ALGEBRA OF MATRICES

A matrix is a rectangular array of elements. This is given in the form

 
 a12 a12 . . . a1n 
 
 
 
 a
 21 a22 . . . a2n 

 
 
 
 . . . . . 
 
 
 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The numbers a11 , ...amn are called the elements of the matrix. The horizontal lines are called

rows or row vectors, and the vertical lines are called columns or column vectors of the matrix.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is called m × n matrix (read ”m by n matrix”).

Matrices will be denoted by capital letters A, B etc., or by [aij ], [bjk ], etc., that is, by writing the

general element of the matrix, enclosed in brackets.

In the double-subscript notation for the elements, the first subscript always denotes the row and

the second subscript denotes the column containing elements.

A matrix

a1 a2 . . . an

having only one row is called a row matrix or row vector. A matrix

1
  
 b1 
 
 
 

 b2 

 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 

 . 

 
 
 

 . 

 
 
bm

having only one column is called a column matrix or column vector.

The elements of a matrix may be real or complex numbers. If all the elements of a matrix are real,

the matrix is called the real matrix.

A matrix having the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix, and the number

of rows is called its order. A square matrix of order n is also called an n × n amtrix (read ”n by

n matrix”).

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices, Multiplication by Scalars.

Addition and subtraction of matrices are defined only for the matrices of the same order, and are

defined as follows. The sum of two m × n matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] is the m × n matrix

C = [cij ] with elements

cij = aij ± bij , i, j = 1, ..., m

and written as C = A ± B.

Example 1: If

     
 −4 6 3   5 −1 0   1 5 3 
A= , B= , then (i) A + B = 
     

     
0 1 2 3 1 0 3 2 2
 
 −9 7 3 
(ii). A − B = 
 

 
−3 0 2

2
Multiplication of Matrices by Scalars (numbers) is defined as follows. The product of

an m × n matrix A by a scalar k (a number) is denoted by kA and is the m × n matrix obtained

by multiplying every element of A by k, that is,

 
 ka12 ka12 . . . ka1n 
 
 
 
 ka ka22 . . . ka2n 
 21 
kA = 



 
 . . . . . 
 
 
 
kam1 kam2 . . . kamn

Example 2: If

   
 −4 6 3   −24 36 18 
A= , 6A = 
   

   
0 1 2 0 6 12

Transpose of a Matrix

The Transpose of an m × n matrix A = [aij ] denoted as AT is the n × m matrix obtained by

interchanging the rows and columns in A, that is, the ith row of A becomes the ith column of AT .
 
 a11 a21 . . . am1 
 
 
 
 a
T
 12 a22 . . . am2 

A = [aji ] = 



 
 . . . . . 
 
 
 
a1n a2n . . . amn

NOTE

(1). (A + B)T = AT + B T .

(2). (AB)T = B T AT

3
A real square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be symmetric if it is equal to its transpose. i.e. A = AT

A real square matrix A = [aij ] is said to be skew-symmetric if AT = −A

Matrix Multiplication
   
 a11 a12   b11 b12 
Let A =  and B = 
   
 
   
a21 a22 b21 b22

We define the product AB (in this order) of A and B to be matrix

   
 a11 b11 + a12 b21 a11 b12 + a12 b22   c11 c12 
C = AB =  =
   

   
a21 b11 + a22 b21 a21 b12 + a22 b22 c21 c22

Example: Let

 
 1 0 2 
 
 3 2 −1 
 
 
A= and B =  5 3 1  , then
   

   
0 4 6 



6 4 2
 
  1 0 2  
 
 3 2 −1  
 
  7 2 6 
AB =   5 3 1  = 
    

    
0 4 6 


 56 36 16
6 4 2

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

(a) Multiplication of matrix is associative and also distributive with respect to addition of ma-

trices, that is,

(kA)B = k(AB) = A(kB)

A(BC) = (AB)C

4
 (A + B)C = AC + BC

C(A + B) = CA + CB

(b) Matrix multiplication is not commutative; that is if A and B are two matrices such that both

AB and BA are defined, then

AB ̸= BA in general.

(c) The cancellation law is not true in general, that is

AB = 0 does not imply A = 0 or B = 0.

Determinants and Inverse of Matrices

Let A be a square matrix of the form

 
 a11 a12 
, then the determinant of A denoted as Det(A) or |A| is given as
 

 
a21 a22

a11 a12
= a11 a22 − a21 a12
a21 a22

For a 3 × 3 of the form;

 
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13
 
  a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
A =  a21 a22 a23  , |A| = = a11 −a12 +a33
 
  a21 a22 a23



 a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

5
 Example: Find |A| if

 
 1 2 −1 
 
 
A= 0 4 7 
 
 
 
 
2 1 4

Solution

1 2 −1
4 7 0 7 0 4
0 4 7 =1 −2 + (−1) = 9 + 28 + 8 = 45.
1 4 2 4 2 1
2 1 4

NOTE:

(a) A square matrix is said to be singular if its determinant is zero otherwise it is nonsingular.

(b) A square matrix is invertible if it is nonsingular.

Properties of Determinant

(i) If two rows are interchanged, their determinants will change sign. That is,

a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23

a21 a22 a23 = − a11 a12 a13

a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

(ii) If two rows (or columns) are identical, the value of the determinant is zero. That is

a1 a2 a3 a1 a1 b1

a1 a2 a3 = a2 a2 b2 = 0.

b1 b2 b3 a3 a3 b3

6
(iii) The determinant of a matrix and that of its transpose is the same.

a1 a2 a3 a1 b1 c1

b1 b2 b3 = a2 b2 c2

c1 c2 c3 a3 b3 c3

(iv) If the elements of any row (or column) of a determinant be each multiplied by the same

number, the determinant is multiplied by that number. That is

ka1 ka2 ka3 a1 a2 a3

|kA| = b1 b2 b3 =k b1 b2 b3 = k|A|

c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3

Inverse of Matrices

2 × 2 Matrices

A × A−1 = I. For example, the 2 × 2 matrix:

 
 a11 a12 
A=
 

 
a21 a22
 
 a22 −a21 
Cofactor(A) = 
 

 
−a12 a11
 
 a22 −a12 
Adjoint = (CofactorA)T = 
 

 
−a21 a11

Adjoint A
A−1 =
|A|

7
  

1  a22 −a21 
 
(a11 a22 − a12 a21 ) 
 

−a12 a11
 
 1 0 
AA−1 = I = 
 

 
0 1

Example

 
 3 2 
A=
 

 
4 2

|A| = 6 − 8 = −2

 

1 2 −2 
A−1 = − 
 
2


−4 3

Checking:

  

1 3 2   2 −2 
AA−1 = − 
  
2
 
 
4 2 −4 3
 

1 6 − 8 −6 + 6 
=− 
 
2


8 − 8 −8 + 6
 

1 −2 0 
=− 
 
2


0 −2
 
 1 0 
I=
 

 
0 1

8
3 × 3 Matrices
 
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 
B =  a21 a22 a23
 

 
 
 
a31 a32 a33
 
a a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
 + 22
 
 − + 

 

 a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12 

Cofactor B = 
 − + − 

 

 a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a12 a13 a11 a13 a11 a12 
 + − +
 

 
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

 
a a23 a12 a13 a12 a13
 + 22
 
 − + 

 

 a32 a33 a32 a33 a22 a23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a21 a23 a11 a13 a11 a13 
T
 
Adjoint B = (Cofactor B) = 
 − + − 

 

 a31 a33 a31 a33 a21 a23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a21 a22 a11 a12 a11 a12 
 + − +
 

 
a31 a32 a31 a32 a21 a22

Adjoint B
B −1 =
|B|

9
Example

 
 3 2 1 
 
 
B= 1 4 7 
 
 
 
 
2 7 3
 
 4 7 1 7 1 4 
 +
 − + 

 

 7 3 2 3 2 7 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 2 1 3 1 3 2 

Cofactor of B = 
 − + − 

 

 7 3 2 3 2 7 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 1 3 1 3 2 
 + − +
 

 
4 7 1 7 1 4
 
 21 − 49 −(3 − 14) 7−8 
 
 
=  −(6 − 7)
 
 9−2 −(21 − 4) 

 
 
14 − 4 −(21 − 1) 12 − 2
 
 −37 11 −1 
 
 
= 1
 
 7 −17 

 
 
10 −20 10
 
 −37 1 10 
 
 
Adjoint of B =  11
 
 7 −20 

 
 
−1 −17 10

|B| = 3(−37) − 2(11) − 1(−1) = −90

10
  
 −37 1 10 
 
Adjoint B 1 
 
B −1 = = −  11

|B| 90  7 −20 

 
 
−1 −17 10

Checking:

  
 3 2 1   −37 1 10 
  
1 
   
BB −1 = −  1 4 7   11
 
90   7 −20 

  
  
2 7 3 −1 −17 10

 
 3(−37) + 2(11) + 1(−1) 3(1) + 2(7) + 1(−17) 3(10) + 2(−20) + 1(10) 
 
1  
= −  1(−37) + 4(11) + 7(−1) 1(1) + 4(7) + 7(−17) 1(10) + 4(−20) + 7(10)
 
90 


 
 
2(−37) + 7(11) + 3(−1) 2(1) + 7(7) + 3(−17) 2(10) + 7(−20) + 3(10)

 
 −90 0 0 
 
1 
 
=−  0

90  −90 0 

 
 
0 0 −90
 
 1 0 0 
 
 
= 0 1 0 
 
 
 
 
0 0 1

Properties of Inverse Matrices

1. If Matrix A is singular it does not have an inverse.

2. If A is regular then it has one and only one inverse (uniqueness).

3. For n × n matrices where AB = I then A = B −1 or B = A−1 .

11
Application of Matrices

Solution of linear equations:

a1 x + b1 y = c1

a2 x + b2 y = c2

To find x and y, put into matrix form:

    
 a1 b1   x   c1 
=
    
  
    
a2 b2 y c2

i.e

A⃗x = C

⃗x = A−1 C

    
 x  1  b2 −b1   c1 
⃗x =   =
    
  (a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) 
  
 
y −a2 a1 c2
   
 x   b2 c1 −b1 c2
a1 b2 −a2 b1

 =
   

   
a2 c1 −a2 c1
y a1 b2 −a2 b1

Example

x + 2y = 3

4x + 2y = 6

in Matrix form:

12
     
 1 2  x   3 
= 
    
 
    
4 2 y 6

   −1  
 x   1 2   3 
 =
     
  
     
y 4 2 6
    
 x  1 2 −2   3 
 =− 
    
6
 
   
y −4 1 6
     
 x  1 −6   1 
 =−  =
     
6

    
y −6 1

Crammer’s Method

For system of two equations:

a1 x + b1 y = c1

a2 x + b2 y = c2

Put into matrix form:

    
 a1 b1   x   c1 
=
    
  
    
a2 b2 y c2

i.e

A⃗x = C

If

|A| = ∆

13
 |Ay | = ∆y

|Ax | = ∆x

Then

∆x ∆y
x= ; y=
∆ ∆

Example

x + 2y = 3

4x + 2y = 6

in Matrix form:

    
 1 2  x   3 
= 
    
 
    
4 2 y 6

1 2
|A| = ∆ = = 2 − 8 = −6
4 2

3 2
|Ax | = ∆x = = 6 − 12 = −6
6 2

1 3
|Ay | = ∆y = = 6 − 12 = −6
4 6

Therefore,

14
 ∆x −6
x= = =1
∆ −6

∆y −6
y= = =1
∆ −6

NB: These methods be extended to an n × n matrix, obtained from n equations and n unknowns.

Example

Solve the following system of linear equations using:

1. The cofactor method

2. Crammer’s rule

x−y−z =1

2x − 3y + z = 10

x + y − 2z = 0

Solution

In matrix form:

    
 1 −1 −1   x   1 
    
    
 2 −3 1   y  =  10 
    
    
    
    
1 1 −2 z 0

1 −1 −1

|A| = 2 −3 1

1 1 −2

−3 1 2 1 2 −3
=1 − (−1) + (−1)
1 −2 1 −2 1 1

15
 = 1(6 − 1) + 1(−4 − 1) − 1(2 + 3)

=5−5+5

= −5

1. By the cofactor method:

    
 1 −1 −1   x   1 
    
    
 2 −3 1   y  =  10 
    
    
    
    
1 1 −2 z 0

i.e

A⃗x = C

 
 −3 1 2 1 2 −3 
 +
 − + 

 

 1 −2 1 −2 1 1 

 
 
−1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
 
 
Cofactor A =  − + −
 

 

 1 −2 1 −2 1 1 

 
 
 
 −1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 
 + − +
 

 
−3 1 2 1 2 −3
 
 6−1 −(−4 − 1) 2+3 
 
 
=  −(2 + 1)
 
 −2 + 1 −(1 + 1) 

 
 
−1 − 3 −(1 + 2) −3 + 2

16
  
 5 5 5 
 
 
=  −3 −1 −2
 

 
 
 
−4 −3 −1
 
 5 −3 −4 
 
 
Adjoint A =  5 −1 −3 
 
 
 
 
5 −2 −1
 
 5 −3 −4 
 
Adjoint A 1 
A−1 = = −  5 −1 −3 
 
|A| 5 
 
 
5 −2 −1

Recall that ⃗x = A−1 B

    
 x   5 −3 −4  1 
    
  1  
 y  = −  5 −1 −3
    
  10 
  5  
    
    
z 5 −2 −1 0
   
 x   5 
   
   
 y = 1 
   
   
   
   
z 3

17
 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Eigen Values

Let A be a square matrix, a scalar λ is said to be an eigenvalue of A if there exist a non-zero column

vector X such that

AX = λX

Where a non-zero column vector X is called eigen vector.

Characteristic Polynomial: The determinant |A − λI| when expanded gives a polynomial

called the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A.

Characteristic Equation: The equation |A − λI| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of a

matrix A.

Characteristic Roots: The roots of the equation |A − λI| = 0 are called the characteristic roots

or eigenvalues of a matrix A.

Properties of Eigenvalues

(1) A matrix and its transpose have the same eigenvalues.

(2) The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal to the trace of the matrix. The trace of the

matrix is the sum of the elements in the principal diagonal of a matrix.

(3) The product of the eigenvalues of a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix.

(4) If λ1 , λ2 , ...λm are the eigen values of a matrix A, then

(i) the eigenvalues of KA are Kλ1 , Kλ2 , ...Kλm

(ii) the eigenvalues of An are λn1 , λn2 , ...λnm

(iii) the eigen values of A−1 are 1 1 1

λ1 , λ2 , ... λm

18
 Examples

(1) Find the eigenvalues of the matrix

 
 1 1 3 
 
 
A= 5
 
 2 6 

 
 
−2 −1 −3

Solution

1 1 3 1 0 0

Let λ be an eigenvalues of A, then |A − λI| = 0 =⇒ 5 2 6 −λ 0 1 0 =0

−2 −1 −3 0 0 1

1−λ 1 3

=⇒ 5 2−λ 6 = 0 =⇒ λ3 = 0 =⇒ λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = 0.

−2 −1 −3 − λ

(2) Find the eigenvalues of f (A) = 3A3 + 5A2 − 6A + 2I if

 
 2 2 1 
 
 
A= 1 3 1 
 
 
 
 
1 2 2

Solution

The eigenvalues of the matrix A are 1, 1, 5. For λ = 1, f (1) = 3(1)3 + 5(1)2 − 6(1) + 2 = 4.

F orλ = 5, f (5) = 3(5)3 + 5(5)2 − 6(5) + 2 = 472.

Therefore, the eigen values of 3A3 + 5A2 − 6A + 2I are 4, 4, 472.

19
 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

This states that every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

i.e, if det(A − λI) = (−1)n (λn + a1 λn−1 + a2 λn−2 + ... + an ) is the characteristic polynomial of

n × n matrix A = (aij ), then the matrix equation X n + a1 X n−1 + a2 X n−2 + ... + an I = 0 is satisfies

by X = A. i.e An + a1 An−1 + a2 An−2 + ... + an I = 0

The above theorem can be used to find the inverse of a matrix.

Example: Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find the inverse of the matrix

 
 2 1 0 
 
 
A= 1 2 0 
 
 
 
 
0 0 3

Solution

2−λ 1 0

|A − λI| = 1 2−λ 0 = 0 =⇒ λ3 − 7λ2 + 15λ − 9 = 0.

0 0 3−λ

By Cayley-Hermilton theorem; f (A) = A3 − 7A2 + 15A − 9I = 0. Premultiply both sides by

A−1 , we have; A−1 A3 − 7A−1 A2 + 15A−1 A − 9A−1 = 0. =⇒ A2 − 7A + 15I = 9A−1

     
 5 4 0   14 7 0   1 0 0 
     
1 2 1 
     
=⇒ A−1 = [A − 7A + 15I] =  4 5 0  − 7  7 14 0  + 15  0 1 0  =
    
9 9      
     
     
0 0 9 0 0 21 0 0 1
   
 6 −3 0   2 −1 0 
   
1  1 
 −3 6 0  =  −1 2 0 
   
9  3 
   
   
0 0 3 0 0 1

20
 Eigenvectors

As earlier stated, a non-zero vector X is called a characterisic vector or eigenvector of a matrix A

if there is a scalar λ such that AX = λX

AX = λX = λIX =⇒ (A − λI)X = 0. But X ̸= 0 =⇒ (A − λI) = 0.

Properties of Eigenvectors

(1) The eigenvector of a matrix is not unique.

(2) If λ1 , λ2 , ...λn are distinct eigenvalues of an n×n matrix, then their corresponding eigenvectors

x1 , x2 , ..., xn form a linearly independent set.

(3) If two or more eigenvalues are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly independent

eigenvectors corresponding to equal roots.

(4) Two eigen vectors x1 , x2 are called orthogonal vectors if xT1 x2 = 0.

(5) Eigenvectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different eigen values are orthogonal.

Case1 : Non-Symmetric Matrices with Non-Repeated Eigenvalues

Example: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

 
 1 0 −1 
 
 
A= 1 2 1 
 
 
 
 
2 2 3

Solution

1−λ 0 −1

For eigenvalues; |A − λI| = 0 =⇒ 1 2−λ 1 =0

2 2 3−λ

21
=⇒ (1 − λ)(2 − λ)(3 − λ) = 0 =⇒ λ = 1, 2, 3. This shows that eigenvalues are distinct.
 
 x 
 
 
For the corresponding eigenvectors, (A − λI)X = 0, where X =  y 
 
 
 
 
z
    
 0 0 −1   x1   0 
    
    
When λ = 1, (A − I)X = 0 =⇒  1 1 1   y1  =  0 
    
    
    
    
2 2 2 z1 0

z1 = 0 (i)

x1 + y1 + z1 = 0 (ii)

2x1 + 2y1 + 2z1 = 0 (iii)

From (i), z1 = 0, =⇒ from (ii), x1 = −y1 . Let x1 = k, =⇒ y1 = −k

   
 k   1 
   
   
Thus; X1 =  −k . Let k = 1, X1 =  −1
   

   
   
   
0 0
    
 −1 0 −1   x2   0 
    
    
When λ = 2, (A − 2I)X = 0 =⇒  1 0 1   y2  =  0 
    
    
    
    
2 2 1 z2 0
   
 x2   2 
   
   
=⇒  y2  =  −1 
   
   
   
   
z2 2
    
 −2 0 −1   x3   0 
    
    
When λ = 3; (A − 3I)X = 0 =⇒  1 −1 1   y3  =  0 
    
    
    
    
2 2 0 z3 0

22
    
 x3   1 
   
   
=⇒  y3  =  −1 
   
   
   
   
z3 2

Case II : Non-Symmetric Matrices with Repeated Eigenvalues

Example: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

 
 2 1 1 
 
 
A= 2 3 2 
 
 
 
 
3 3 4

Solution

The eigenvalues of the matrix are λ = 1, 1, 7

For eigenvectors;
    
 2−λ 1 1  x   0 
    
    
(A − λI)X = 0 =⇒  2  y  =  0 
    
 3−λ 2    
    
    
3 3 4−λ z 0
    
 1 1 1   x1   0 
    
    
When λ = 1;  2 2 2   y1  =  0  =⇒ x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
    
    
    
    
3 3 3 z1 0
 
 −1 
 
 
Let x3 = 0, then x1 = −x2 . When x2 = 1, x1 = −1. Therefore; X1 =  1 
 
 
 
 
0

23
  
 −1 
 
 
Also let x2 = 0, x1 = −x3 . When x3 = 1, x1 = −1 Therefore; X2 =  0 
 
 
 
 
1
    
 −5 1 1   x3   0 
    
    
Also when λ = 7,  2 −4 2   y3  =  0 
    
    
    
    
3 3 −3 z3 0

−5x3 + y3 + z3 = 0 (i)

2x3 − 4y3 + 2z3 = 0 (ii)

3x3 + 3y3 − 3z3 = 0 (iii)

From equation (iii), z3 = x3 + y3 . Substitute into (i) and (ii). For (i), we have −4x3 + 2y3 =

0 =⇒ y3 = 2x3 . Also, z3 = 3x3 . Let x3 = 1, =⇒ y2 = 2, z3 = 3. Therefore;

 
 1 
 
 
X3 =  2 
 
 
 
 
3

Case III: Symmetric Matrices with Non-Repeated Eigenvalues

Example: Find the eigen values and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix

 
 −2 5 4 
 
 
A= 5 7 5
 

 
 
 
4 5 −2

24
Solution

The eigenvalues of the matrix are λ = −3, −6, 12.

For eigenvectors;
    
 −2 − λ 5 4   x1   0 
    
    
(A − λI)X = 0 =⇒    y1  =  0 
    
 5 7−λ 5    
    
    
4 5 −2 − λ z1 0

When λ = −3, we have

    
 1 5 4   x1   0 
    
    
 5 10 5   y1  =  0 
    
    
    
    
4 5 1 z1 0

x1 + 5y1 + 4z1 = 0 (i)

5x1 + 10y1 + 5z1 = 0 (ii)

4x1 + 5y1 + z1 = 0 (iii)

 
 1 
 
 
x1 = z1 = 1, y1 = −1 =⇒ X1 =  −1 
 
 
 
 
1

When λ = −6, we have

    
 4 5 4   x2   0 
    
    
 5 13 5   y2  =  0 
    
    
    
    
4 5 4 z2 0

25
 4x2 + 5y2 + 4z2 = 0 (i)

5x2 + 13y2 + 5z2 = 0 (ii)

4x2 + 5y2 + 4z2 = 0 (iii)

 
 1 
 
 
x2 = 1, y2 = 0, z2 = −1 =⇒ X2 =  0 
 
 
 
 
−1

When λ = 12, we have

    
 −14 5 4   x3   0 
    
    
  y3  =  0 
    
 5
 −5 5    
    
    
4 5 −14 z3 0

−14x3 + 5y2 + 4z2 = 0 (i)

5x2 − 5y2 + 5z2 = 0 (ii)

4x2 + 5y2 + −14z2 = 0 (iii)

 
 1 
 
 
x3 = z3 = 1, y3 = 2 =⇒ X3 =  3 
 
 
 
 
1

26
 Case IV: Symmetric Matrices with Repeated Eigenvalues

Example: Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrix

 
 2 −1 1 
 
 
A =  −1 2 −1 
 
 
 
 
1 −1 2

Solution

2−λ −1 1

The characteristic equation is −1 2−λ −1 = 0 =⇒ λ = 1, 1, 4.

1 −1 2−λ

For the corresponding eigenvectors;

    
 2 − λ −1 1  x   0 
    
    
(A − λI)X = 0 =⇒  −1 2 − λ −1  y  =  0 
    
    
    
    
1 −1 2 − λ z 0

When λ = 1, we have

    
 1 −1 1   x1   0 
    
    
= 0 
    
 −1 1 −1   y1
    
    
    
1 −1 1 z1 0

x1 − y1 + z1 = 0 (i)

−x1 + y1 − z1 = 0 (ii)

27
 x1 − y1 + z1 = 0 (iii)

=⇒ y1 = x1 + z1 .
 
 1 
 
 
Let x1 = 1, z1 = −1, then y1 = 0 =⇒ X1 =  0 
 
 
 
 
−1
 
 1 
 
 
Also, let x1 = 1, z1 = 1, then y1 = 2 =⇒ X2 =  2 
 
 
 
 
1

When λ = 4, we have

    
 −2 −1 1   x3   0 
    
    
= 0 
    
 −1 −2 −1   y3
    
    
    
1 −1 −2 z3 0

−2x3 − y3 + z3 = 0 (i)

−x3 − 2y3 − z3 = 0 (ii)

x3 − y3 − 2z3 = 0 (iii)
 
 1 
 
 
x3 = z3 = 1, y3 = −1 =⇒ X3 =  −1 
 
 
 
 
1

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