core + jI mag  = 0.0825 − j0.842 = 0.846 84.4o A

At a power factor of Cos 84.4º = 0.0976 lagging

For further reading, study and practice:

EXAMPLE 5.2

A single-phase transformer with a rated primary voltage of 1240 volt, and a frequency
of 50 Hz, has the following core properties:

Mean length of iron path (core-type, construction): 745 mm

Equivalent airgap: 0.2 mm
Maximum flux density: 1.45 T
Maximum magnetic field strength @ Bm: 450 A/m

Permeability of free space, μo: 4𝜋 x 10-7 H/m

Number of primary turns: 1480

Density of iron: 7800 kg/m3
Specific iron loss 1.75 W/kg

Calculate:

5.2.1 the iron loss of this transformer

5.2.2 the no-load current and power factor

(1:5); (3:687); (5:chapter 1) Work through all the problems in PT on page 17.

Try the example below (with thanks to Dr Edward Hughes for this):

3. Calculate: (a) the number of turns required for a choke to absorb 200 V on
a 50 Hz circuit; (b) the length of airgap required if the coil is to take a magnetising
current of 3 A (rms); and (c) the phase difference between the current and the
terminal voltage. Mean length of iron path, 500 mm; maximum flux density in core,
1 T; sectional area of core, 3000 mm2; maximum magnetic field strength for the
iron, 250 A/m; iron loss, l.7 W/kg; density of iron, 7800 kg/m3. Neglect the
resistance of the winding and any magnetic leakage and fringing. Assume the
current waveform to be sinusoidal.
 (300, 1.44 mm, 88)

4. Calculate the no load current and power factor for the following 60 Hz
transformer: mean length of iron path, 700 mm; maximum flux density, 1.1 T;
maximum magnetic field strength for the iron, 300 A/m; iron loss, 2.4 W/kg. All the
joints may be assumed equivalent to a single airgap of 0.2 mm. Number of
primary turns, 120; primary voltage, 230 V. Neglect the resistance of the primary
winding and assume the current waveform to be sinusoidal.

(2.3 A, 0.164)

5.3 THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Please work through PT (86–99).

I find that students tend to compartmentalise the subjects they study. So, you may well
wonder why it is that in an electrical machines course, thermal and temperature
considerations are taken into account. And to answer that, let me ask a question: If
you feel the body of an electric motor in the morning, if it has been off for the night,
how hot (or cold) will it be? Surely it will be as hot or cold as the surrounding air (i.e.,
ambient temperature). But if it is switched on, and starts doing work (pumping or
blowing air or driving a conveyor or a crusher), after about an hour, it will be warm.
After two hours, it will be a bit hotter, and after three hours (say), quite hot. What has
happened? Well, current flowing through windings in the motor will have produced I2Rt
heating.

Furthermore, eddy currents and hysteresis effects have produced heating in the iron
core of the machine. There are other sources of heating too – but there is no need to
go into detail here. Now, when something heats up, it conducts this heat to the outside,
to ambient air, and this air takes heat away. The machine will then rise in temperature
until the amount of heat produced by the machine is equal to the amount of heat taken
away by ambient air. (A motor normally has a fan that blows air over its surface. This
air takes the heat away, and prevents the motor from getting too hot.)
But what happens if the motor is allowed to become extremely hot? Electrical
insulation is very sensitive to heat, and if the temperature of insulation rises to a level
higher than the rated maximum temperature, the insulation will start deteriorating, and
is liable to break down altogether. When this happens, short circuits occur, and the
machine fails.

The point is this: Electrical machines are as much electrical as they are thermal devices.
Therefore, designers must take thermal considerations into account in their designs.

The formula for temperature rise

mcd + adt = Pdt

Where:

m = mass of the machine material (m)

c = specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)
d = change in temperature (K)

 = emissivity constant (W/m2 oC)

a = surface area for cooling (m2)
 = temperature rise (oC)
dt = change in time (second)

P = rate at which heat is produced (watt)

dt = change in time (second)

The formula below can be derived from the above energy formula (which tells us that
the heat absorbed plus the heat lost is equal to the heat produced).

−t
 = m (1 − e T ) oC, where T = Time constant 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐
𝑎

EXAMPLE 5.3
A transformer has a 20 oC temperature rise after 1 hour, and a 35 oC temperature rise
after two hours of continuous full load. The copper loss is 2.5 times the iron loss.

Determine:

5.3.1 the thermal time constant of this transformer

5.3.2 the final temperature
5.3.3 the length of time it will take to reach the final temperature

SOLUTION

−t
 = m (1 − e T ) . Therefore, 20 = m (1 − e−T ) and 35 = m (1 − e−T )
1 2
2.3.1

−2 −1 −1
35  m (1 − e T ) 35 (1 − e T )(1 + e T ) − T1
And = = = = 1.75 = (1 + e )
20  m (1 − e − T ) −1
1
20 (1 − e T )
And T = 3.47 hours. (See if you can figure out how to get T out!)

20 20
5.3.2 Final temperature: m = − 3.47
1 = = 79.88o C
(1 − e ) 0.7496

5.3.3 Time taken to reach this temperature = 5T = 5 x 3.47 = 17.35 hours.

For further reading, study and practice: (PT:98–99); (2:71); (4:77–82)

5.4 TRANSFORMERS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL

Please work through PT (65–72).

5.4.1 Conditions that must be met in order to operate transformers in parallel

(a) They must have the same polarity

This means that the windings must both produce the same emf at the same
time and in the same direction in so far as the load is concerned. Seen in
relation to one another, they are in phase opposition. This is an essential
requirement. Wrong polarity results in a dead short situation.
 Figure 2.2: Connection diagram of two transformers in parallel

(b) They must have the same voltage ratio

This does not have to be exact, but the closer they are the better, otherwise
excessive circulating currents result, causing increased I2R heating.

(c) They must have the same percentage impedance

Here too, exact equality is not necessary. But the closer they are, the better. It
may be useful to point out that each transformer's percentage impedance is
given at that transformer's kVA rating. So, the same percentage impedance is
when both transformer's percentage Zs have been adjusted to the same kVA
base. This requirement ensures that each transformer will supply a correct
proportion of the load.

(d) There must be the same phase sequence and zero relative phase
displacement between voltages

These two requirements (applied to three-phase transformers) are essential.

5.4.2 Calculations

5.4.2.1 Case No. 1: If the secondary terminal emfs are equal

The best way to deal with this is to give you a worked example, and comment
on the question and answer as we go along.

EXAMPLE 5.4

A 1.65 MVA load, operating at a power factor of 0.85 lagging, is to be supplied by two
transformers connected in parallel, having the following ratings:

TRANSFORMER kVA rating % impedance

A 1000 ZA = (2 + j8)

B 800 ZB = (3 + j8)

Assume that the secondary open circuit voltage of each transformer is equal. Use a
common base of 1000 kVA and find the power in complex form that is supplied by each
transformer.

SOLUTION

Whenever the open circuit voltages are equal, we use % impedances converted to the
same base kVA to find the proportion of power (in complex form) supplied by each
transformer. Notice that:

1. We are not told whether these units are single phase or three phase. It does
not matter.
2. We are not given the voltages at which the units are working. This information
is also irrelevant.

If the question tells you what base kVA to use, you must use it. Otherwise, choose
your own. It is most convenient to choose a kVA of one of the units. This reduces the
work you have to do.

The first thing is to express the load kVA in complex form. The phase angle is

Cos −1 0.85 = 31.79o (lagging ) . The load is then SLoad = 1650 −31.79
o
kVA . Now normally,
when we have complex power, the angle is identical to the impedance angle, in sign,
too. But here, although the power factor is lagging, we use a negative angle. Why? In
this exercise, we are using a kind of "current divide rule", and we give the sign of the
angle, what it would be if it were the current sign (with the reference voltage at zero
degrees). (If any expert out there is reading this, and disagrees, call me!)

The second thing is to express both % Zs at 1000 kVA. ZA is already right.

Base kVA 1000

Z B' = Z B  = (3 + j8)  = (3.75 + j10)%
Transformer rated kVA 800

The third thing is to calculate the load carried by Transformer A:

 Z B'   (3.75 + j10) 

S A = S Load   ' 
= 1650 −31.79o    = 932.57 −34.63o kVA
 Z A + ZB   (2 + j8) + (3.75 + j10) 

And the load carried by transformer B must obviously be the rest. So:

 ZA   (2 + j8) 
S B = S Load   ' 
= 1650 −31.79o    = 720 −28.11o kVA
 Z A + ZB   (2 + j8) + (3.75 + j10) 
You could also simply say:

SB=SLoad−SA=1650−31.79°−932.57−34.63°=720−28.11°kVA

Now this result is perfect, because each transformer is supplying a load which is lower
than its rated load. This means that there is no overloading problem.

5.4.2.2 Case No. 2: If the secondary terminal emfs are NOT equal

This scenario presents a problem, because in this case you cannot simply use %
impedances and proportions. Now you have to set up a diagram as per Figure 2.3
and … well, I'll show you:
 Figure 5.3: Schematic showing two transformers in parallel with a load connected
Once again, I will give you a worked example with annotations.

EXAMPLE 5.5

A 780 kVA load, operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging, is to be supplied by two
transformers connected in parallel, having the following ratings:

TRANSFORMER Secondary open circuit voltage (V) Ohmic impedance

A 2215 ZA = (0.11 + j0.54) Ω

B 2195 ZB = (0.15 + j0.71) Ω

Assume the rated load voltage to be 2200 volt. Calculate the current drawn by each
transformer and the power factor.

SOLUTION

Figure 5.4: Parallel transformers with unequal voltages

Now, in my opinion, the easiest way to solve this problem is by applying Thevenin's
theorem to this equivalent circuit.
First, we must find the equivalent impedance of the load. If we are not told whether the
transformers in question are single or three phase, assume single phase (and state
this as an assumption), and carry on. If we are dealing with a three-phase transformer,
follow the same procedure, but use phase values throughout.
2
Vload 22002
Zload = = = 6.205  And, in complex form: ZLoad = 6.205 36.87° .
Sload 780000

Now, find Thevenin's impedance. (Take out the Load – Terminals, XY are open). Take
out both emf sources. Replace them with their respective internal impedances. These
are then in parallel, the

Z A  Z B (0.11 + j0.54)  (0.15 + j0.71)

ZTH = = = 0.3132 78.307o
Z A + ZB (0.26 + j1.25)

To find the Thevenin voltage (i.e., the open circuit voltage across terminals XY):

First, determine the circulating current due to the unbalanced voltages:

( E A − EB ) (2215 00 − 2195 0o
I Circ = = = 15.665 −78.25o A
Z A + ZB (0.26 + j1.25)

And the open circuit voltage is:

VTH = E A − ( I Circ  Z A ) = 2215 00 − (15.665 −78.25o  (0.11 + j 0.54)

= 2206.4 0o volt.

And the total load current is:

VTH 2206.4 0o
I load = = = 342.4 −38.71o A
ZTH + Z load (0.3132 78.307 ) + (6.205 −36.87 )
o o

But we need to find out how much of this current, and at what phase angle each
transformer is contributing. For this, we first find the voltage across the load:

Vload = I load  Z load = 342.4 −38.71o  (6.205 −36.87o ) = 2124.5 −1.84o volt
 E A − Vload 2215 00 − 2124.5 −1.84o
Now I A = = = 207.4 −41.77o A
ZA (0.11 + j0.54)

EB − Vload 2195 00 − 2124.5 −1.84o

Likewise, I B = = = 136.3 −34.5o A
ZB (0.15 + j0.71)

Work through all the problems on page 72 of PT.

5.5 ALL-DAY EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Refer to (PT:73, 74). You can also refer to (8:1181–1186).

In Le Roux's examples, he lists all the sub-calculations in the same basic efficiency
formula. If you know what you are doing, and work accurately, that is fine. However, I
prefer to tabulate my results, as I have shown you in my example below.

You learnt about transformer efficiency in EEM2601. The generic formula for the
efficiency of a transformer at any fraction, n of load is:

n  S  p. f .
=
n  S  p. f . + Po + n 2  PCu*

Where:

S = the rated output kVA of the transformer (this is the kVA as given
on the
nameplate of the transformer)
n = the fraction of full load given in per unit form
p.f = the power factor of the load
Po = the constant iron loss
PCu* = the full load (variable) copper loss

Below is a graph to show the change of efficiency with regard to the fraction of loading.
 Figure 5.5: Fraction of full load, n (p.u.)

Notice that over a very wide range of load, the efficiency is very high – over 95%. In
fact, the graph given can be considered a sketch graph – not very accurate. At any
rate, distribution transformers are normally designed to operate at maximum
efficiency, when the fraction of full load is about 0.75 pu. However, power transformers
(e.g., generator transformers) are designed to give maximum efficiency at full load.

You may realise that transformers are (normally) connected to a variable load, which
means that the efficiency is fluctuating all the time, and the losses, then, are also
changing. Rather, the iron losses are constant, no matter what load is being taken, but
the copper loss changes with changing load.

But guess what? Someone has to pay for these losses. Let us take a 1000 kVA
transformer as an example. Let us assume that the iron loss is 8 kW and the copper loss
on full load is 14.4 kW. Let us also assume that it is operating on full load for a whole (30-
day) month. How much are the losses costing, if the charge per kWh is R1,20?

The total loss is 22.4 kW. The hours in one month = 30 x 24 = 720 hours. The total
energy wasted is 22.4 x 720 = 16 128 kWh.

The monthly cost of this energy loss is: 16 128 x R1,20 = R 19 353,60.
We know, of course, that the transformer is highly unlikely to be operating at full load
all the time. But if it is not operating at all, that is, it is not supplying any load (but it is
still switched on), the cost will still be:

8 x 720 x R1,20 = R6 912,00. That is, almost R7000 a month for doing nothing!
Question: Who has to pay for this lost energy? Answer: The customer. Your electricity
tariff will be designed to take lost energy in the system into account.
But what is the point? It costs money (and here, we are only taking into account the
cost to us of the losses). Consequently, if you as an engineer need to choose between
two or three transformers to buy from several suppliers and install at your factory, you
may want to perform some calculations to find out which transformer is going to be the
most economical to run. It may be that in the case of small units, the difference in
expense as regards the losses is negligible. But as the transformers get bigger, in the
10+ MVA range, the bill for the losses becomes significant.

This is where the all-day efficiency comes into play: If you know reasonably accurately
what the daily load curve is likely to look like (and we will greatly simplify this), and you
also know the rated iron and full-load copper loss, then you will be able to find the
energy loss for each block of time that the transformer is operating at a certain load.
A worked example is probably the best way of illustrating this technique.

EXAMPLE 5.6

The transformer referred to above, rated at 1 MVA and having an iron loss of 8 kW
and a full-load copper loss of 14.4 kW, is loaded daily as per schedule:

Duration (hours) Fraction of full load, n Power factor

8 0.5 0.82

6 0.65 0.77

5 0.78 0.88

4 0.91 0.92

1 1.0 0.80

Total = 24

Determine the all-day efficiency of this transformer. If the cost of energy per unit is
R1,13, calculate the cost of the losses per day.
SOLUTION
First, find the total energy wasted in iron loss: Wiron = Po  24 = 8  24 = 192kW .h

Now, we must calculate the useful energy produced for each time duration. Consider
the first load on the list:

W1 = n  S  p. f .  time = 0.5  1000  0.82  8 = 3280 kW .h

I have made a duplicate table below, where I will fill in the values calculated under the
appropriate headings:

Duration Fraction of full Power factor Useful energy Copper loss

(hours) load, n produced (kWh)
(kWh)

8 0.5 0.82 3280 28.8

6 0.65 0.77 3003 36.504

5 0.78 0.88 3432 43.805

4 0.91 0.92 3348.8 47.704

1 1.0 0.80 800 14.4

Total = 24 13 863.8 171.213

Now, let us calculate all the other values of useful energy:

W2 = n  S  p.f.  time = 0.65  1000  0.77  6 = 3003 kW.h

W3 = n  S  p.f.  time = 0.78  1000  0.88  5 = 3432 kW.h

W4 = n  S  p.f.  time = 0.91  1000  0.92  4 = 3348.8 kW.h
W5 = n  S  p.f.  time = 1.0  1000  0.80  1 = 800 kW.h

Copper losses:

WCu1 = n2P*Cu  time = 0.52  14.4  8 = 28.8 kW.h

WCu2 = n2P*Cu  time = 0.652  14.4  6 = 36.504 kW.h
WCu3 = n2P*Cu  time = 0.782  14.4  5 = 43.805 kW.h
WCu4 = n2P*Cu  time = 0.912  14.4  4 = 47.704 kW.h
WCu5 = n2P*Cu  time = 12  14.4  1 = 14.4 kW.h

Total useful energy for the day

The all-day efficiency is then:  =
Total useful energy for the day + Wiron + WCopper

13863.8
= = 0.9745 pu
13863.8 + 192 + 171.213

PROBLEMS

Refer to (8:1186)

Now, it must be understood that all of this theory is not confined to single-phase units,
in spite of the implication in the topic. However, in most cases, there is little difference
in the approach to solving these problems if the transformers are three-phase units.

In the next unit, we will be talking about three-phase transformers.

 STUDY UNIT 6 1

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS – ANALYSIS AND

CALCULATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this study unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the construction of a three-phase transformer in basic terms.
• Show how a three-phase transformer is connected, in:
a. star-star
b. delta-delta
c. star-delta
d. delta-star.

• Calculate the various voltages and currents in the above connections, given the
relevant information.
• Demonstrate understanding of the connection of three-phase transformers in
terms of vector groups.
• Use equivalent circuits and their parameters to analyse the three-phase trans-
former.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

By now you have been exposed to three-phase electrical systems, and you know that
three-phase devices may be connected either in star (WYE, if you are American), or
delta. In a star-connected system, we can measure six voltages, three phase voltages,
namely, the voltage across each individual phase, or the line-to-star point voltage.
Then there are three line voltages, namely the voltages measured across any two

lines. In this case, the line voltage is equal to 3 times the phase voltage. As for
currents, there are only three to worry about, because the same currents flowing in
the lines are also flowing in their respective phases. However, if the load is
unbalanced, then a fourth current flows in the neutral wire. (And if there is no neutral
wire in this case, you will probably be in a spot of bother! But this is not something I

will discuss here.) At any rate, in a star system, I L = I ph .

In a delta-connected system, the line voltage is identical to the phase voltage. Hence,
there are only three voltages to worry about. As for currents, there are six: three phase

currents, and three line currents. In a balanced system, I L = 3  I ph .

So far, you have been dealing with single-phase transformers. But now we are going
to study three-phase types. And probably most of your problems when performing
calculations will be because the one side of the transformer will be connected in star
and the other side in delta. Anyway, more about this later…

The vast majority of all transformers in the generation, transmission, distribution and
(industrial) utilisation of electric power use these kinds of transformers. We will start
off by talking about the construction of these units, and then how they may be
connected up electrically. We must then see how these connections affect the voltages
and currents. We will also have a look at the nameplate of a transformer, and see what
information we can glean from it. And finally, we must have a look at polarity and phase
shift, and vector groups.

6.2 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Please work through PT (21–29).

The J & P Transformer Book will be helpful, and any book on AC machines by
MG Say.
Figure 6.1 shows the inside of a three-phase transformer. We do not know the rating
of this transformer, but we can see three distinct windings (two sets on each core). We
distinguish between the high and the low voltage terminals by the fact that the HV
terminals have very prominent bushings, providing much greater insulation than the
low voltage side. The low voltage side terminals (look at them) have busbars of large
cross-sectional area for conductors, while the insulation is not that prominent. This is
because the load current is high. This whole unit will be placed in a transformer tank,
and the tank filled with transformer oil. This oil has two functions – first, it is a coolant,
taking heat energy away from the working parts and transmitting it to ambient air
through a radiator (the oil circulates by convection), and second, as an insulation
medium. All the parts inside the tank must be covered completely in oil, and so we
have a conservator tank mounted on top of the cover. This holds surplus oil and is
connected via a pipe to the tank so that, as the tank expands and contracts (as it gets
hot or cold), the oil will always fill the tank. (See Figure 6.1.)

Conservator tank

Buchholz relay

Low voltage terminals

High voltage bushings

Steel frame structure

Windings

Figure 6.1: Open view of a three-phase transformer

Source: ?fuseaction=Catalog.showCompanyIndex&language=en&IndexID=AF43566A-
6B68-481F-AF9B-7A0C23D9A817&CountryID=&CompanyID=D49582FA-1F4A-4530-9290-
8341E7578EB7

The Buchholz relay is a protective device connected in the pipeline that runs from the
conservator tank to the main tank. When faults occur inside the transformer, many of
them produce gases. These ascend to the top of the tank and find their way to the
relay (which is normally filled with oil). The gas then actuates a switch, which sets off
an alarm. Technicians then know that something is wrong. Gas can be extracted and
analysed chemically to find out what sort of fault is occurring. If a major fault occurs,
the production of gas can be so violent that it produces a surge of oil through the relay,
causing it to trip the circuit breaker instantly. Figure 6.2 below is a diagram showing
the arrangement of the conservator tank, showing the breather, a device that filters
incoming air, extracting moisture. The conservator is not completely full of oil, but
below that level, oil fills all the spaces, all the way to the tank.

Conservator tank

Buchholz relay
Breather
Radiator

Radiator

Transformer tank

Figure 6.2: Arrangement of the conservator and transformer tank

Windings

In distribution and power transformers, there are a number of different ways of

arranging the coils. The following coil types are used:

1. helix
2. disc helix
3. multi-layer helix
4. spiral
5. cross-over
6. disc, and
7. continuous disc

In order to study these kinds of windings, please refer to PT (25–28). Also MG Say,
pages 39–43. The J &P Transformer Book will also be of help in this regard. However,
if you really want to understand the construction of these windings, you should visit a
transformer manufacturer.
6.3 CORES

Cores are made up of insulated laminations about 0.35 mm thick. The most basic core,
for transformers of smaller size, are square in cross-section. For bigger transformers,
cruciform and stepped cross-sections are used.

Figure 6.3: Transformer core cross sections

Below is a table to show the relationship between the circular area on the one hand,
and the working area of the core, assuming the stacking factor to be 0.9 per unit. (Aaah,
but what is the "stacking factor"?) The core is laminated, with a thin film of insulation
between laminations. This means that not all of the cross-section of the core is iron,
and therefore magnetically effective. So, the effective (net) area of the core is less
nett area of the core
than the gross area. Hence, kstack = . The table below shows the
gross area of the core
area of core steel as a percentage of the area of the circle surrounding the core.

Work on this information so that you understand.

TABLE 6.1
THE RELATIVE NET AREA OF IRON FOR VARIOUS CORE CROSS SECTIONS

Area, as a % SQUARE CRUCIFORM STEPPED Circle

of the circular (gross area = (gross area = (gross area = diameter =
area 0.5 units2) 0.62 units2) 0.66 units2) 1 unit

Gross = 64% 79% 84% Circle area =

0.785 units2

Net = (Gross x 58% 71% 75%

kstack)

Net area of 0.45 units 0.56 units 0.60 units kstack is 0.9 in
core = kstack x (= 0.5 x 0.9) (= 0.62 x 0.9) (= 0.66 x 0.9) this case
diameter2

Three-phase transformer cores also come in core- and shell-type constructions. Figure
3.4 below shows what they look like. Normally, a core-type core is used.

Figure 6.4: Diagrams showing core- and shell-type constructions

6.4 CONNECTIONS

Study PT (29–39). (Ignore zig-zag connections.)

MG Say provides a good explanation of why differently connected three-phase

transformers are connected the way they are. I can't give you page numbers,
because there are various editions of his books dealing with AC machines.
Figure 6.5 shows the HV and lv windings on a three-phase transformer. Capital letters
refer to the HV side, and lower-case letters to the lv side. Subscript 2 (normally)
indicates the terminals that are brought on to the terminal box for connection to the
lines. Subscript 1 is normally not taken out to the terminal box. We will investigate this
later. What we will do now is connect the transformer up in various configurations, and
look at the influence these connections have on the voltages and currents. If you would
like to know which connections are used when, get hold of the J & P Transformer
Book. There will also be many other references that will give you this information.

Figure 6.5: Lay-out of the coils of a three-phase transformer

EXAMPLE 6.1

Okay, let's start with a star-star connection. Figure 3.6 refers.

Figure 6.6: Star-star connection

Consider a 150-kVA, 630/380-volt, 50-Hz, star-star connected transformer. The vector
group is YNyn 0. Calculate all voltages and full load currents. Also explain the meaning
of the vector group.
SOLUTION

Note: The voltages and currents stated on the nameplate of a three-phase transformer
are always the line values.

So, on the HV side, V1 = 630 volt = line volts. The HV phase voltage is: 630  3 = 363.7V

On the lv side, V2 = 380 volt = line volts. The lv phase voltage is 380  3 = 219.4V
S 150000
The HV full load current is I1 = = = 137.5 A (Remember that for a three-
3  V1 3  630
phase system,

P = 3 VL  I L  Cos and S = 3  VL  I L )

S 150000
The lv full load current is I2 = = = 227.9 A
3  V2 3  380

V1
V ph1 3 = I 2 and therefore,
We could also say: =
V ph 2 V2 I1
3
Vph1 363.7
I 2 = I1  = 137.5  = 227.9 A (The same result as before.)
Vph 2 219.4

The designation YNyn 0 means that the HV side is star connected, with the neutral
terminal taken out. The lv side (lower case) is also star, with the neutral terminal.
"0" tells us that there is a zero phase shift between lv and HV phase emfs.
EXAMPLE 6.2

Figure 6.7: Delta-Delta connection

Let us say that this transformer has the same rating as the star-star example, namely a
150-kVA, 630/380-volt, 50-Hz, delta-delta connected transformer. The vector group is Dd 0.
Calculate all voltages and full load currents. Also explain the meaning of the vector group.

SOLUTION
First, I am going to explain the vector group and get that out of the way: Dd 0: Capital
D: HV side, delta connected. Lower case d: lv side, delta connected. 0: tells us that
there is a zero phase shift between lv and HV phase emfs.

In delta, the line voltages are identical to the phase voltages.

HV line current: Same as for star: The HV full load current is

S 150000
I1 = = = 137.5 A
3  V1 3  630

S 150000
The lv full load current is I 2 = = = 227.9 A
3  V2 3  380
 I1 137.5 I 227.9
But the phase currents are: I1 ph = = = 79.4 A and I 2 ph = 2 = = 131.6 A
3 3 3 3

EXAMPLE 6.3

DELTA-STAR

Once again: S = 150 kVA, 630/380 volt unit. Let the vector group be Dyn 11.

SOLUTION

First, the vector group: D: HV side is delta. yn: lv side is star connected, with a neutral
point. 11: the lv phase emf leads the HV phase emf by 30o.

Once again, the HV voltage is only 630 volt. The lv voltages are 380 V and 219.4 V.
The HV currents are as for delta-delta. The star current on the lv side is the same as
for star-star.

TABLE WITH VECTOR GROUPS (You will find a copy of this table in PT, page 30)

Below is a table showing all the connections you are likely to need regarding vector
groups. Notice that the phasor diagrams are oriented in a particular direction with Yy
0, A2 is parallel to a2, and B2 to b2 and C2 to c2. This is because the both A and a are
wound on the same limb. This means that both of their emfs are in phase. The same
applies to B and b, and C and c. Note, too, that the terminals (to be connected to
incoming and outgoing lines) are (normally) all subscripted 2. This particular table does
not mention the neutral point. This is probably because it seems so obvious to provide
a neutral point at the terminal block that it is not mentioned.

Now look at Dd 0: From A2, a vertical line is dropped down to the centre of the delta
symbol. This indicates the phase emf. Whenever we consider the phase shift between
the HV and lv sides, it is always how the low voltage phase emf relates to the high
voltage phase emf. (Of course, if you are thinking, you might say: "But a delta
connection has not got a phase voltage." But the system does. And if you measure
from the line of any delta connection to an earth point, you will get a phase voltage.)

Now go to Dz 0: In this course, we are not going to worry our heads about this
configuration. So we go on to Yy 6 and Dd 6.

Notice that here that the lv sides are connected in the opposite polarity, and a1, b1 and
c1 are connected to lines 1, 2 and 3. The emfs are 180o out of phase.

There are four other configurations you need to know: Dyn 1; YNd 1; Dyn 11 and
YNd 11. Examine the connections. Also study the phasor diagrams.
 Figure 6.8: Chart showing the vector groups of three-phase transformers
Source: http:/www.studyelectrical.com/2014/12/three-phase-transformer-interconnections.html
This brings us to the subject of transformer ratios. Students doing this course seem to
have a lot of trouble understanding transformer ratios. I think the article below will help
to clear up any difficulties.
6.5 TRANSFORMER RATIOS

For some reason, students have a lot of trouble with transformer ratios, so I will spend a
bit of time talking to you about this topic, and hopefully clear up some misconceptions.

There are two ratios I will deal with here, namely the voltage ratio and the turns ratio.

In the case of single-phase transformers, there is no difference. In three-phase

transformers there may be a difference, but not always.

6.5.1 The voltage ratio

On the nameplate of a three-phase transformer, the primary and secondary voltages

are stated, V1 and V2, respectively. These are always line-to-line values. The nameplate
will also tell you whether the transformer is star-star or delta-delta or star-delta or delta-
star connected, and you will also be given the vector group. The voltage ratio is:

V1
kv =
V2

6.5.2 The turns ratio

The turns ratio is the ratio of the number of primary turns per phase to the number of
secondary turns per phase:

N1
kT = . The voltage is directly proportional to the number of turns, and so the turns
N2
ratio can also be obtained using the phase voltages:

Vph1
kT =
Vph 2

In the case of star-star or delta-delta connections, it is obvious that the voltage ratio
and the turns ratio are identical. But in the case of star-delta or delta-star connections,
they are not the same.
 N 2 Vph 2
Theraja and some other texts say that the voltage (or turns) ratio is: K = = .
N1 Vph1

There is nothing wrong with this. However, you MUST understand what you are
doing and HOW you are applying this information.

Let us go through a worked example or two, and see how it all fits together.

EXAMPLE 6.4

A certain 500-kVA, 11000/420-volt, delta-star, 50-Hz, three-phase transformer has the

following impedances per phase:

Z1 = (3 + j19)  per phase and Z2 = (0.00243 + j 0.009233)  per phase.

Determine the following:

6.4.1 The rated full load line current on the HV and lv sides.
6.4.2 Where the phase current differs from the line current, calculate its value,
and identify which current it is.
6.4.3 Find the equivalent impedance per phase, referred to the HV side.
6.4.4 Find the equivalent impedance per phase, referred to the lv side.
6.4.5 What voltage must be applied to the HV side when the lv side is short
circuited, which will circulate full load currents.
6.4.6 What voltage must be applied to the lv side when the HV side is short
circuited, which will circulate full load currents.
6.4.7 What is the percentage impedance of this transformer?
6.4.8 If a dead short occurred on the lv terminals of this transformer when
rated voltage was applied to the HV side, find the fault current that would flow.
6.4.9 What is the full load copper loss of this transformer, and the %R?
6.4.10 Find the voltage regulation and full load secondary terminal
voltage at a load power factor of 0.92 lagging.
6.4.11 If the short circuit test is performed on this transformer (assume
rated full load currents to be flowing), predict the readings you would expect.
6.4.12 If the maximum efficiency occurs when this transformer is at 75%
of full load, calculate the iron loss.
6.4.13 If the no load current on the HV side is 0.94 ampere, find the shunt
resistance and shunt reactance per phase.

SOLUTION

S 500 S 500
6.4.1 I1 = = = 26.24 A and I 2 = = = 687.3 A
3  V1 3  11 3  V2 3  0.42

I1 26.24
6.4.2 The HV side is delta, therefore I1 ph = = = 15.15 ( A)
3 3
2
 V ph1 
6.4.3 Z e1 = Z1 + Z 2   
V ph 2 
2
 
= (3 + j19) + (0.00243 + j0.00923)   11 
 0.42 
 3 
= (8 + j38) /phase.

2
V 
6.4.4 Z e 2 = Z e1   ph 2 
 V ph1 
2
 0.42 
= (8 + j 38)   3
 11 
 

= (0.00389 + j 0.01847)  /ph

Note: When the impedance is referred to the HV side, the value is relatively
high, but on the lv side, it is relatively low.

Notice also that I do not use the turns ratio symbol in these formulas. I write out
V ph 2   V ph1  V ph 2 
  or   . If the impedance must go from side 1 to side 2, I use  .
 V ph1  V ph 2   V ph1 

 V ph1 
If the impedance must go from side 2 to side 1, I use  .
V ph 2 
 6.4.5 Vsc1 = I1 ph  Z e1
*

= 15.15  (8 + j 38) This is a phase voltage.

= 588.3 volt.
I have left out the angle.

6.4.6 Vsc 2 = I 2 ph  Z e 2
*

= 687.3  (0.00389 + j0.01847) This is a phase voltage.

= 12.97 volt.

Vsc*1 588.3
6.4.7 % Z =  100 =  100 = 5.35% or…
V1 ph 11000

Vsc* 2 12.97
%Z =  100 =  100 = 5.35%
V2 ph 420
3

V2 ph 242.5
6.4.8 Dead short: I sc 2 = = = 12.85kA
Ze2 0.018875

6.4.9 Pcopper = 3  I1 ph  R = 3  15.15  8 = 5.5kW

2 2

Pcopper 5.5
%R = =  100 = 1.1%
S 500

 R  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 
6.4.10 The per unit Voltage regulation =  = I1  e1 
 V1 
(Use phase values throughout.)
 8  0.92  58  0.392 
 = 15.15  
 11000
= 0.04145 p.u.

And V2(load)= V 2 (1– )=420(1–0.04145)=402.6 volt

6.4.11 Z1 = (3 + j19) /ph and Z2 = (0.00243 + j 0.009233)  /ph.

6.6 THE TRANSFORMER NAMEPLATE INFORMATION

This discussion is not going to cover all the information on this nameplate, but I will
touch on the information that is of use to us in this course.

Below is a photograph of an ABB distribution transformer nameplate.

Figure 6.9: Nameplate of distribution transformer

Source: http://electricalacademia.com/transformer/transformer-nameplate-details-explained/

The first piece of technical information given is that this is a distribution transformer.
The kVA rating is 3500 kVA. The frequency is 50 Hz, and the rating is continuous,
meaning it can run indefinitely at 3500 kVA. (Bear in mind, though, that this also
depends on ambient conditions, that is, if this transformer is being operated in a very
hot climate, or at an altitude much higher than sea level, etc.) Then we have the vector
group. This is Dyn11. The HV side is delta connected, and the lv side is star. The lv
phase emf leads the HV emf by 30o. The vector diagram is given on the right-hand side.

Although the subscript 2 is not stated, it is understood. Notice that the vector AB is
parallel to the vector an . The next thing we are interested in is the type of cooling.
This is an oil-immersed transformer. The oil is a special insulating oil that also acts as
a coolant. It circulates by convection; warm oil circulates through radiators by natural
means (hence, "ON") and ambient air surrounding the radiators takes the heat away,
also by natural movement (hence, "AN"), and that is what ONAN means. In bigger
units, oil may be pumped (forced to circulate), and air may also be forced, using a fan
or blower. The next thing we are interested in is impedance (%), or percentage
impedance. Strangely, this information is not given here, but it is not likely to be greater
than about 10%.

Normally, the rated voltages (all line values) are given below the kVA rating, but here they
are given, with rated full load current values, in the table giving the tappings of the
transformer. (This transformer appears to be designed for off-load tap changing, so it must
be de-energised when the taps are changed.) So, this is a 22kV to 680 volt transformer,
delivering 92 amps on the HV side on full load, and just under 3 kA on the lv side.

EXAMPLE

The nameplate of a certain 350 kVA three-phase transformer gives the following
information:

S = 350 kVA
V1 = 6600 volt
V2 = 440 volt
%Z = 4.37%
Vector group = Dyn 11
Cooling = ONAN

Use this information to determine for this transformer:

1. The currents that will flow (both line and phase values). Label all currents
clearly.
2. The base impedances for the HV side and the lv side.
3. The voltage that must be applied to the HV side on short circuit that will
circulate full load currents in the windings.
4. The equivalent impedance per phase, referred to the HV side.
 5. If the resistances per phase of this transformer were measured (this
information is not available on the nameplate) and found to be:
6. R1 = 1.5 /ph and R2 = 1.93 m /ph, find the equivalent impedance of
this transformer, referred to the HV side, expressed in rectangular form.
7. The full load copper loss.
8. The voltage regulation and secondary (i.e., lv) terminal voltage, if the
power factor is 0.8 lagging.
9. If the core loss of this transformer is 1.5 kW, find the efficiency at a power
factor of 0.91 lagging.
10. What is the meaning of the vector group designation, Dyn 11?
11. What does "ONAN" mean with regard to cooling?

SOLUTION
S 350
1. First, the line currents: On the HV side: I1 = = = 30.62 A
3  V1 3  6.6

S 350
and on the lv side: I 2 = = = 459.3 A
3  V2 3  0.44

The HV side is delta, therefore the phase current is:

I1 30.62
I1 ph = = = 17.68 ( A) .
3 3
On the lv side, the line current is equal to the phase current.
2. The base impedance may be found in two ways:

V1 ph 6600 3  VL 3  6600
2 2

Z1base = = = 373.3 () or Z1base = = = 373.4 ()

I1 ph 17.68 S 350000

Note, when using the second method:

(a) You use the line voltage, and

(b) If a delta connection, multiply the top by 3.

Now, we must find the base impedance, referred to the lv side:

440 2 2
V2 ph VL 440
2 base = = = 0.553 ()
Z 2 base = = 3 = 0.553 () or Z
I 2 ph 459.4 S 350000
Notice that the value on the HV side is high, but on the lv side, it is very low.

Now, if we had only the base impedance on the lv side, but we wanted to refer it
to the HV side, we could apply the formula for referring impedances, like this:
2
 V ph1   6600 
2

Z1base = Z 2 base    = 0.553   = 373.3 ()

V ph 2   254 

I am trying here to let you see how these things relate to one another. It is not
merely a case of "learning the formula". It is more subtle – you must understand
the relationships.

3. Remember that the percentage impedance, %Z, is the percentage of

rated voltage that must be applied to the transformer on short circuit that will
circulate full load currents.

 %Z V1   4.37  6600 

Therefore, Vsc1 =  =  = 288.4 V
*

 100   100

Z base1  % Z 373.7  4.37

4. Z e1 = = = 16.33 ()
100 100

2
 V1 ph   6600 
2

5. Re1 = R1 + R2    = 1.5 + 0.00193   = 1.5 + 1.303 = 2.8 () . And

V2 ph   254 

the short circuit phase angle is:

R   2.8 
e = Cos −1  e1  = Cos −1   = 80.1o , and the impedance in polar form is:
Z  16.33 
Ze1 = 16.3380.1o  , and in rectangular form, is: ( 2.8 + j16.1)  / phase

6. Full load copper loss: Here, we can either say:

Pcu* = (3  I12ph  R1 ph + 3  I 22ph  R2 ph = 3  17.682  1.5) + (3  459.32  0.00193)

=1406.6+1221.4=2628W

or Pcu = (3  I1 ph  Re1 ph ) = 3  17.68  2.8 = 2626 W

* 2 2
 I1 ph  ( Re1  Cos2  X e1  Sin2 )
7. The pu voltage regulation (see unit 1).  =
V1 ph

17.68  (2.8  Cos36.87o + 16.1  Sin36.87o )

= = 0.0319 p.u.
6600
And the terminal voltage is: V2 FL = V2  (1 −  ) = 440  (1 − 0.0319) = 436 V

S  p. f . 350  0.91
8. Efficiency,  = = = 0.9872 pu
S  p. f . + Po + Pcu* 350  0.91 + 1.5 + 2.628

9. D: The HV side is delta connected; y: The lv side is star-connected; n:

The star-point neutral is brought out to a terminal; 11: the lv phase emf leads the
HV phase emf by 30o.

10. O = oil; N = natural circulation (by convection); A = air; N = natural

circulation (ambient air around the transformer and radiator takes up heat from
the external surface of the transformer, without being blown or sucked).

NOTE: In PT on page 105, under the heading, "ONAF", we are told that the
oil is pumped. This cannot be the case. It is the air that is forced (hence,
"AF"). The oil circulates naturally. You must always read with a critical eye.
Even this study guide must be read with a healthy degree of scepticism!
Why? Because human beings make mistakes.

At any rate, you can see from this example that there is a lot of information you can
glean from the nameplate of a transformer (or any electrical machine).

PROBLEMS

Solve these problems for practice. You will also find worked and unworked
examples in PT. Do as much as you can. Also, find past exam papers and
practise answering those questions. If you need help, contact your tutor – but
please do so BEFORE you have to hand in assignments! It won't do any good
to ask for help after failing an assignment.
1. A three-phase transformer has its primary winding delta-connected and its
secondary winding star-connected. The number of turns per phase on the primary is
4 times that on the secondary, and the secondary line voltage is 440 V. A balanced
load of
20 kW, at power factor 0.8, is connected across the secondary terminals.
Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate the primary voltage and the phase and
line currents on the secondary and primary sides. Sketch a circuit diagram and
indicate the values of the voltages and currents on the diagram.

(1016 V; 32.9 A, secondary; 8.225 A, 14.25 A, primary)

2. A 50-Hz, three-phase, core-type transformer is connected star-delta and

has a line voltage ratio of 6600/440 V. The cross-section of the core is square
with a circumscribing circle of 0.6 m diameter. If the maximum flux density is about
1.2 T, calculate the number of turns per phase on the low-voltage and on the
high-voltage windings. Assume the insulation to occupy 10 per cent of the gross
core area. (What then, is the stacking factor?)

(10, 87)

3. If three transformers, each with a turns ratio of 12:1, are connected star-
delta and the primary line voltage is 6600 V, what is the value of the secondary
no-load voltage?

If the transformers are reconnected delta-star with the same primary voltage,
what is the value of the secondary line voltage?

(317.5 V, 952.5 V)

4. A 440 V, three-phase supply is connected through a three-phase loss-

free transformer of 1:1 ratio, which has its primary connected in mesh and
secondary in star, to a load comprising three 20  resistors connected in mesh.
Calculate the currents in the transformer windings, in the resistors and in the
lines to the supply and the load. Find also the total power supplied and the power
dissipated by each resistor.
 (Primary and secondary phase currents, 65.8 A; 38.06 A in resistors; 114 A from
supply; 65.8 A to load; 87 kW; 29 kW)

5. A three-phase, star-star, 6600/380-volt, 210-kVA, 50-Hz transformer has

a gross core cross-sectional area of 0.038 m2. If the stacking factor is 0.92 and
the maximum core flux density is not to exceed 1.3 tesla, determine:

5.1 the HV and lv turns

5.2 the emf induced per turn
5.3 the full load primary and secondary currents (state assumption)

6. A 6000 volt, delta-star transformer has a percentage impedance of Z% = (1

+ j5)% and operates with a secondary terminal voltage, V2FL of 415 volts at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the turns ratio.

7. A three-phase, 1 MVA, 11/3.3 kV, star/delta transformer has an HV

(series) impedance of (0.4 + j3) /phase and an lv impedance of (0.15 + j2)
/phase. Calculate:

7.1 All the voltages and currents. (Start with the HV values, and then
do the lv values. Label them clearly.)
7.2 The per unit impedance, using first primary referred values, and
then secondary referred values.
7.3 The voltage, Vsc* that must be applied to the HV side in order to
circulate full load currents on short circuit.
7.4 The power needed to circulate these currents, and the power
factor on short circuit.

8. A 2 MVA 33/6.6 kV delta-star transformer has resistances per phase of

R1 = 8  and R2 = 0.08  and an impedance voltage of 7%. Calculate the full load
secondary voltage and efficiency at a power factor of 0.75 lagging. The ratio of
copper to iron loss is 2:1.
 STUDY UNIT 7 1

THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS: CONSTRUCTIONS,

OPERATION AND ANALYSIS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this unit you will have a good understanding of the theory behind
three-phase induction motors. More specifically, you will be able to:

• State some ways in which an induction motor is like a transformer, and ways in
which they differ.
• List the component parts of a three-phase cage induction motor.
• Explain the principle of operation of this kind of motor.
• Differentiate between synchronous speed, rotor speed and slip. Given the
system frequency and the number of poles of a given motor, calculate the
synchronous speed. Also, given the slip, determine the rotor speed and frequency.
• Given the necessary information, find the rotor current and power factor at
various slips.
• Make a fully labelled power flow diagram of a three-phase induction motor.
• Derive the torque equation of a three-phase induction motor.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Please refer to PT, page 160.

The three-phase induction motor operates in the same way as a transformer. The stator
(stationary part) is the primary winding, supplied with a symmetrical three-phase supply.
The resulting currents generate a rotating magnetic field which passes through the airgap
into the rotor – this is the secondary winding. But this winding is short circuited. Also, the
rotor rotates on a shaft supported by bearings. So, the difference between a transformer
and an induction motor lies in their construction and operation.

7.2 CONSTRUCTION

Figure 7.1: Comparing the core topologies of the three-phase transformer and
the three-phase induction motor
Source:
https://www.google.co.za/search?q=main-qimg-7bdaba567e313bb045a4dcef65aff824-
c&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=e1DxHEHpSm2AyM%253A%252CmoBionCrA0iKwM%252C_&usg=AI4_-
kR7rcrsYQEczID3TC8G4AHTLq96Rw&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_gaTUlefdAhVHIsAKHf4LD7MQ9QEwAHoE
CAAQBA#imgrc=c1DxHEHpSm2AyM:

You can see from Figures 5.1(a) and (b) that the core of the three-phase transformer
is (sort-of) B-shaped (the B is turned on its back), while the motor is round, and has
two cores, separated by an air gap. The rotor rotates, and the winding in the rotor is
equivalent to a short-circuited star connection.

Figure 7.2: Exploded view of a three-phase cage induction motor

Source: https://www.machinedesign.com/motorsdrives/whats-difference-between-ac-
induction-permanent-magnet-and-servomotor-technologies

7.3 OPERATION

The three-phase currents in the stator produce a rotating magnetic field which cuts the
rotor bars. An emf is induced into these bars, and because they are short circuited,
three-phase currents flow in the rotor bars. These interact with the rotating magnetic
field, producing a torque. The rotor is free to rotate, and accelerates to a speed just a
little lower than the speed of the rotating magnetic field (RMF). The speed of the
RMF is termed the synchronous speed, and is expressed as:

60 f
N= revs per minute. Where:
p

N = synchronous speed in r/min.

f = the frequency of the supply, in hertz.
p = number of pole pairs.

120 f
Note: In some texts, this formula is given as: N = . (See if you can figure out why.)
P

Rotor frequency: As the rotor picks up speed, the rotor bars tend to catch up with the
RMF. The frequency, then, of the induced emf (and, therefore, the rotor current)

decreases from f, at standstill, to fR when the rotor reaches rated speed. f R = s  f

The rotor can be rotating at any speed between standstill (zero revs per minute) and
rated speed (the speed stated on the nameplate of the motor). The rated speed is
always a bit lower than the synchronous speed – provided the motor is running at its
rated frequency. The difference between the synchronous speed and the rated speed
is called the slip of the motor, and is one of the motor's most important characteristics.
Why must the rated speed be lower than the synchronous speed? Because the
development of torque depends on current flow in the rotor, and this current flow
depends on a rotor-generated emf, this emf depends on the RMF cutting the rotor bars.
If the rotor were to run at synchronous speed, the RMF could not cut the rotor bars.
Slip is normally expressed as a percentage or per unit of the synchronous speed:
 N − NR
s=
N

Let me give you an idea of practical values for the South African situation. Below is a
table showing the synchronous speed for a two-pole, four-pole and so on up to ten-
pole motor. If the rated slip in each case is assumed to be 0.04 pu (practical values are
closer to about 0.027), the rated speeds are given too.

Number of poles, p= Synchronous speed Rated speed

P N (r/min) NR (r/min)

2 1 3000 2880

4 2 1500 1440

6 3 1000 960

8 4 750 720

10 5 600 576

7.4 ROTOR CURRENT CALCULATION

The rotor current is a very important parameter in an induction motor. We need to

know it, and the rotor resistance per phase, in order to find the rotor copper loss. It will
also be shown that the electromagnetic power (i.e., the power input to the rotor,
through the airgap) is equal to the rotor copper loss, divided by the slip.

Here is the formula:

s  E2
I2 = This formula gives the absolute value of the rotor current.
 R22 + ( s  X 2 )2 

Key:
I2 = Rotor current per phase, in ampere.
E2 = Rotor emf per phase at standstill, in volt.
R2 = Rotor resistance per phase, in ohm.
X2 = Rotor reactance per phase at standstill, in ohm.
S = The per unit slip.

I prefer to use complex numbers. This gives us the phase angle of the rotor current
(wrt the rotor emf). Here is my modified formula:

s  E2 0o
I2 =
 R2 + j( s  X 2 )

Let us do an example, and set up a table showing how parameters change in the rotor,
with slip (i.e., as the motor speeds up).

EXAMPLE

A 400-volt, 50-Hz, 4-pole induction motor is started from rest. It has a rotor impedance
per phase at standstill of (0.1 + j0.5) . If the effective turns ratio is 3:1, fill in the given
table. Also plot the curves of current against slip and power factor against slip. What
do you notice about the relationship between the starting current and the final, working
current?

Per unit slip s.E2 Z2 @ s I2 2 pf

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.1

0.03
Here is the completed table:

slip s.E2 s.X2 Z2 @ s I2  (rads)  (degrees) pf

volt ohm ohm ampere

1 133.33 0.350 0.36 366.3 1.292 74.1 0.27

0.9 120.00 0.315 0.33 363.1 1.263 72.4 0.30

0.8 106.67 0.280 0.30 358.8 1.228 70.3 0.34

0.7 93.33 0.245 0.26 352.7 1.183 67.8 0.38

0.6 80.00 0.210 0.23 343.9 1.126 64.5 0.43

0.5 66.67 0.175 0.20 330.8 1.052 60.3 0.50

0.4 53.33 0.140 0.17 310.0 0.951 54.5 0.58

0.3 40.00 0.105 0.15 275.9 0.810 46.4 0.69

0.2 26.67 0.070 0.12 218.5 0.611 35.0 0.82

0.1 13.33 0.035 0.11 125.8 0.337 19.3 0.94

0.035 4.67 0.012 0.10 46.3 0.122 7.0 0.99

0 0.00 0.000 0.10 0.0 0.000 0.0 1.00

Note that the current-slip curve starts when slip = 1.0, on the right-hand side at the top,
and reduces from 261 ampere on starting to 46 ampere at full speed. Thus, the starting
current is almost six times the running current. Notice too that when the slip reaches zero
(it can never do that), the rotor current is zero. This means that the torque is zero too.

7.5 THE POWER FLOW DIAGRAM

The power flow diagram is a very important tool to enable you to see what is happening
to the power, from the time it is applied in electrical form via a cable to the terminals
of the motor to the point where it has been converted to mechanical power available
at the shaft for transfer to some driven machine, such as a fan or a pump or a
compressor or a conveyor.
The fact is that losses occur along the way:
 Figure 7.3: Induction motor power flow diagram

Electrical power is fed into the motor via a cable. This power is expressed as:

Pin = 3 VL  I L  Cos

The stator winding carrying the phase current experiences a copper or " I 2  R " loss.

It may be expressed: 3I1  R1 , namely, the stator phase current, squared, multiplied by
2

the resistance of the stator per phase, times three. Then there is an iron loss in the
stator (just as a transformer has an iron loss). If the active component of the no load
current is known, and the shunt resistance on no load is also known, then the iron loss

can be calculated: 3I core  Rcore .

2

The power that is transferred through the air gap from the stator to the rotor is called
the electromagnetic power, and is the difference between the input power and the total

stator loss. The current flowing in the rotor gives rise to a rotor copper loss, 3I 2  R2 .
2

The difference between the electromagnetic power and the rotor copper loss is called
the gross mechanical power, Pgm. Finally, there is a mechanical loss due to bearing
friction and windage (fan action). The mechanical output power of the motor is equal
to this gross mechanical power, minus the mechanical loss. The power rating of
electrical motors always refers to their mechanical output power. If a question is given
in an examination, and you are given the rated power of a motor, this refers to the
output at the shaft. If the examiner is giving you any other power, he or she must state
which power he or she means.
Anyway, this power flow diagram is really very important, and you must know it well.
It is the key to understanding the induction motor. In fact, let us work through an
example in order to learn how all this stuff fits together and relates:

EXAMPLE 7.1

A certain 11-kW, 380-volt, 50-Hz, three-phase, 4-pole induction motor has an efficiency,
power factor and speed of 91%, 0.87 and 1476 r/min., respectively. The mechanical
losses, consisting of friction and windage, are 150 watt. Determine:

7.1.1 The electrical input power.

7.1.2 The gross mechanical power.
7.1.3 The rotor copper loss.
7.1.4 The electromagnetic power.
7.1.5 The total stator power loss.
7.1.6 If one-third of this loss is stator iron, determine the stator resistance per
phase.

SOLUTION

While working through this problem, refer to the power flow diagram above. I will give
you the formulas I use here, and later on I will show you where they come from.

Pout 11
7.1.1 Pin = = = 12.088 kW
 0.91

7.1.2 Pgm = Pout + Pmechanical loss = 11 000 + 150 = 11 150 W

7.1.3 Here, we should derive the formula we're going to use: We know
(or, will shortly know!) that the electromagnetic power minus the rotor copper

loss is equal to the gross mechanical power: Pem − PRC = Pgm . Also, the rotor

copper loss is equal to the electromagnetic power times the slip: PRC = Pem  s
  s 
. From this, we can say that PRC = Pgm   . (See if you can arrive at this
1 − s 

1500 − 1476 
conclusion.) But we have to find the slip: s =  = 0.016 p.u.
 1500 

 0.016 
PRC = 11150   = 181.3 W
1 − 0.016 

7.1.4 PRC 181.3

Pem = = = 11331 W
s 0.016

PStator loss = Pin − Pem = 12088 + 11331 = 757 W

7.1.5

7.1.6 Now, two-thirds of this stator loss is copper, that is:

. Now, the stator phase current is:

PStator copper loss = 1 3  757 = 252.3 W

Pin 12088
I1 ph = = = 12.2 A . And the resistance per
3  V ph  Cos 3  380  0.87

Pstator copper 252.3

phase is: R1 ph = = = 0.565 A
3 I 2
1 ph 3  12.23

So, this example gives you a very good idea of the relationships that exist in the power
flow diagram, and how to find a lot of information.

But just remember: When you get a question like this in an assignment or an
examination, the chances are that it will come in a different form, so you will not be
following the same sequence of operations to solve the new problem. You have to
apply principles! You must understand the relationships, and apply them. Let us do
another example:

EXAMPLE 7.2
The output torque (at the shaft) and rated power of a 550-volt, 50-Hz, three-phase,
6-pole induction motor is 368 Nm and 37.5 kW, respectively.

The mechanical losses are 460 watt. Make a neat, labelled sketch of the power flow
diagram of an induction motor, and calculate the following:

7.2.1 The rated full load speed and slip.

7.2.2 The rotor copper loss.
7.2.3 If the efficiency and power factor of the motor are 89% and 0.86
respectively, and the stator is delta connected, find the resistance per phase
of the stator. Take the stator iron loss to be 1200 watt.
7.2.4 The developed torque.
7.2.5 Explain the difference between the output (or brake) torque, and the
developed torque.

SOLUTION

The power flow diagram is given above.

60  Pout 60  37500
7.2.1 NR = = = 973 r / min. The synchronous speed is:
2    Tout 2    368

60  f 60  50
N= = = 1000 r / min. And the slip is:
p 3

N − N R 1000 − 973
s= = = 0.027 p.u.
N 1000

 s   0.027 
7.2.2 PRC = Pgm   = (37500 + 460)  1 − 0.027  = 1053 W .
1 − s 
Note: The gross mechanical power is equal to the sum of the output power
and the mechanical losses.
7.2.3 Now, you have to be careful with this. I have given a lot of information
on purpose, and instead of guiding you by telling you first to find the input power,
and then the electromagnetic power, and then… I am asking for the last piece
of information, namely, the resistance of the stator winding. I have done this
because in real life you are not necessarily going to be told how to solve the
4
 problem. (That is why you are the technologist, not an artisan! You are paid to
solve problems that electricians4 are not paid to solve.) But in this example,
I am going to show you the process:

To get the resistance of the stator winding, I need to know the stator copper loss,
and the stator phase current. Let us start by finding this current: Here, I need the
input power, the rated voltage and power factor. But I don't know the input power.
How do I get it? Let us work through this problem:

Pout 37.5
Pin = = = 42.135 kW .
 0.89

And the line current is:

Pin 42135
I1 = = = 51.43 A .
3 Vph  Cos 3  550  0.86

But the stator is delta-connected, and therefore the phase current is:

I1 51.43
I1 ph = = = 29.69 A .
3 3

But now, I need to find the stator copper loss. How do I do this? Look at the
PFD: We have the input power. If we can find the electromagnetic power, the
difference between Pin and Pem is the total stator loss (surely?) But what is Pem?

Pem = Pgm + PRC = 37960 + 1053 = 39013kW , and

PTotal stator = Pin − Pem = 42135 − 39013 = 3122 kW .

And the stator copper loss is:

PStator copper = PTotal stator − PStator iron = 3122 − 1200 = 1922 kW .

4
Let me just clarify something here: please don't interpret my remarks as being disrespectful towards artisans!
I myself am a qualified artisan, and I am very proud of that qualification. Also, there are some extremely
competent electricians out there, who could show young engineers a thing or two. But you are being trained to
think at a higher technical and analytical level. And that's just how it is!
 And then finally, the stator winding resistance:
PStator copper 1922
R1 = = = 0.727 
3 I 2
1 ph 3  29.692

7.2.4 The developed torque is the torque of the electromagnetic power and
the gross mechanical power. Here it is:
60  Pem 60  39013
T = = = 373 N .m
2    N 2    1000

7.2.5 You could say that the developed torque is the gross torque developed
in the motor before the mechanical loss (essentially a rotational loss) which is
parasitic of torque. So, the brake torque = the developed torque minus the
mechanical loss toque.

7.6 TORQUE

See PT (119–121).

We are now going to derive the torque equation of a three-phase induction motor.

Referring to the power flow diagram: notice that the electromagnetic power minus the
rotor copper loss is equal to the gross mechanical power:

Pem − PRC = Pgm

 2 NT   2 N RT 
PRC =  −
 60   60 
2 T
= N − NR 
And 60
N − NR 2 T
but s = and therefore, PRC =  N .s
N 60
and PRC = s  Electromagnetic power = Pem  s

This means that torque,

60  Pem P PRC
T = = em =
2 N 2 n 2 n  s
But PRC = 3  I 2  R2
2

s  E2
And: I 2 =
 R22 + ( s  X 2 )2 

Therefore, the rotor copper loss is:

2
 
 s  E2   R = 3  s  E2  R2
2 2
PRC = 3
  R 2 + ( s  X )2   2
R22 + ( s  X 2 ) 2
  2 2 

3  s  E22  R2
And Pem =
 R22 + ( s  X 2 )2 

3  s  E22  R2
And T=
 R22 + ( s  X 2 )2   2  n

The two parameters that influence the torque, then, are the emf (and therefore the
applied voltage), and the slip. And it can be proved that the maximum torque takes
place when the slip-reactance product is equal to the rotor resistance:

s  X 2 = R2

Figure 7.4: Torque – slip curve

7.7 THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A THREE-PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR

See PT (110–118).

There is another way of looking at and analysing an induction motor, and that is by
using an equivalent circuit. Remember that an induction motor is actually a specialised
kind of transformer (well, kind of!), and its equivalent circuit is very much like that of a
transformer. However, there are some very important differences, namely:

1. The secondary circuit (the rotor) is short circuited.

2. The rotor is rotating, and therefore the emf, frequency, and the inductive
reactance are changing value all the time as the motor changes speed.
3. So, we have to manipulate the circuit parameters in order to compensate
for these variations. We do this by taking the formula for the rotor current and
adjusting it, like this:

s  E2 s  E2
1
I2 = I2 =  s =
E2 .
 R + ( s  X 2 ) 
2 2
 R22 + ( s  X 2 )2  1 s  R22 2
 s + X2 
2

 

Now this equivalent formula maintains the emf at a set value, and if we refer
the rotor per phase impedance at standstill to the primary (stator) side, it will
look like this:
2
E 
( R + jX ) = ( R2 + jX 2 )   1 ph 
'
2
'
2
 E2 ph 

Where E1ph is equivalent to the stator rated phase voltage. (If it is delta connected,
then the rated voltage is identical.) Normally, if we use E2, by definition, this is the
standstill rotor phase voltage. But I used E2ph in the formula, just to make
absolutely sure we know which voltage is being used. This ratio is equivalent to
the effective turns ratio of the motor.

We can now set up the equivalent circuit as follows:

 Figure 7.5: The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor showing only one phase.

As usual, we will work through an example to see how this all works out.

EXAMPLE 7.3

A 550-volt, 50-Hz, 6-pole, delta-connected induction motor, having a star-connected

rotor, has the following impedances per phase:

R1 = 0.8  X1 = 2
R2' = 0.56  X2' = 2 
Ro = 200  Xo = 30 

Draw a neat labelled equivalent circuit of this motor and calculate:

7.3.1 the total impedance of the circuit at standstill

7.3.2 the input current and power at standstill
7.3.3 the total impedance of the circuit at a slip of 0.04
7.3.4 the input current and power at slip of 0.04
7.3.5 the voltage drops across the component impedances
7.3.6 the currents though each leg
7.3.7 the stator copper loss, rotor copper loss and stator iron loss
7.3.8 the output power and efficiency if the mechanical losses amount to 600 watt
7.3.9 the electromagnetic power and developed torque
SOLUTION

7.3.1 At standstill, s = 1, so we use the impedances as given: 200  is in

parallel with j30, which is in parallel with Z2'. So,

   
 1   1 
Z T = Z1 +   = (0.8 + j 2) +   = 1.942 74.82 
0

 1
+
1
+
1   1
+
1
+
1 
 Rcore jX mag Z 21 ( At S / S )  
 200 j 30 (0.56 + j 2) 
 

V1 ph 550
7.3.2 I1( start ) = = = 283.2 A . This is a phase current. So the line current
ZT 1.942

will be: I1 = 3  283.2 = 490.6 A

The input starting power is:

Pin = 3 VL  I L  Cos = 3  550  490  Cos74.82o = 122.23 kW

7.3.3 Now, when the motor is operating at around rated speed, the slip is 0.04
0.56
and the rotor equivalent resistance is adjusted to: = 14 and the new
0.04
impedance is:

   
 1   1 
ZT = (0.8 + j 2) +   = (0.8 + j 2) +   = 11.69 32.86 
0

 1
+
1
+
1   1
+
1
+
1 
 Rcore jX mag Z 21 ( At S / S )  
 200 j 30 (14 + j 2) 
 
 V1 550 0o
7.3.4 I1 ph = = 0
= 47.05 −32.86o A .
Z T 11.69 32.86

The input power is:

Pin = 3 Vph  I ph  Cos = 3  550  47.047  Cos32.86o = 65.21 kW

7.3.5 Voltage across Z1:

Vdrop1 = I1  Z1 = 47.047 −32.86o  (0.8 + j 2) = 102.3 35.34o V
Voltage across the parallel Z's :
Vdrop 2 = V1 − Vdrop1 = 550 0o − 102.3 35.34o V = 470.99 −7.149o V

Vdrop 2 470.99 −7.149o

7.3.6 The magnetising current: I mag = = = 15.7 −97.149o A
X mag j 30

The current supplying the stator iron loss:

Vdrop 2 470.99 −7.149o

I core = = = 2.355 −97.149o A
Rcore 200
The equivalent rotor current:
Vdrop 2 470.99 −7.149o
I1' = = = 33.30 −15.28o A
Z 2' (14 + j 2)

7.3.7 Stator copper:

PStator copper = 3  I12  R1 = 3  47.052  0.8 = 5313 W
Rotor copper:

PRotor copper = 3  ( I1' )  R2' = 3  33.32  0.56 = 1863 W

2

Stator iron loss:

PStator iron = 3  I core
2
 Rcore = 3  2.3552  200 = 3328 W

7.3.8 The total losses: All the copper plus iron plus mechanical:

PStator copper + PStator iron + PRotor copper + PFriction&windage

= 5313 + 3328 + 1863 + 600 = 11104 W

 In this case, we could express the efficiency as:

Pin − losses 65210 − 11104

= = = 0.8297 p.u.
Pin 65210

Protor copper 1863

7.3.9 The electromagnetic power: Pem = = = 46575 W .
s 0.04
60  Pem 60  46575
And the developed torque, T = = = 445 N .m
2  N 2  1000

Some important points:

Sometimes this equivalent circuit is presented as follows:

This scheme is a simplification of the former one, and works if the slip is small. (See
PT:115). When you are given the core loss and the magnetising current in a problem
(instead of ohmic values) where the equivalent circuit must be used to solve a problem,
this is the time to use this scheme.
Sometimes the shunt impedance could be given as a single series impedance that is
equivalent to Rcore and Xmag, in parallel. This is what it looks like:

The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induction motor showing the shunt impedance as a series
RL cct.
  Rcore  jX mag 
Here is the relationship: ( R0 + jX o ) =   . The advantage of expressing this
 Rcore + jX mag 
impedance in this way is that you only need to calculate one shunt current, and the

core loss is obtained like this: Piron = 3  Io  R0

2

EXAMPLE 7.4

Let us try this one out:

An 8-pole, 500-volt, 50-Hz, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor has a stator

impedance per phase of Z1 = (0.2 + j1.2)  , and an equivalent rotor impedance at

standstill of Z2 = (0.15 + j1.3)  . The no load magnetising current is 7 ampere, while

'

the total core loss is 3600 W. If the slip is 0.04, calculate:

7.4.1 the input current and power factor

7.4.2 the rotor current, if the effective turns ratio is 3:1
7.4.3 the input power
7.4.4 the rotor copper loss
7.4.5 the electromagnetic power (i.e., the input power to the rotor)
7.4.6 the brake power and torque – assume the mechanical losses to be 1.5 kW
7.4.7 the efficiency

SOLUTION

The first thing to do is to draw a picture.

 7.4.1 First, find the sum of the impedances given:
0.15
Z1 + Z 2' = (0.2 + j1.2) + ( + j1.3) = (3.95 + j 2.5)  . And the current due to
0.04

500 0o
this impedance is: I 2' = = 106.96 −32.33o A
(3.95 + j 2.5)
The core current (i.e., that current supplying the core loss) is:

Pcore 3600
I core = = = 2.4 A
3 V 3  500
The magnetising current = 7 amps (given). Therefore, the shunt (no load)

current is: I o = (2.4 + j 7) A

And the total (phase) current supplied to the motor is:

I 2' + Io = 106.96 −32.33o + (2.4 + j7) = 112.83 −34.68o A

The power factor is Cos 34.68° = 0.82 lagging.

7.4.2 Rotor current: This is the current that would flow on the secondary side.

I 2 = 3  I 2' = 3 106.96 = 320.9 A

Something extra: We can check to see whether this is the case. First, transfer
the referred rotor resistance back to the rotor, using the given turns ratio –
"3:1" means that there are three times as many windings on the primary side
2
N 
2
1
as on the secondary. Therefore: R2 =  R    2  = 0.15    = 0.01667  .
'
2
 N1   3
Now, this is how it works: In 5.4.4 we found the rotor copper loss, using
information on the primary side. If we use information on the secondary side,
we ought to get the same result. Let's see if this is in fact so.

Prc = 3  ( I 2 )  R2 = 3  ( 320.9 )  0.01667 = 5149 W . Aaaah!! Only one watt out!

2 2

7.4.3 Pin = 3  Vph  I ph  Cos = 3  500  112.83  Cos34.68o = 139.18 kW

Rotor copper loss: Prc = 3  ( I 2' )  R2' = 3  (106.96)  0.15 = 5148 W

2 2
7.4.4
 Pr c 5148
7.4.5 Pem = = = 128.7 kW
s 0.04

7.4.6 The brake power is identical to the mechanical output power at the shaft,
which is also called the rated power. Whenever you order a motor, or
specifications are given, the rated power is always the mechanical output
power. If the input power is meant, then it must be stated. The brake torque
also refers to the torque available at the shaft, and not the developed torque.

In order to find the output of this motor, we must first find the losses. We
already know the iron loss and the mechanical losses (given). And we know
the rotor copper loss (5.4.4). We then need to find the stator copper loss. Then
add up all the losses, and then … well let's see:

PStator copper = 3  ( I 2' )2  R1 = 3  106.962  0.2 = 6864.3 W

Ploss = PStator copper + PStator iron + PRotor copper + PMechanicalloss = 6864 + 3600 + 5148 + 1500 = 17112 W

Pin − losses 139180 − 17112

7.4.7 And the efficiency:  = = = 0.8771 p.u.
Pin 139180

Okay, I think that these examples, plus your prescribed text, and previous assignment
and exam questions should enable you to do anything that is thrown at you!

PROBLEMS

1. A 6-pole, 50-Hz, three-phase induction motor develops a full load useful

torque of 170 Nm when the rotor currents oscillate at 90 cycles per minute. The
stator losses total 750 watt while the mechanical torque lost in friction is 13 Nm.
Calculate:
1.1 the motor output power
1.2 the rotor copper loss
1.3 the motor input power
1.4 the efficiency

2. A 440-volt, 50-Hz, 4-pole, three-phase induction motor has a rotor input

power of 80 kW when an ammeter connected across the short-circuited
 sliprings of the rotor circuit indicates 200 complete oscillations per minute. If
the rotor current is 65 ampere, determine:

2.1 the slip

2.2 the rotor speed
2.3 the gross mechanical power developed
2.4 the rotor copper loss and rotor resistance

3. A 550-volt, 50-Hz, 4-pole, three-phase induction motor develops 24 kW

at
1450 r/min and operates at a power factor of 0.88 lagging. The total stator loss
is 2 kW and the mechanical loss is 1.4 kW. Calculate:

3.1 the slip

3.2 the frequency of the rotor emf
3.3 the rotor copper loss
3.4 the efficiency
3.5 the line current

4. A three-phase, 4-pole, 380-volt, 50-Hz induction motor has a delta-

connected stator and an effective turns ratio of 3:1. At standstill the star-
connected rotor has an impedance per phase of (0.1 + j0.9)  Stating the
assumptions made, calculate:

4.1 the rotor slipring voltage at standstill

4.2 the equivalent rotor standstill impedance
4.3 the gross torque and mechanical power at a slip of 0.04 pu
4.4 the maximum torque and the speed at which this occurs

5. An 8-pole, 500-volt, 50-Hz, star-connected motor has a stator impedance

per phase of (0.062 + j0.12) , and an equivalent rotor impedance per phase at
standstill, referred to the stator, of (0.066 + j0.22) . Calculate the maximum
power output, and the slip at which it occurs, and the stalling torque and the
corresponding slip.
7.8 THE NO LOAD AND BLOCKED ROTOR TESTS,
AND ANALYSIS USING THE CIRCLE DIAGRAM

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this unit you will have a good understanding of the theory behind
three-phase induction motors. More specifically, you will be able to:

• Use the results of the no load test and blocked rotor test on a three-phase
induction motor to construct a circle diagram for the tested motor.
• Furthermore, given relevant information from the motor specifications, and winding
resistance and effective turns ratio, be able to construct the torque line on this diagram.
• Once this diagram has been constructed, to use measurements on it in order
to estimate aspects such as current, torque, power, speed, and efficiency of the
motor under test.

7.8.1 INTRODUCTION

The circle diagram of an induction motor gives us information about the current, power,
torque and other aspects of a motor as it changes speed from standstill until it reaches
full load current – in fact, even further, to the no load condition.

We need the results of two tests in order to construct this diagram, and if we want extra
information regarding the torque of the machine, we need additional information. (More
about this later.) Please refer to PT, page 127 and Theraja, chapter 35. However, please
bear in mind that Theraja's diagrams are distorted.
7.8.2 THE TWO TESTS

Just as we are able to analyse and predict the characteristics of a transformer by

subjecting it to the open and short circuit tests, so, with an induction motor, we perform
a no load test and a blocked rotor test. Here is how they are carried out.
7.8.3 The no load test

Consider Figure 6.1. The motor is supplied with rated voltage and frequency, the shaft
of the motor running freely. The current that flows will be lower than the rated full load
value – about a quarter. The wattmeter readings, when added, will give the no load
power. This power consists of losses in the machine, namely: stator copper and iron,
and mechanical losses (friction and windage). The no load phase angle can be obtained
by the formula:

 Po 
o = Cos −1  
 3  V  I o 

7.8.4 The blocked (or locked) rotor test

The electrical connections are identical to those for the no load test, but the shaft is
locked so that it cannot move. The voltage that is applied is somewhat lower than the
rated value, and normally enough to circulate close to full load currents. Readings of
current, voltage and power are taken. The power reading also represents a number of
losses, namely stator copper and iron, and rotor copper and iron. The blocked rotor
phase angle is found by using the formula below:

 PBR 
BR = Cos −1  
 3  VBR  I BR 

Now, let's begin the construction of the diagram (this must be done correctly and to a
scale). In an assignment or examination, this scale (of the current) should be given.
If it is not, then you will have to decide on a scale. It will depend on the starting current.
This starting current must be calculated using information from the blocked rotor test.
 VRated
I start = I BR 
VBR
7.8.5 Construction

Now we can start constructing. If the starting current is, say, 220 A, then we could
simply use a scale of 1 ampere = 1 mm, and the phasor, OA in Figure 6.2 would be
drawn 220 mm long, at the correct angle. If the stating current is 80 A, we could use
1 ampere = 3 mm, and OA would then be 240 mm. You should always try to fit the circle
onto a whole page, as that way, your results will be more accurate. Figure 6.2 shows
the two phasors, OA and OB . The angles must be measured with a protractor. Try to
be accurate to about a half degree.

Next, we join point B to point A, to get the Output line, BA (see Figure 6.3). We
construct a line, BY , parallel to OX . Using a compass, we now construct the
perpendicular bisector of BA , and call it CD .
Now, with a compass!!!! not free hand!!, we draw the circle with centre C and radius
either CB or CA. Have a look at Figure 6.4.

Now we are going to make two constructions. Have a look at Figure 6.5. First, notice
that the circle cuts DC at H. Drop a line, perpendicular to OX, onto the output line, at J.
This line segment HJ represents the maximum output power of the motor. (More about
this later.) At A, drop a perpendicular onto OX at G so that it also cuts OY at F. The
line segment AFG represents the total input power on starting.

However, we can find the value of this starting power by calculation, using the following
2
V 
formula: Pstart = PBR   Rated  . What we are now able to do is find the scale for
 VBR 
power. Let's assume that the calculated starting power is 13.38 kW. We now measure
the line segment AFG, and find it to be, say, 85 mm. The scale, then, for power
13.38
(anywhere on the circle) will be: Power scale = = 0.1574 ( kW mm ) . You will either
85
be given the current scale, or you will have to decide on it. However, you have to find
the power scale by calculation and measurement.
Now, to find the maximum output power, measure HJ. Let us assume it to be 40 mm.
To find the power, in kilowatt, multiply 40 by 0.1574, and you get 6.296 kW.

JUST BY THE WAY: ALL the values I have chosen are purely illustrative, and all of
these examples are made-up values. When we do a worked example, we'll use
proper values.

Let us now talk about the torque line (no pun intended!)
Line segment FA represents the total copper loss of the motor, on starting. This is
made up of the stator copper loss, and the rotor copper loss. Both of these losses are
proportional to the resistance per phase of their windings. However, the rotor
resistance must first be referred to the stator. For this, we must know the effective
N1 E
turns ratio. (We normally just use or 1 , even though this is not really accurate.)
N2 E2
Anyway, if the rotor resistance per phase is R2, then the rotor resistance per phase
2 2
 N1   E1 
referred to the stator is R = R2    or R2 = R2    where E1 is normally taken
' '
2
 N2   E2 
as the rated phase supply voltage, and E2 is the rotor emf per phase at standstill. Now,
we have R1 and R'2. Let us give values to these resistances, in order to illustrate how
we must find the torque line.
Let R1 = 0.2 , and R'2 = 0.13 . This means that the line segment AF is proportional
to [R1 + R'2] = 0.33. Now, if AF measures 80 mm, then the stator copper loss measures
0.2
(proportionally) FK = 80  = 48.5mm and the rotor copper loss, then, is AK = 80 –
0.33

48.5 = 31.5 mm. We then use our power scale to convert these measurements into
watts. The torque line, BK, can then be drawn. See Figure 6.6.

Now, although AK represents the rotor copper loss at starting, it also represents the
starting torque. We normally express this torque not in newton.metres, but in
synchronous watts. However, you can easily convert this value into newton.metres
using the (mechanical) power formula, and providing you know the number of poles of
the motor under inspection.

One synchronous watt is that torque which, at synchronous speed, would develop
a power of one watt.

In Figure 6.7, I have taken out a lot of the former constructions in order for you to see
more clearly what's going on. First, construct a line segment, CL, produced to M. This
line is perpendicular to the torque line, BK. (In geometric language, we speak of
dropping a perpendicular onto line segment BK. Please note: This is not a bisector!)
Next, we drop a line segment MN down onto the torque line, perpendicular to BY (or
OX). Line segment MN represents the maximum torque of the motor.
Now refer now to Figure 7.8. Line segment AP is an extension of GFA, AP representing
the rated output power of the motor. At P, draw a line, PQ, parallel to BA (the output
line). This line cuts the circle at Q, which is the rated operating point of the motor. OQ
is the rated full load current. (Apply the current scale in order to find the value of this
current.) The angle between OZ and OQ is the phase angle of the motor. The vertical
line QR is the input power on full load, and the output power is QS. (The full load
efficiency is then, QS/QR (pu).)

7.8.6 CONCLUSION

There are a number of details that are not covered in this guide. However, they are
dealt with in the prescribed text and Theraja. So, for instance, for information about
finding the slip, and therefore, the speed of the rotor at any point, please consult those
two texts.
PROBLEMS

Please refer to PT, Exercise 4.2, and complete all the problems.

STUDY UNIT 8 1
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES: CONSTRUCTION,
OPERATION AND ANALYSIS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this unit you will have a good understanding of the theory behind
three-phase induction motors. More specifically, you will be able to:

• Describe the construction of a synchronous machine.

• Explain the operation of this machine.
• Be able to use the emf equation for calculation purposes (but without having to
calculate any winding factors).
• Differentiate between independent operation and operation when synchronised
onto an infinite bus.
• Perform calculations, using the equivalent circuit pertaining to a cylindrical rotor,
illustrating the relationships that exist between the terminal (rated) voltage and the
open circuit (emf) voltage.
• Be able to describe the open and short circuit tests, and explain how to use
these tests to find the synchronous impedance and the regulation, given the load
power factor.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Refer to PT, chapter 8.

So far, we have investigated DC rotating machines, three-phase induction motors and

(probably) some single-phase and other, novel type machines. But a very important
machine used in industry is the synchronous machine. Notice that we are not calling
this a motor, because it may operate as either a motor or a generator or a synchronous
capacitor. Also, it could (especially in its use as a generator) be used independently
from the national grid, or connected to the national grid (or infinite bus). We must
investigate all these modes of operation. This unit is an introduction to these machines.

8.2 THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

The stator of this machine is constructed in very much the same way as a three-phase
induction motor. However, the rotor carries a winding which is effectively an electro-
magnet, supplied with DC. This could have only two poles, in which case it would have a
cylindrical construction, or it could have 4, or 6, or 8, or any number of poles, depending
on the size and application. In the case of 4 or more poles, the rotor is called a salient pole
rotor. The diagrams below illustrate the constructional features. (Figure 8.2 in PT is not
an accurate representation of the cylindrical rotor, so I have included some illustrations
off the internet here for you.)

Rotors of synchronous machines are of the "cylindrical"

type, if two pole (I think that the Koeberg-generators are
4-pole, but of the cylindrical type). But otherwise, all
machines having more than two poles, are of the salient pole
type. In this course we will assume that all our machines,
no matter how many poles, is of the first type, because the
equivalent circuit in the former case is straight forward.
BUT when you continue learning about these machines in
B. Tech., you will be shown how to solve for salient pole
machines in a more rigorous way.

Figure 8.1: Cylindrical rotor and salient pole rotor

Source: http://emadrlc.blogspot.co.za/2013/01/chapter-2-ac-generators.html
 Figure 8.2: Rotor construction
Source:http://emadrlc.blogspot.co.za/2013/01/chapter-2-ac-generators.html

8.3 THE EMF EQUATION

Refer to PT:270–283.

It can be shown that the emf equation of the three-phase synchronous machine can
be expressed as:

E = 2.22  k p  kd   f  Z , where:
E = The induced emf per phase kp = The pitch factor (PT:269)
kd = The distribution factor (PT:274) f = The rated frequency of the machine
Z = The number of armature conductors per phase
2.22 = 2  1.11 It is assumed that the emf wave is sinusoidal.

A quick word about these winding factors

The distribution factor: If you examine the stator of a three-phase, 4-pole induction
motor (substantially the same as an equivalent synchronous armature), and you count
the number of slots, you will probably find that there are 36 slots. But if you divide 36
by 3 and again by 4, you get 3 slots per pole per phase – not 1. If there was only one
slot per pole per phase, we would say that the stator had a "concentrated" winding.
But this does not occur, because using a concentrated winding has certain dis-
advantages. First, mechanically, the wires must be held secure in a large slot. This is
difficult. Also, with such a lot of wire bunched together, you have a problem getting rid
of heat. Furthermore, the shape of the emf wave is far from sinusoidal. So we distribute
these wires in two or more slots to facilitate mechanical security, and to help with heat
dissipation. Oh, and there is one more thing: a distributed winding helps to improve
the wave shape, so that it is closer to sinusoidal.

However, the disadvantage is that, instead of one, two or more emfs are generated
which are slightly out of phase with one another, and the resultant emf is (marginally)
smaller than what it would be if a concentrated winding were used. I'll leave it to Le
Roux to tell you more.

The pitch factor: If a winding coil is put into slots so that the one side is always under
the North pole (for instance), while the other side is always under the South pole, and
when one side is between poles, so is the other; in that case, we have what is called
a full-pitch coil. It means that the emf induced in the one coil side is always in the
same direction as the emf in the other coil side, and as a result, they never oppose
each other. But in many instances, designers design the coil arrangement so that the
coil span is one or two slots short of a full coil pitch. (This is called a short-chorded
coil.) Now, why would they do this? The main advantage is that certain harmonics are
suppressed, and the emf wave is made more sinusoidal. However, the disadvantage
is that some voltage is lost, hence the pitch factor.

Please work through the worked examples relating to this topic in PT, and also solve
the problems on page 284.

8.4 OPERATION

If operating as a generator (also called an alternator), DC is supplied to the field

5
(rotor),5 and the rotor is driven by a prime mover so that the magnetic field cuts the
 60 f
stator conductors at synchronous speed. (Remember: N = .) So, in this case, the
p
rotor speed is the synchronous speed. The machine is designed to operate at a
particular frequency. In South Africa, the system frequency – as you ought to know –
is 50 hertz. At any rate, a sinusoidal, three-phase voltage is generated, each phase
being displaced by each other phase in space by 120o. In the machines that we will be
dealing with, the equivalent circuit is the very simplest of all equivalent circuits:

Figure 8.3: Schematic of a three-phase synchronous generator

Above, all three phases of a synchronous generator are shown. However, normally the
load is balanced, and therefore all phase currents are equal in magnitude and displaced
from one another by 120o. Also, all phase voltages are equal, and all line voltages too. We
may therefore use a single line diagram, and work out values per phase:

Figure 8.4: A synchronous generator. A singe-line diagram.

There is only one phase current which is identical to the 6line current, because these
machines are normally connected in star. All voltages in the equivalent circuit are
phase values. The machine generates an emf, the magnitude of which is proportional
to the speed of the rotor and the excitation (field) current.6 The terminal voltage is the
voltage across the terminals when the machine is loaded, and is normally the rated
voltage of the machine, namely, the voltage on the nameplate. This is always the line
voltage. The angle between the emf and the terminal voltage is called the load (or torque)
angle, because it is dependent on the torque of the machine. The internal impedance of
the machine consists of the resistance per phase (normally very small), and two
reactances. The one part is the leakage reactance (you came across this when you
studied transformers and induction motors), and a phenomenon called armature reaction
reactance, which does the same thing as a reactance. This is due (as in DC machines) to
armature reaction, owing to the loading of the machine. Put together, this reactance is
called the synchronous reactance, Xs. The winding resistance per phase and the
synchronous reactance per phase are combined to make up the synchronous impedance
of the machine, Zs. The internal phase angle of the machine is .

Let us do a worked example:

EXAMPLE 8.1

A 375-kVA, 440-volt, 50-Hz, three-phase synchronous generator has a synchronous

impedance per phase of (0.1 + j0.28) . If it supplies full load at the given (load) power
factors, find the generated open circuit emf and load angle, and the voltage regulation:

8.1.1 at 0.8 lagging

8.1.2 at unity
8.1.3 0.7 leading

Draw a phasor diagram representing each load condition.

SOLUTION

S 375000
8.1.1 First find the rated current: I = = = 492 A
3  VL 3  440

Now find the load phase angle:  = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −1 0.8 = 36.87o
Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o + I −  Z s 
6
Note: The terminal voltage (phase value) is

normally made the reference phasor. However, there are some texts that
 make the current the reference. In this case, the current is at zero degrees,
and the voltage angle is the same as the load phase angle.

440 o
E = 0 + 492 −36.87o  (0.1 + j 0.28)
3
E  = 254 0o + 146.3 33.48o

E  = 384.6 12.1o V →

Voltage regulation, :  = E − V = 384.6 − 254 = 0.51 p.u.

V 254

The voltage regulation is a measure of the difference between the

generated emf and the terminal voltage, and is expressed as a per unit (or
percentage) of the terminal (rated) voltage. In synchronous machines, the
regulation is normally quite a lot bigger than that of transformers. This is
because the reactance is significant.

Figure 8.5: Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator supplying

a load having a lagging power factor

8.1.2 Now find the load phase angle:  = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −11.0 = 0o
Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o + I −  Z s 

440 o
E = 0 + 492 0o  (0.1 + j0.28)
3
E  = 254 0o + 146.3 70.35o

E  = 333 24.4o V →

Voltage regulation:  = E − V = 333 − 254 = 0.31 p.u.

V 254

Figure 8.6: Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator supplying

a load having a unity power factor
8.1.3 Now find the load phase angle:  = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −1 0.7 = 45.57o leading

Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o + I −  Z s 

440 o
E = 0 + 492 +45.57o  (0.1 + j 0.28)
3

E  = 254 0o + 146.3115.9o

E  = 231.2 34.7o V →

Voltage regulation:  = E − V = 231.2 − 254 = −0.09 p.u.

V 254

Figure 8.7: Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator supplying

a load having a leading power factor
Did you notice how, as the power factor of the load changes from lagging to
leading, the emf (and therefore the excitation (field) current) decreases? (This
is how it works for generator action.)

Now, it must be borne in mind that the power factor at which a generator works
when it is operating on its own is dependent on the load power factor. But if
the generator is synchronised onto the national grid (in South Africa, Eskom),
then, because the generator is locked into a system much bigger than itself,
first, its speed is held constant by the system. Second, the terminal voltage of
the machine is held rock solid. In this case, it is not the load power factor that
determines the power factor of the machine, but the excitation. And this is a
very great advantage, because now we can use the machine as a power factor
compensator. If we want a leading power factor, we reduce excitation (called
under-excitation), and if we want a lagging power factor, we increase
excitation (called over-excitation).

But what happens if we are operating the machine as a motor? First, in this
case, very probably, because the motor needs an external electrical supply, it
will be synchronised onto the grid. The power factor of the motor can then be
controlled by adjusting the excitation. But now (we will see) it works the other
way around: over excite to obtain a leading power factor, and under excite to
achieve a lagging power factor. Below is the equivalent circuit (as a motor).
Notice that now we are supplying electrical power, and the current is now in
the direction of this applied voltage. If we apply Kirchhoff's voltage law to the
circuit, we get: E  = V 0 − I −  Z s  . Notice: there is only one change.
o

We are taking the internal volt drop away from the applied voltage, V.
 Figure 8.8: Single-line diagram of a three-phase synchronous motor

Let us do a worked example:

Refer to the machine in the previous example. Let us assume now that the input kVA
is 375 kVA. All other information remains the same.

EXAMPLE 8.2

A 375-kVA, 440-volt, 50-Hz, three-phase synchronous motor has a synchronous

impedance per phase of (0.1 + j0.28) . If it operates at full load at the given power
factors, find the generated open circuit emf and load angle for the given power factors.
Also draw the phasor diagrams for each condition. Compare these critically with the
operation of this machine as a generator:

8.2.1 at 0.8 lagging

8.2.2 at unity
8.2.3 at 0.7 leading
SOLUTION

S 375000
8.2.1 First find the rated current: I = = = 492 A (Same as
3  VL 3  440
before)

Now find the load phase angle:  = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −1 0.8 = 36.87o

Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o − I −  Z s  . Note: The terminal voltage (phase value) is normally

made the reference phasor. But there are some texts that make the current
the reference. In this case, the current is at zero degrees, and the voltage
angle is the same as the load phase angle.
440 o
E = 0 − 492 −36.87o  (0.1 + j 0.28)
3

E  = 254 0o − 146.3 33.48o

E  = 154.7 −31.45o V →

Notice that we do not ask for the voltage regulation for a motor.

Figure 8.9: Phasor diagram of a synchronous motor operating at a

lagging power factor
8.2.2 Now find the load phase angle:  = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −11.0 = 0o

Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o − I −  Z s 

440 o
E = 0 − 492 0o  (0.1 + j 0.28)
3

E  = 254 0o − 146.3 70.35o

E  = 246.8 33.9o V →

Figure 8.10: Phasor diagram of a synchronous motor operating at a

unity power factor
 8.2.3 Now find the load phase angle:
 = Cos −1 p. f . = Cos −1 0.7 = 45.57o leading
Now, using complex numbers, find the emf and load angle:

E  = V 0o − I −  Z s 

440 o
E = 0 − 492 +45.57o  (0.1 + j 0.28)
3
E  = 254 0o − 146.3115.9o
E  = 344.1 −22.5o V →

Figure 8.11: Phasor diagram of a synchronous motor operating at a

leading power factor
Did you notice how, as the power factor of the load changes from lagging to
leading, the emf (and therefore the excitation (field) current) decreases? (This
is how it works for generator action.)

8.5 THE OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS

How do we find the synchronous impedance of the synchronous machine? Well, just
as we performed these (similar) tests on the transformer, and then on the induction
motor, so too we must test the synchronous machine. Here's how they are done:

8.5.1 The open circuit test

The machine is driven by a suitable prime mover at rated speed (a DC motor with a
variable speed arrangement would do). The armature (i.e., the stator) is open, and the
voltage is measured across the terminals. The exciter is connected to a variable DC
source, and the current increased from zero until about 150% of normal excitation.
Readings are recorded of armature voltage against excitation current. An open circuit
curve is drawn.

8.5.2 The short circuit test

The machine is driven by a suitable prime mover at rated speed. The armature is
shorted through a suitable ammeter and the current is measured through the winding.
The exciter is connected to a variable DC source, and the current increased from zero
until about 120% of rated armature current is reached. Readings are recorded of
armature current against excitation current. A short circuit curve is drawn. (You can
draw both graphs on the same axis.)

Figure 8.12: Graph, showing the open, and short circuit characteristics of a
synchronous machine
Voltage at E
Now, the synchronous impedance is Z s = . Remember to use
Armature current at C

phase values!
We can now measure the DC resistance of the armature windings, Rph. The internal
R ph
phase angle of the machine is then:  = Cos
−1
. It is normally (invariably?) the case
Zs
that the resistance is very small compared with the synchronous reactance.

Once we have the synchronous reactance, we can find the voltage regulation as has
been demonstrated in the examples above.
But just a caution: finding an accurate value of the voltage regulation is tricky. A number
of methods have been proposed for this. You will (if you study further) be taught these
methods. The method given above (called the synchronous impedance method) has
been found to give a pessimistic result. That is, the theoretical regulation is larger than it
actually is in practice. If you are interested, get hold of the IEEE standards in this regard.
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construction.html.
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