Department of Geology

An introduction to Stereographic Projection for Geologists

GLY 365
Prepared by Prof. Adam Bumby

Introduction:
This manual is designed to accompany the practical course in structural geology
(GLY 365), which focusses heavily on stereographic projection. The guide contains
the background to a series of practical tasks, some of which are assessed towards the
class mark. The stereographic projection-based practicals contain a number of
geometrical problems which consider the attitude of geological planes and lines in
three dimensional (3D) space. Stereographic projection is very useful for solving
problems and illustrating data relating to both structural geology and mining
engineering. Certain pages in the booklet contain questions which must be completed,
neatly removed from the booklet and submitted for assessment. In addition to this
continuous assessment, two practical tests based on stereographic projection will be
given towards the middle and end of the course. Questions on stereographic
projection may also be included in the final exam.

Measurement of data:
Much of field geology (whether on the surface of the planet or down a mine) is
concerned with the recognition, measurement and description of the orientation of
geological features (usually planes or lines) in 3D space. It is often easy to identify a
bedding plane, for example, which has been tilted away from its initial horizontal
orientation (remember the ‘Law of Original Horizontality’ from first year?). But if
you wanted to describe, or even illustrate the orientation of the plane to someone who
has not been to the outcrop, how can you accurately give an indication of the attitude
of the bedding plane? If you think about it, it’s rather a problem, as there are an
infinite number of planes which can exist in 3D space. We need to use a convention
so that we can accurately describe any of these infinite planes. There are two common
ways of describing the orientation of planes in 3D, and one convention for lines.

The types of plane and lines that you may want to measure whilst in the field will be
covered in detail in lectures, but the planes that a structural geologist are often
interested in are bedding, cleavage, foliation, fault planes, joints and fold axial planes.
Lineations (lines) which may be measured include ripple crest or palaeocurrent
directions, fold hinges, slickenside lineations and a variety of linear fabrics in
tectonites.

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Planes and lineations are measured using a compass-clinometer specially designed for
geologists. Common types used by geologists are the Silva, the Brunton and the
Freiberg compasses, though a variety of apps on a smart phone (e.g. ‘Clino’) can also
give quite accurate readings. The method for the description of planes used in this
course is the ‘STRIKE, DIP and DIP DIRECTION’ method. There are also other
method of defining planes, including one using only dip and dip direction values, but
these will not be covered in these notes. Which of these two methods you use is
largely governed by the type of compass you use (Silva and Brunton compasses
measure planes by strike, dip and dip direction; the Freiberg compass can measure by
both methods). Most text books utilise the strike, dip and dip direction method, so that
is what is followed here.

The strike can be defined as ‘the orientation, relative to true north, of a line formed by
the intersection of a horizontal plane and the plane being measured’. This is measured
numerically, using the 360º intervals around the cardinal points of the compass
During measurement of strike, the horizontal plane is defined by the compass body
(many compasses have a spirit level incorporated into the body for exactly this
purpose), and the line of intersection is defined by the long edge of the compass body
which is held along the plane being measured. The dip can be defined as ‘the
maximum angle between the plane and horizontal’. It is important to note that the dip
is always measured in a direction that is perpendicular (i.e. at right angles) to the
strike line, in order to achieve the maximum angle. If a dip is measured less than 90º
from the strike line, an apparent dip is measured, which is always less than the true
dip. (see figure 1 for clarification). Dip is measured using the inclinometer
incorporated into the geological compass.

Figure 1:

In the diagram above, the orientation of the strike line is parallel with true north.
Therefore the strike is either 000º or 180º, depending on which end of the strike line
you measure the orientation. This is true for ALL strike lines - they have two ends,
and therefore you can measure either one of two directions, but note that each
measurement must differ from its pair by 180º (e.g. a line which strikes 045º would
also strike 225º). The angle of dip in the diagram above is about 50º. However, it is
vital to note that strike and dip alone do not define the orientation of a plane. The
diagram below (Figure 2) illustrates why this is the case:

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Figure 2:

Note that both planes illustrated here have exactly the same strike value (000º or
180º), and exactly the same dip value (about 45º), and yet they are different planes,
i.e. a given set of strike and dip values is identical for two of the infinite number of
planes. In order to separate these two possibilities, we need to add a third modifier,
which is known as the ‘dip-direction’. Note that the two possible planes with
matching sets of strike and dip values dip in opposite directions; in figure 2, the dark
grey plane dips towards the east, and the light grey plane dips towards the west.

Therefore, if we were to describe the dark grey plane above, we would write the
following: 180º/45º E.

Note that when we are listing the strike value (which may vary between zero and
360º) we always use three digits. When we list a dip value (which may vary between
zero and 90º), we use two digits. An eastward-dipping plane which has a strike just
east of north (i.e. less than 10º), and a shallow dip (also less than 10º) might be
written: 008º/06ºE

Note that zeros are added in order to bring the number up to three digits (for strike)
and two digits (for dip). The reason why this is done is so that it is impossible to
confuse strike values with dip values even if hastily written down in a field notebook.
Dip-directions need only be vague; remember that in our use of dip directions, we are
discriminating between two planes which are 180º apart. Use the cardinal points of
the compass at 45º intervals (i.e. the letters N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW) to indicate
the approximate direction towards which the plane dips. The use of dip direction is
not an optional extra for a minor point of clarification. It is a vital part of your
description of a plane and must always be included.

Using all the possible strike directions (values 000º through to 180º [which also
includes all the strike directions from 181º to 359º]) and all the possible dip values
(00º [horizontal] through to 90º[vertical]), plus the fact that each strike value can

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accommodate two possible dip directions, we can resolve the infinite number of
planes into 180 x 90 x 2 = 32400 different planes that we can measure using this
convention. Of all the other infinite number of planes in 3D space, they are ½º or less
away from the planes we can measure.

Please note that you will lose marks on assessed work if you do not remember to use
three digits for strike values, two digits for dip values, or forget to add the dip
direction modifier.

So, now we can accurately measure and describe the orientation of any plane in 3D
space to within ½º of accuracy. But there is still a problem concerning the
presentation of these figures. If you went out into the field or down a mine, and
collected the strikes, dips and dip directions of hundreds of bedding planes, it would
be useful to be able to somehow illustrate the orientations of these beds graphically,
rather than having rows of numbers and letters, which is very difficult to visualise.
This is rather difficult to perform, as the planes which you measured occupy 3D
space, and therefore any graphical way of representing this data set would also have
to be in three dimensions, which seems very difficult to achieve in a report written on
a 2D piece of paper.

Projection of 3D data:
In fact you are probably very familiar with the method of dealing with the problem of
accurately representing 3D phenomenon on 2D paper. The planet earth is a 3D object,
and yet most atlases and geography/geology textbooks contain a map of the Earth. A
3D object is projected onto a 2D page in a book. Often a hemisphere of the earth
(usually the eastern and western hemispheres, but sometimes the northern and
southern hemispheres too) is projected within a circular map. The lines of latitude and
longitude are distorted during the projection, so that the 3D hemisphere is flattened
onto a page. This same procedure is undertaken in stereographic projection.

The next thing to think about is a glass sphere, with an equator marked on it. The
equator is thus dividing the upper and lower hemispheres. Now think about a plane
passing through the sphere (grey plane in Figure 3), so that the plane passes right
through the centre. In the case of Figures 3, 4 and 5, the plane has an orientation of
020º/55º SE.
Figure 3:

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Don’t think of this as a direct analogy with a globe of the Earth. If this were the case,
then north would be at the top of the glass sphere. In this globe, north (and all the
other cardinal points of the compass) lie on the plane of the equator. When we look
down on the glass sphere from, above, it’s as if we are looking down on a map. Look
again at the grey plane which passes through the sphere. Look at where the plane
passes through the lower hemisphere, and notice that where the edge of the sphere and
the plane intersect, a long arc is formed. In geometry, this arc is termed a ‘great circle’
(on a globe of the Earth, or on a projection of the Earth in an atlas, the lines of
longitude are also ‘great circles’. The lines of latitude on a globe are termed ‘small
circles’ because they are smaller diameter than great circles). For the purposes of this,
and all other stereographic projections in structural geology, we will only be looking
at the lower hemisphere (forget about the upper hemisphere, unless you are studying
mineralogy). Imagine that you are looking vertically down through the glass sphere
from the very top-most point (known as the zenith), so that you can see the great
circle formed by the intersection of the plane and the edge of the sphere beneath. If
you were to sketch what you saw, it would look like this:

Figure 4:

The vertical view which is sketched above is, in fact, an approximate stereographic
projection from a 3D object (the lower hemisphere) onto a 2D piece of paper. In
stereographic projection, you are performing a projection as follows:

Figure 5:

Figure 5 shows how a plane in 3D passes through an imaginary sphere, and the trace
formed by the intersection of the plane with the sphere is projected towards the zenith.
The arc which is projected onto a plane passing through the primate circle is the
stereographic projection of the plane. Each of the 32400 planes that we can measure

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with a compass-clinometer will define its own unique great circle on a stereographic
projection.

In a similar fashion, lineations can also be plotted on a stereographic projection.

Lineations can be measured with a compasss clinometer, and are defined by a
TREND and PLUNGE. A trend can be defined as the orientation relative to north
(measured in a horizontal plane) of the line measured in the down-plunge direction.
The plunge is the angle between the lineation and the horizontal. There are therefore a
range of 359 different values of trend, and 89 different values of plunge which can be
measured with a compass-clinometer (that’s 31952 lineations). See Figure 6 for an
example.

Figure 6:

In Figure 6, the lineation has a trend of about 330º, and a plunge of 30º (written
30º330º). Note that, unlike a strike, a trend can only have one possible value, as the
direction is defined by the down-plunge direction. In 3D, a lineation would plot
within a sphere, and on a steronet as shown in Figure 7:

Figure 7:

Once again, the vast numbers of lineations can be defined by the projection of the
unique point that each line makes when it intercepts the sphere.

So far we have considered how planes and lineations would look if they intercept a
sphere, and then how a projection of this would look. Obviously we cannot walk
around in the field carrying big transparent spheres. We need a method by which we
can directly plot a measured plane or lineation onto a projection. This is accomplished

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by means of a ‘Stereonet’. There are two types of net commonly in use; the Schmidt
net and the Wulf net, each of which uses a slightly different projection. In structural
geology we use the Schmidt net, which preserves the angular relationships between
plotted planes. The Schmidt net is shown in Figure 8. Cut out the net and mount it on
stiff cardboard or plastic so that it can be re-used, and so that it doesn’t get crumpled.
Rips, crumples and holes in the net greatly reduce its accuracy!

Figure 8:

The net shown above shows a number of great circles for planes which strike 000º-
180º. Each of the great circles represents different dip values at 2º intervals (the
bolder great circles are at 10º intervals). Thus planes with shallow angles of dip plot
as great circles closer to the perimeter of the net, and steeper angles of dip are
reflected by great circles with less curvature towards the centre of the net. See Figure
9.

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Figure 9:

As Figure 9 illustrates, the dip value can be altered simply by counting from the edge
of the net inwards along the E-W line. If the planes in Figures 9a and b had a westerly
rather than easterly dip-direction, then the planes would be plotted by counting
inwards from the opposite (western) edge of the net.

It is therefore easy to plot planes on a stereonet. BUT, the net only shows great circles
for planes which happen to strike due North/South. What about all the planes with
other strikes? Obviously a full set of great circles for all strike values cannot be
incorporated into a single diagram (imagine another 179 sets of great circles added to
Figure 8!). In stereographic projection we overcome this problem by plotting our
great circles on a sheet of tracing paper mounted on top of the stereonet, by a drawing
pin (thumb tack), which passes through the centrepoint of the net. By rotating the
tracing paper clockwise or anticlockwise, different strike directions can be
temporarily lined up with the North-South line on the net beneath, so that a great
circle with suitable dip value can be plotted, before rotating the tracing paper back to
its original position. It’s best to mark the original north position on the tracing paper,
to assist with rotation back to the correct orientation. An example of plotting planes is
given in Figure 10, where a plane with an orientation of 045º/55º SE is plotted.

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Figure 10:

Once you have roated the tracing paper back to it’s original position, always check
that the dip direction indicated by the great circle on you stereonet reflects the dip
direction recorded for the plane. It’s very easy to plot the wrong dip direction!

Lineations can similarly be plotted on a stereonet, although there is an important

difference; Because the trend is measured in the direction of plunge, instead of
rotating the trend direction to the N-S line, rotate it instead to the E-W line, and count
the correct plunge from either the E or W point on the net inwards, depending on the
plunge direction. See Figure 11, which shows the method of plotting a lineation with a
plunge of 38º, and a trend of 229º (38º229º).

Figure 11:

It is important that the hole punched in both the stereonet and the tracing paper by the
drawing pin do not become enlarged by successive rotations. If this happens, the
tracing paper does not rotate about the same axis, which can lead to inaccuracy when
plotting. It is often a good idea to reinforce the hole in the tracing paper with
transparent tape.

Now try the questions on the following page.

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 PRACTICAL 1.

Fill in your answers on this page, remove the page carefully (use scissors!), and
submit it for marking.

Name:_______________________________ Student Number:_________________

In the diagrams below on the left plot the approximate orientation of the given
plane/lineation on the stereographic projection. Also draw a map in each box using
standard bedding plane or lineation symbols for the given plane/lineation. Remember
to include the dip/plunge value. In the diagrams on the right, where the stereonet has
been completed with planes or lineations, estimate the orientation of the
plane/lineation, and complete the map.

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Poles to planes:
Very often in structural geology, we have gone out into the field and collected many
(literally hundreds) of orientations of (e.g.) bedding planes. If we want to see how the
orientation of bedding planes varies, it is obviously important to plot all the planes on
the same stereographic projection. However, if hundreds of planes are plotted as great
circles, the stereographic projection soon looks very complicated, and rather like a
plate of spaghetti. With the complexity of numerous superimposed great circles it
becomes very difficult to visualise any patterns in variation in the orientation of
planes. It is therefore necessary to reduce our data on the stereonet to smaller
symbols, which will not interfere with each other, and yet show exactly the same
information about the orientation of planes as great circles do.

The pole to a plane is a convenient way of overcoming this problem. A pole to a plane
is the point where a lineation which is perpendicular to a plane intersects the edge of
the lower hemisphere. Geographical examples are both the North and South poles.
These are poles to the plane of the equator, with the South Pole being the interception
of the lineation in the southern (lower) hemisphere (See Figure 13a). The 3D
orientation of any given plane that you happen to measure can be represented not only
by its great circle, but also by the pole to that circle; each individual plane has its own
dedicated pole. Obviously, as a pole is a lineation, it is represented on the stereonet by
a single point. It is therefore much easier to plot large numbers of planes by plotting
poles rather than the great circles. See Figure 13b.

Figure 13:

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Figure 14 illustrates the method of plotting poles to bedding. It involves rotating the
plane so that it lies on a great circle (and is therefore orientated N-S). The pole (which
is perpendicular, i.e. 90º to the plane) can be plotted by counting 90º through the
centre point. As a shortcut, simply count the dip value of the plane (55ºin this case)
away from the centrepoint. In the example in Figure 14, the plane has an orientation
of 045/55 SW, and the pole an orientation of 35315. Note that the strike of the
plane and the trend of the pole are 90º apart, and the plunge of the pole can be
calculated by subtracting the dip value of plane from 90 (90-55º=35º):

Intersection lineations:
Imagine that underground there is a fault that intercepts an inclined bed of limestone.
Where these two planar features intersect, an ore deposit forms (hydrothermal, ore-
bearing fluids may have circulated along the fault plane). Any two planes which are
not parallel with each other will intercept, and where they intersect they form a line
(you can try this with two hardback books). This is known as an intersection
lineation. By plotting the orientation of the two planes as great circles together on the
same projection, you get a point at which the two great circles cross. This point
represents the orientation of the intersection lineation, and therefore the orientation of
the ore body. There are questions on this in question sheet 2.

Closely related to this is a type of stereographic projection known as a β (beta)

diagram. β diagrams are concerned with defining the orientation of a fold axis, based
upon the orientation of the limbs of the fold. The line along which the two limbs of a
fold intersect is called the hinge line, and is parallel to the fold axis. Defining the
hinge line and fold axis can therefore be performed by plotting the planes of the two
lines of the fold.

Figure 15:

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 PRACTICAL 2. (ASSESSED)

Most of these questions involve the use of the stereonet and tracing paper. Cut
out the stereonet on page 7, mount it on cardboard, and add bearings at 10º
intervals around the edge of the stereonet. On the tracing paper, trace the edge
of the net (the primitive circle) and mark on the North position. Remove the
tracing paper sheets from the net and submit them along with you answers.

1. a.) Using the stereonet plot the following planes as great circles
i.) 128º/67o SW
ii.) 303º/20o NE
iii.) 073º/45º SE
b.) On the same sheet of tracing paper, plot the poles to the above planes. Use colours to
indicate which pole corresponds to which plane

2.) Plot the following lineations on a separate sheet of tracing paper:

(a.) 34º225º (b.) 10º359º (c.) 68º135º (d.) 85º140o (e.) 00º035º

Questions 3, and 4 concern lineations and their relationship to planes. Look again at
Figure 6, and note that if a lineation is lying on a plane, then on a stereonet, the point
where the lineation plots must lie on the great circle of the plane on which the
lineation is found. Bear this in mind when answering the following questions. You
will have to use your stereonet and tracing paper to solve them:

3.) A bed which is exposed in a vertical cutting has an apparent dip of 68º310º and a strike
of 045º. What is the true dip?

4.) A dolerite dyke in a mine has an apparent dip of 34º014º in one tunnel and 78º254º in
the other. What is the strike and dip of the dyke?

5.) A fault has orientation 035º/60º NW and it intersects a limestone bed with orientation
152º/35º NE. Hydrothermal alteration along the fault plane has resulted in an ore shoot
forming along the intersection of the two planes.
a.) What is the orientation of the ore shoot?
b.) What is the pitch of the ore shoot in the plane of the fault?
c.) What is the pitch of the ore shoot in the plane of the limestone bed?

6.) One limb of a fold has orientation 234º/67º SE and the other limb 348º/31º NE. What is
the orientation of the hinge line?

7.) Two intersecting shear zones have orientations: 035º/54º NW and 312º/30º NE
a.) What is the orientation of the line of intersection?
b.) What is the orientation of the plane perpendicular to the line of intersection?
c.) What is the obtuse angle between the shear zones in this plane?
d.) What is the orientation of the plane that bisects the obtuse angle?
e.) A tunnel must be developed to the line of intersection between the shear zones. For
maximum stability the tunnel must bisect the obtuse angle between the shear zones and be
perpendicular to the line of intersection. What should the trend and plunge of the adit be?
f.) If the tunnel approaches the line of intersection from the south, will the full ore carts be
going uphill or downhill as they come out of the mine?

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 PRACTICAL 4

Rotations:
As you are hopefully beginning to realize, stereographic projections allow the
geologist or engineer an easy, convenient graphical way to calculate some horrendous
3D geometrical problems. Another example of such a tough problem, which would
otherwise be a nightmare to try and calculate, concerns the rotation of planes and
lineations. As you know, stratified rocks were originally horizontal (‘Law of Original
Horizontality’) and are very often tilted away from horizontal during subsequent
tectonism. Any original planes and lineations preserved in the rock are thus rotated
too, and it is often necessary to ‘rotate the rocks back’ to their original position using
a stereonet, so that we can find the original (pre-tilting) orientation of these structures.

In order to perform rotations we need to make use of the small circles mentioned on
page 5. The lines of latitude on a globe are examples of small circles, and they are
also included on a stereonet, getting larger in length (i.e. circumferance) towards the
E-W line. Again small circles are drawn on the stereonet at 2 intervals (except where
the lines converge towards the North and South, where there isn’t enough space). We
can perform rotations by shifting poles of planes or lineations along small circles by
the required number of degrees.

An example: consider the following sketch cross-section (Figure 16).

Figure 16:

In Figure 16, beds developed beneath an angular unconformity have an orientation of

040/55E, and the beds above the angular unconformity (and the angular
unconformity itself) have an orientation of 190/20W. What was the orientation of
the lower beds during the erosion of the unconformity and deposition of the upper
beds? In order to calculate this, we need to effectively rotate the upper beds to
horizontal (after all, they must have been horizontal when they were initially
deposited). A horizontal bed has a vertical pole, so we need to rotate the pole of the
190/20W plane to vertical. This is accomplished by placing the pole on the E-W
line, and rotating the pole a suitable number of degrees until it is vertical (in this case
the pole must be rotated 20). During this rotation, we are using the E-W small circle.

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The pole of the lower beds must also be rotated in the same direction by the same
amount along its own small circle. How this is achieved is illustrated below in Figure
17.

Figure 17:

Note that sometimes bedding planes can be overturned. This means that to return beds
to their original horizontal orientation, they (and their poles) will need to be tilted
more than 90 (i.e. back to vertically-inclined planes, and then an extra 90 to
horizontal). During such a rotation, the pole will leave one side of the stereonet (at the
stage when the plane is vertical), and immediately return to the net on the opposite
side (i.e. 180 away). Using the principles above, try answering question sheet 3 on
the next page. Again, remember to add the primitive circle (outer edge of net) to your
tracing paper, which makes it easier to mark.

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 PRACTICAL 4 QUESTIONS (ASSESSED).

1.) Layers below an angular unconformity have orientation 331o 76o SW and those
above 112/25 N. What was the orientation of the older beds while the younger were
being deposited?

2.) Planar cross-bedding with orientation 042/34 SE are developed between bedding
planes with orientation 154/20 SW. What was the original orientation of the cross-
beds?

3.) Ripple-marks (i.e. lineations) with orientation 39272occur in a sandstone layer

with orientation 280/80 SW. What was the orientation of the ripple-marks during
deposition of the sandstone?

4.) On opposite limbs of a fold, developed beneath an unconformity (150/22 SW),

the following observations were made: eastern limb has orientation of 042/23 SE
and western limb 160/46 SW. Investigate the nature of the original folding, before
the unconformity was tilted. Your answer should include the original orientation of
each limb, and the original orientation of the hinge line.

Try this question, and see if you can figure it out (it’s tough, and does not form
part of the assessment):
The orientation of asymmetric ripplemarks in sandstone can be used to determine the
direction that the current was flowing when the sand was deposited. If ripplemarks
indicating a current direction of 142o occur within an overturned sandstone bed whose
attitude is 344/77 W, what direction did the current flow?

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 PRACTICAL 5.

Exercise in collection of data and field plotting on stereographic projection:

This exercise involves the measurement of joint planes in the field, and further
practice at plotting data. We will meet at the start of the practical class at the gates to
the experimental farm (Enter the LC de Villiers Sports grounds at the Main entrance
on South Street: Continue eastwards straight ahead past the Main Sports building to
the gate.) Arrange yourselves in teams of 4 or 5 people. In order to collect data, each
team must have at least one compass clinometer app loaded onto a smart phone (so
make sure that at least one person on a team has a smart-phone). These are typically
available from App store for free. I use Clino- search for it on the App Store. Each
group will also need a stereonet and tracing paper.
We will take measurements on joint planes in the quartzite outcrops along the ridge
on the south side of the experimental farm. Measure the strike, dip and dip direction
of the joint planes and plot POLES to joint planes on your stereonet. Determine how
many sets of joints are present and what is the average orientation of each of these
sets of joints.
You can also measure or calculate the palaeocurrent direction if you can recognize
planar cross-bedding in the strata. From your existing knowledge of stereographic
projection methodology, think about this can be achieved using two apparent dips.

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 PRACTICAL 8

Dealing with large/regional-scale folding, and the construction of  (pi)

diagrams:
Very often when we are mapping in the field, we come across folded strata that is
simply too large to measure directly, or even too big to see directly. When the
orientation of bedding planes is plotted on a map (e.g. Figure 20), it is easier to see the
presence of a fold, but we still need to analyse the folding stereographically in order
to determine the 3D geometry. Another possibility is that an area has been mapped
regionally, and is underlain by lots of small-scale folds (i.e. a sequence of
anticlines/antiforms and synclines/synforms). It is important to note that if data from
lots of small-scale folds, and data from a single large-scale fold would produce an
identical plot on a stereonet; stereographic projections take no account of the
geographical location at which a plane was recorded. If we are mapping on a large
scale, then it is likely that we will have recorded many hundreds of orientations of
bedding planes, which would need to be shown on a stereonet. Obviously we cannot
plot hundreds of great circles on a single stereonet (it would look very confusing, and
effectively show nothing), so poles to planes must be plotted instead. The plotting of
poles of planar data to illustrate the presence of folding is known as a  diagram. The
basis of a  diagram is the idea that poles to bedding from a single cylindrical fold
sequence would project as lineations onto a single plane (the  circle), as shown in
Figure 19. Therefore, by plotting all the poles recorded throughout a fold sequence,
the scatter of poles will define (or approximately define) a single great circle on the
stereonet. The  circle can be plotted simply by plotting the great circle which has the
best fir through the scatter of poles. The fold axis is perpendicular to the  circle, and
so on the stereonet it can be plotted as the pole to the  circle.

Figure 19:

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Most folds in examples like that shown above are rather contrived, perfectly
cylindrical folds, which will perfectly define a single  circle. In naturally deformed
strata, however, folds are not so perfectly cylindrical, and therefore there is a certain
amount of scatter way from the  circle. The greater the degree of scatter, the less
cylindrical the fold.

The limbs of a fold, which are characterised by subparallel bedding planes, will plot
as a number poles which are very close to each other on the stereonet. The average
(central) point in each cluster of poles is thus the average orientation of the pole of
each of the fold limbs. The interlimb angle can be measured by counting the angle
between each limb within the plane of the  circle. There are two conjugate angles
which can be measured on the  circle (one is acute, one is obtuse, and together the
angles add to 180), so you need to be very careful that the one you measure is the
correct interlimb angle. The point half way along the interlimb angle is the pole of the
axial plane. Note that the fold axis should lie on, or close to the axial plane. In most
naturally formed folds, the axial plane is curved (so it isn’t really a plane at all). It is
often therefore better to describe it geometrically as an ‘axial surface’.

Plotting fold axial planes for a variety of folds:

Bedding planes within a limb of a fold tend to be orientation parallel or sub-parallel to
each other, so it follows that poles from a single limb of a fold will plot fairly close to
each other on a  diagram. Limbs of a fold are therefore represented by a small scatter
of sub-parallel pole plots. The approximate centre of the scatter can be considered to
be the pole of the average plane of each limb. The  diagram allows for the axial
plane of the fold to be calculated, based on the average orientation of each limb. The
axial plane can be defined as the plane which bisects the interlimb angle of the fold.
The hingeline of the fold is therefore a linear element of the axial plane, and the
average axial plane can be plotted by identifying the plane which passes through the
hingeline of the fold (found either by plotting a  diagram, or by finding the fold axis
from the pole of the  circle), and passes through a line which bisects the interlimb
angle. However, it is very important to consider that the intersecting planes of the two
limbs create two angles; one of the angles is the interlimb angle, and the other is
180- interlimb angle. When you plot the axial plane, you must think about which of
the two angles developed along the  circle is the true interlimb angle. To illustrate
this, examine Figures 20 and 21 on the next pages.

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Figure 20:

As Figure 20 illustrates, progressive tightening of the fold is represented on the

stereonet by the poles of bedding becoming increasing parallel with the pole of the
axial plane. Ultimately, an isoclinal fold (whether upright or overturned) has poles to
bedding superimposed on the pole of the fold axial plane.

The other element required to plot the pole is the interlimb angle, which can be most
conveniently measured by counting the angle between the average poles for each limb
in the plane of the  circle (the angle between the average planes of the limbs is the

20
same as the angle between the poles of each limb). Remember that open folds will
have an obtuse interlimb angle, and tight to isoclinal folds will have increasingly
acute interlimb angles. Which of the two angles you measure in the plane of the 
circle should reflect this. See Figure 21 for further clarification.

Figure 21:

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Bearing all this information in mind, now try question sheet 4, which relates to Figure
23, which is a map of folded strata in an area of Scotland affected by the Caledonian
Orogeny, and subsequent Tertiary-aged igneous activity associated with the initial
opening of the North Atlantic Ocean. It shows the strike and dip of bedding planes
(strike is the upper digit, dip is the lower digit), and the dip direction is indicated by
the bedding symbol. The axial plane and hinge line orientation for some of the small-
scale folds in the area are also indicated, and also the outcrop of vertically-dipping
dolerite dykes (thick black lines).

Figure 22:

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 PRACTICAL 8 QUESTIONS (ASSESSED):

GENERAL GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A FOLD

You need to ensure that you are familiar with the following terminology, which
describes the geometry of a fold or folded areas:

Syncline; synform; synclinorium; anticline; antiform; anticlinorium; fold axis;

hinge line; axial plane/axial surface; axial planar trace; crest; trough; fold limbs

QUESTIONS:

1. Figure 22 is a geological field map of a part of the Caledonian mountain range in

NW Scotland. Strikes and dips of bedding are indicated. Small-scale folds are
also present and the orientations of their hinge lines and axial planes are indicated
at a few localities.
Inspect the map and classify the type of structure and determine the major
geometrical characteristics (orientations) of the structure.

2. Plot the poles to bedding on a Schmidt net ( - diagram). Is the fold cylindrical?
Determine the orientation of the fold-axis.

3. Determine the general direction of the axial planar trace on the map. Use the  -
diagram to determine the orientation of the axial plane. What are the angles
between the axial plane and the fold limbs?

4. What is the relationship, if any, between the fold-axis you have plotted on the 
diagram and the hinge lines of the small-scale folds on the map. What is the
relationship between the axial plane that you calculated on the  diagram, and the
axial planes of the small-scale folds?

5. Indicate on the  diagram the orientations of the 1, the 2 and the 3 axes of the
stress field that might have been responsible for the folding developed on the map.

6. What is the relationship between the vertically-dipping dykes (thick black lines on
Figure 22) and the fold structure? What is the likely orientation of the 3 axis of
the stress field into which the dykes intruded. How does this orientation compare
with the orientation of the 3 axis associated with folding? What are the age
relationships between the different stress fields and associated structures?

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PRACTICAL 9:

Working in groups around a laptop where there is good free Wifi, download some
stereographic projection freeware (Try looking up free (but copyrighted) software
on the pages of Richard Allmendinger at Cornell University). See if you can
work-out how to use it, and plot the same bedding data from practical 8 as poles.
How does your hand-drawn plot compare with the computer generated plot?
Which was faster? Explore other features of the software, such as contouring of
data, which will help you identify the average orientation of the fold limbs.

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 PRACTICAL 10.

The borehole problem: reconstruction of planar orientations from three cores:

When core is withdrawn from a borehole, it will have rotated as the drill spun around
it, and thus the orientation of planar structures (such as bedding planes) cannot be
readily deduced (actually the dip angle can be estimated by the angle between a
vertical core axis and the bedding surface, but strike cannot be estimated). However,
provided that at least three differently-inclined cores are drilled which intercept the
bedding, it is possible to calculate the in situ orientation of the bedding planes.

This method focuses on the fact that the poles of all the possible orientations of the
bedding planes will describe a small circle (i.e. a cone) on a stereographic projection
(Figs. 23a and 23b). The pole to the true bedding surface must lie somewhere on the
constructed small circle. Plotting two small circles from two differently inclined
boreholes will provide two intersections (Fig 23b), one of which will be the
orientation of the pole of the true bedding plane. Construction of a third cone of all
possible poles to bedding will determine which of the two intersections is the correct
one.

However, the construction of small circles (cones) is very time-consuming, unless the
cone axis happens to be horizontal. Using the principal of rotation (Practical 3), the
axis of the core can be temporarily rotated to horizontal for the purposes of small
circle construction, and then poles can be rotated back to derive the final answer.

Method:
1. Plot the axes of two of the boreholes: e.g., a1 and a2 (Fig 23b)
2. Find the plane which is occupied by both axes (i.e. rotate the poles until they
lie on the same plane) (Fig. 23c)
3. Using the strike of the plane as a horizontal rotation axis, rotate the two poles
to horizontal (i.e. the edge of the net). Record the number of degrees required
to attain horizontal (Fig 23c).
4. Using the angle δ (the angle between the axis of the core and the pole to the
bedding, measured from the core) draw small circles that are δ1 from a1 and
δ2  from a2. This can be achieved by temporarily moving each axis to N or S,
and counting δ  towards the centre. Remember that the top half of each cone
will also plot on the other side of the net (thus describing four small circles).
These small circles will meet at two points, p and q (Fig 23d).
5. Rotate p and q to reverse the original rotation carried out state 3, using the
same rotation axis (Fig 23e).
6. The rotated positions (p’ and q’) represent the two possible poles to bedding.
7. The exercise can be repeated for an alternative pair of axes (e.g. a2 and a3) to
determine whether p’ or q’ is correct.

25
Figure 23:

(from Lisle and Leyshon, 2004)

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 PRACTICAL 10 QUESTION:

Consider the following data from three drill holes:

Hole Orientation of Hole Angle between axis and pole to bedding

A 74280 73
B 70150 72
C 62067 39

Using the method described above, determine the orientation of the bedding plane
intersected by the three drill cores.

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 PRACTICAL 11/12.

Integrated structural analysis:

Unfortunately we cannot travel into a suitable field area within the time period of a
single 3 hour practical session. The aim of the final practical class is to simulate a
field area composed of deformed rock inside a room. Around the lab, there are
samples of rocks which show secondary and, in some cases, primary structures too.
During the course of this practical, you are effectively in the field, and you have to
undertake a structural analysis of the ‘field’ area. During this practical, examine the
rocks and describe what structures you see. Give as full a description as possible,
including a description of the processes which were involved in the deformation (e.g.
brittle, ductile, brittle-ductile?). It is also important that you determine as well as
possible the orientation of the strain and stress ellipses or ellipsoids for each sample.

The rocks are mounted on sheets of paper in such a way that they are orientated. If
you need to move the orientated samples, ensure that they go back on the paper in
exactly the same position and orientation, ready for the next student. Your task for
these samples is to measure the orientation of planes and lineations with a compass-
clinometer or smartphone, describe the samples and identify strain and stress axes
(and ellipsoids) in true 3D space.

For example, a fold with limbs orientated 180/45 W and 180/45E, with a hinge
line plunging 20000, would have an 00270 orientated S3/1 axis, an S1/3
orientated 80180, and an S2/2 axis orientated 20000 (all three strain/stress
axes being mutually perpendicular). Remember- some samples show brittle
deformation and others ductile. Some show both! (Remember the law of cross-cutting
relationships; is brittle older or younger than the ductile structure?). Is it likely that
brittle and ductile structures form in the same environment? Is it likely that they form
under the same stress regime, with the same orientation of the strain/stress axes?

Go through each of the orientated samples and determine the orientations of strain
ellipses (or ellipsoids where possible). What do you find regarding the orientation of
the ellipses/ellipsoids for each of the samples? If you find that all these are orientated
approximately parallel, then consider the possibility that all the various structures that
you have measured might be related to each other.

This is illustrating the theory that a range of structures can form in a predictable
orientation as a result of a single deformational event (integrated structural analysis).
We should not consider joints, faults or folds as isolated structures, but rather,
potentially, as different responses to the same brittle deformational event, with all
structures forming within the same stress/strain ellipsoid. Similarly, in a ductile
environment, foliation, lineation, shear zones and folding can all be considered as
being potentially related, provided that they fit the same orientations of strain/stress
axes.

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Figure 25:

Examine Figure 25 above. It shows strain ellipses, though the axes have been labelled
as stress axes. Within the ellipses are drawn some of the possible structures that might
be expected to form as a result of the strain and stress given the directions of the
principle axes.

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 PRACTICAL 12/13 (ASSESSED.

Indoor Mine:
In the corridors on the fourth floor of the geology department, you will notice green and gold
stripes painted on the wall. For the purposes of this exercise, consider the corridors as tunnels
within an underground mine. Usually mines are dark, hot, noisy and unpleasant, and make it
difficult to concentrate on structural geology. Using the corridors of the department makes
this exercise more pleasant. On Click-UP, you will find ‘mine plans’ (actually they are the
architects drawings for the building) and you will see the various tunnels (ie the corridors)
accurately marked on them. Your first task is to map the various structures (the green and
gold stripes, and the black stripes) onto the mine plans.
Questions for your consideration:

1. What geometry do you think might have caused the stripes? Are they planes or
lineations?
2. Are the green and gold stripes continuous? What secondary structures are affecting
their orientation and their location?
3. Describe fully the geometry of any secondary structures that you can identify
4. What is a saddle reef ore deposit? Assume that there is one in this mine. What
direction would you drill to stay within the ore body. Which location would you drill
from on the floor of the fourth, third and second floors (ie at different levels in the
mine). Mark these locations on you mine plans, and also show where the stripes
would be at different levels.
5. Of the green and gold stripes, which is the youngest? (ie what is the ‘younging
direction’?).

Points to consider: The vertical distance between each level in the mine (ie floor of each level
in the building) is 330cm. Use this (and some trigonometry) to help you with your mine plan.

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