BIOLOGY: Cellular Biology (Parts of the Cell, Cellular Metabolism, The Cell Cycle, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)

● controls movement of water, gas (can pass freely),

CELL THEORY and molecules into and out of the cell
All living things are composed of one or more cells. ● FLUID MOSAIC MODEL - the cell membrane contains
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function a lipid bilayer in which protein molecules are
of all living things. embedded (some acts as channels)
All cells come from pre-existing cells. ● FUNCTIONS: Barrier and selection, controlled
transport, signal transduction, cell-to-cell recognition
and communication, enzymatic reaction, and
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
cytoskeleton anchor
● (-) nucleus
C. CYTOPLASM
● (-) membrane-bound organelles
● Reproduce through Binary Fission; single ● Includes all the content of a cell inside the cell-
chromosome (haploid) membrane but outside the nucleus
● All are unicellular ● Composed of cytosol (gel-like consistency) - water-
● Ex: Bacteria and archaea (single-celled organisms based solution that contains ions, small molecules,
that survive in hostile environments) and macromolecules
D. NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES
PARTS OF PROKARYOTIC CELL
1. Cell Wall 1. Nucleus
● Gives protection and maintains the shape ● Control center of the cell
● Made up of peptidoglycan (polysaccharide and ● Contains DNA, histone, and non-histone proteins
amino acids) and murein and some ribonucleic acid (RNA)
2. Cell Membrane - cell transport ● Two major functions:
3. Nucleoid - Contains the “naked” DNA (usually one ○ Storage of the cell’s hereditary material
double-stranded circular DNA) ○ Coordination of the cell’s activities
4. Plasmid - Small circular DNA; contains several genes ● Contents:
responsible for drug resistance; able to replicate a. Nuclear Membrane - Double-layered
independently of the large DNA; can be passed membrane enclosing the nuclear contents
down to other prokaryotes through Pili perforated by pores
5. Pili - Small hair-like appendages b. Nuclear Pores - Regulate passage; permeable to
6. Ribosomes - Protein synthesis small proteins
7. Flagella - Movement c. Nucleoplasm/Karyoplasm - fluid-like substance
in the nucleus of a cell in which the nucleolus
and chromatin are suspended
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
d. Nuclear RNA - messenger, ribosomal, and
● (+) TRUE nucleus bound by a double membrane
transfer RNA (mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA)
● (+) membrane-bound organelles
e. Chromatin - DNA + proteins; visible as
● Reproduce through Mitosis and Meiosis; paired
individual chromosomes during cell division
chromosomes (double or more)
f. Nucleolus
● Unicellular or multicellular
● At the center of the nucleus
● Ex: Animals, Plants, Fungi, and Protists
● Not bound by a membrane
PARTS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL ● Manufacture subunits that form the
A. CELL WALL ribosomes (Ribosome production)
● Made up of chitin and cellulose 2. Ribosomes
● Present in plant cells (absent in animal cells) ● Sites where cells are manufactured
B. CELL MEMBRANE ● Two Types:
a. Free Ribosomes - own cellular use
● Flexible, Semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that is
b. Bound Ribosomes - transported
ampiphatic (has a polar hydrophilic head [water-
E. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
loving] and 2 non-polar hydrophobic tail [water-
fearing] ) ● The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic
and performs metabolic functions in the cell

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BIOLOGY: Cellular Biology (Parts of the Cell, Cellular Metabolism, The Cell Cycle, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)

● does not include mitochondria, chloroplasts, or components of cilia and flagella, participate in
peroxisomes (they do not receive vesicles from the the formation of spindle fibers during cell
Golgi Apparatus) division
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum - biosynthetic factory b. Microfilaments (as actin filaments)
● “Little net within the cytoplasm” - Common in all eukaryotes (absent in
● Network of connected membranes with tubules and prokaryotes)
sacs (cisternae) - Primarily determines the cell shape; generates
● Two regions: forces for cell contraction and movement;
a. Rough ER - Has bound ribosomes for protein enables cell to pinch into two during division;
synthesis involved in cyclosis
b. Smooth ER - Has enzymes for lipid synthesis c. Intermediate filaments (as nuclear lamins)
and detoxification; found in muscle cells, called - Maintain cell shape and rigidityl holds the
sacroplasmic reticulum, stores Ca2+ for muscle nucleus in permanent position, binds
contraction neighboring cells (desmosomes)
2. Golgi Apparatus G. ENERGY TRANSDUCING ORGANELLES
● Shipping and receiving center 1. Mitochondria
● Composed of cisternae that interact with transport ● Site of cellular respiration (process of making
vesicles energy/ATP)
● Two faces: ● Has its own DNA; Undergo self-replication in a
a. Cis face - Receiving; adjacent to the ER manner similar to bacterial cell division. It has thus
b. Trans face - Shipping been proposed that mitochondria are derived from
● May modify its products (cisternal maturation bacteria that formed a symbiotic relationship with
model) eukaryotic cells during the process of evolution (a
3. Lysosome theory termed as endosymbiosis)
● Only in animal cells (absent in plants) ● The inner cavity is filled by the mitochondrial matrix.
● Contents are made up by the rough ER The matrix contains a number of enzymes for the
● Contains digestive enzymes (Acid Hydrolases), tricarboxylic acid cycle or Kreb’s cycle. The products
optimally active at pH of 5.0 of photosynthesis (Carbs + O2) is utilized by the
● Carry out the intracellular digestion: mitochondria to produce energy (ATP) and other by-
○ Phagocytosis - engulfing of smaller organisms products (CO2 + H2O). These by-products are then
○ Autophagy - cells recycle their own organic used by plants for photosynthesis.
materials ● Two membranes:
4. Vacuoles a. Outer (smooth)
● Empty space, diverse maintenance compartments ● Consist of porin, which allows free passage of
● Large and distinct in plant cells, with tonoplast small molecules
● May carry out hydrolysis (digestion) ● Contains enzymes that convert certain lipid
● Acts as storage for organic/inorganic compounds, substrates into forms that can be metabolized
metabolic waste products and pigments (plant cells) within the mitochondrion
F. CYTOSKELETON b. Inner (convoluted)
1. Cytoskeleton ● Thrown into complex folds and tubules called
● Role of the cytoskeleton: structural support, mobility cristae that project into the inner cavity and
and motility, regulation, cell division, and signal encloses the mitochondrial matrix
transmission 2. Chloroplast
● Network of fibers composed of: ● A type of plastid (plant organelle)
a. Microtubules (tubulin subunits) ○ Plastids (Pigmented or non-pigmented): double-
- Common in all eukaryotes (absent in membrane organelles with various forms; with
prokaryotes) specialized metabolism and structure; can be
- Hollow cylinders composed of tubulin subunits sites of synthesis and/or storage of various
- Functions: as conveyor belts moving other compounds
organelles through the cytoplasm, major ● Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll

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BIOLOGY: Cellular Biology (Parts of the Cell, Cellular Metabolism, The Cell Cycle, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)

● Has membranous sacs called thylakoids (where

chlorophyll is found: light-harvesting complexes) ,
staked in grana, and surrounded by the liquid stroma
● Has its own DNA material like the mitochondrion
H. MICROBODIES
● Do not bud from the endomembrane system; do not
have genetic material for self replication
● Has single membrane
1. Peroxisomes
● For detoxification through transfer of hydrogen to
oxygen
● Produce Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product
2. Glyoxisomes
● Converts fatty acids to sugar
● Present in the fat-storing tissues of plant seeds

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BIOLOGY: Cellular Biology (Parts of the Cell, Cellular Metabolism, The Cell Cycle, Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)

● Needs 2 ATPs; Oxygen not needed (anaerobic)

CELLULAR METABOLISM ● Net yield: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH
● Processes that USE or REQUIRE ENERGY - 2 pyruvate are actively transported into the
A. ANABOLIC PATHWAYS mitochondrial matrix where they are oxidized and
● Constructive phase of metabolism converted into Acetyl coA
● Consume energy to build complex molecules from - CO2 is released and 2 NADH are produced (1 NADH
simple ones → PHOTOSYNTHESIS per pyruvate)
B. CATABOLIC PATHWAYS 2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
● Break down phase of metabolism ● Completes the breakdown of glucose
● Release energy by breaking down complex → Steps:
molecules to simpler compounds → CELLULAR 1. Formation of Acetyl CoA/Intermediate Step: Pyruvate is
RESPIRATION actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix and
converted into acetyl CoA, releasing 1 molecule of CO₂
PHOTOSYNTHESIS and generating 1 NADH (2 NADH since there are 2
● Process of converting solar energy into chemical energy pyruvate)
usable by cells 2. Cycle Steps: Acetyl CoA enters the cycle and combines
● Takes place in chloroplasts with oxaloacetate to form citrate. Through a series of
● Overall reaction: reactions, citrate is converted back into oxaloacetate,
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + photons → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O producing ATP, NADH, FADH₂, and releasing CO₂ in the
process.
LIGHT REACTION (photo) DARK REACTION (synthesis)
Light-dependent rxn Light-independent rxn
Light energy → ChemicalCalvin Cycle; Carbon fixation 3. Electron Transport Chain
energy (inorganic carbon to organix
sugar), Reduction,
Regeneration ENERGY TALLY:
Occurs in the thylakoids Occurs in the stroma AEROBIC: 36 ATP
Prod: O2, ATP, NADPHProd: G3P (gleceraldehyde 3-
ANAEROBIC: 2 ATP
(reduced [electron-bearing]phosphate) or PGAL
electron carrier/reducing(Phosphoglyceraldehyde) Glycolysis 2 ATP, 2 NADH
agent/donor) Krebs Cycle 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 QH2
Electron Transport 32 ATP
Total: 36 OR 38 ATP (depends on shuttle used)
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
● Breaks down glucose (in the cytoplasm) so that energy
may be stored in the form of ATP
● Starts with glucose and breaks it down to CO2, H2O, and
ATP
● Uses O2 and some ATPs to prime the pump and enzymes
● Overall reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 or 38 ATPs
● At this point, life diverges into 2 forms and 2 pathways:
a. Anaerobic cellular respiration (Glycolysis and
Fermentation)
b. Aerobic cellular respiration (Kreb’s cycle)
CELLULAR RESPIRATION REACTIONS
1. GLYCOLYSIS
● In cytoplasm, 6-carbon glucose molecule broken down
into 3-carbon molecules: PYRUVATE