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ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1 INTRODUCTION & SYSTEM OF FORCES

1. INTRODUCTION

Engineering mechanics is the branch of science that considers the motion of bodies and the
effects of forces on that motion. It may be divided into two parts
∙ Statics: Statics deals with the special case of a body at rest or a body that moves with a
constant velocity.
∙ Dynamics: Dynamics is further divided into Kinematics and Kinetics. Kinematics is
concerned with rates of change of geometrical quantities in a moving system; it does not
involve the concept of force. Kinetics treats the causes and the nature of motion that results
from specified forces.
1.1. BASIC CONCEPTS
∙ A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example, the size of the
earth is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit and thereafter the earth can be
modelled as a particle when studying its orbital motion.
∙ A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large number of particles in which
particles remain at a fixed distance from one another both before and after applying a
load.

2. FORCE

∙ An agent which produces or tends to produce, destroy or tends to destroy motion.

SI Unit: Newton (N)
∙ When two or more than two forces of different magnitude and direction act upon a body,
they constitute a system of forces.
∙ Two or more forces that act at the same point are called concurrent forces. Concurrent forces
need not have the same direction. They simply act at the same point. If they do have the
same direction, they are collinear forces.
∙ Two or more forces whose directed arrows lie in the same plane are called coplanar forces.
Since two concurrent forces always lie in a common plane, they are always coplanar. Three
or more concurrent forces are not necessarily coplanar.
2.1. RESULTANT OF FORCE
∙ It is possible to find a single force which will have the same effect as that of a number
of forces acting on a body. The single force is called resultant force and the process of
finding out the resultant force is called composition of forces. The reverse of the
composition of forces is called resolution of force.

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2.2. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
∙ The state of rest or of motion of a rigid body is unaltered if a force acting on the body
is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere
on the body along the line of action of the applied forces.
Example → Force.

Fig:1

3. COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

3.1. PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

∙ If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, which passes through their
point of intersection, their resultant force is represented ,both in magnitude and in
direction ,by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn through their point of
intersection.
∙ Let two forces P and Q are represented by OP and OQ respectively, two sides of the
parallelogram. Now the parallelogram OPRQ is completed and the resultant is
represented by diagonal OR.

Fig :2
In  ORS

2 2
R2 = ( OP + PS ) + (RS )

In  PRS, PS = Q cos  , RS = Q sin 

R2 = (P + Q cos  ) + Q2 sin2 
2

R2 = P2 + Q2 cos2  + Q2 sin2  + 2PQ cos 

R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 

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( )
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R = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos 

In  ORS
RS Q sin 
tan  = =
OP + PS P + Q cos 

Q sin 
tan  =
P + Q cos 
EXAMPLE 1
Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the resultant
of these two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?
Sol.
First force (F1) = 100 N
Second force (F2) = 150 N
Angle between F1 and F2 (θ) = 45°.
We know that the resultant force,

R = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos 

= (100) 2 + (150) 2 + 2  100  150 cos 45o N

= 100 000 + 22 500 + (30 000  0.707) N

= 232 N
3.2. ANALYTICAL METHOD
• Resolve all forces horizontally, then determine ©H = algebraic sum of all horizontal
component.
• Resolve all forces vertically, then determine ©V = algebraic sum of all vertical
component.
• R = {(©H)2 + (©V)2}1/2

• tan  =©V/©H

Fig:3

F = FH2 + FV2 ,
FV
tan  =
FH

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EXAMPLE 2
Determine the resultant of a system of four coplanar concurrent forces as shown in fig.
by composition of forces of resolution.

Fig:4
Solution.
The x and y components of each force are determined by trigonometry as shown in the
table. The x-components act to the right and y-components act upward and are
represented by positive numbers.
Angle with x-components y-components
Force Magnitude(kN)
(x-axis) (F cos θ) (F sin θ)

F1 20 30 17.32 10

F2 30 120 –15 25.98

F3 40 225 –28.28 –28.28

F4 60 300 30 -51.96

ΣFy =
ΣFx = 4.04kN
– 44.26kN

Thus, the resultant R of the four forces is

R = 4.04i – 44.26j kN
It is resultant to express resultant in simple form instead of i and j form.

The magnitude of the resultant, R = (4.04)2 + (−44.26)2

R = 44.44 kN.
The direction of the resultant

 = tan−1
F y  44.26 
= tan−1  − 
F x  4.04 
 = −84.78
EXAMPLE 3
A system of forces are acting at the corners of a rectangular block as shown in Figure.

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Fig:5
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Sol.
Given
System of forces
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving forces horizontally,
ΣH = 25 – 20 = 5 kN
and now resolving the forces vertically
ΣV = (–50) + (–35) = – 85 kN
 Magnitude of the resultant force

R= (H) 2 + (V ) 2 = (5) 2 + (− 85) 2 = 85.15 kN Ans.

Direction of the resultant force

Let θ = Angle which the resultant force makes with the horizontal.
We know that

V − 85
tan  = =
H 5 = – 17 or θ = - 86.6°

Since ΣH is positive and ΣV is negative, therefore resultant lies between 270° and 360°.
Thus actual angle of the resultant force
= 360° – 86.6° = 273.4°
EXAMPLE 4
The following forces act at a point
(i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East,
(ii) 25 N towards North,
(iii) 30 N towards North West, and
(iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West.
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Sol.
The system of given forces is shown in Fig.

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Fig:6
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally i.e., along East-West line,
ΣH = 20 cos 30° + 25 cos 90° + 30 cos 135° + 35 cos 220° N
= (20 × 0.866) + (25 × 0) + 30(– 0.707) + 35(– 0.766)N
= – 30.7 N ...(i)
and now resolving all the forces vertically i.e., along North-South line,
ΣV = 20 sin 30° + 25 sin 90° + 30 sin 135° + 35 sin 220° N
= (20 × 0.5) + (25 × 1.0) + (30 × 0.707) + 35 (– 0.6428) N
= 33.7 N ...(ii)
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

R= (H)2 + (V )2 = (− 30.7)2 + (33.7) 2 = 45.6 N

Direction of the resultant force

Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the East.
We know that

V 33.7
tan  = =
H − 30.7 = – 1.098 or θ = 47.7°

Since ΣH is negative and ΣV is positive, therefore resultant lies between 90° and 180°.
Thus actual angle of the resultant = 180° – 47.7° = 132.3°
3.3. TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
∙ If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and
direction by two sides of a triangle in order ,then the third side will represent the
resultant of the two forces in the direction and magnitude taken in opposite order.
3.4. POLYGON LAW OF FORCES
∙ When the forces acting on a body are more than two, the triangle law can be extended
to polygon law.
∙ Polygon Law states that if a number of coplanar concurrent forces acting
simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of
a polygon ,taken in order ,then their resultant can be represented by closing side of
the polygon in magnitude and direction in the opposite order.

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Consider the forces F1 , F2 , F3 and F4 are acting at a point O as shown in Fig. . Starting

from the point O, the vector OA represents the force F1 in magnitude (using suitable

scales) and direction. From the tip A, draw vector AB representing the force F2 . Similarly,

vector BC represents the force F3 and vector and vector CD represents force F4 . Join the

starting point O to the end point D giving a vector OD in opposite order. Vector OD

represents the resultant force R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 in magnitude and direction as shown in

Fig. 1.10(b). From the triangle law of forces

Fig:7
R1 = F1 + F2 ,

R 2 = R1 + F3 = (F1 + F2 ) + F3 ,

R = R 2 + R 4 = (F1 + F2 + F3 ) + F4

R = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4

EXAMPLE 5
A particle is acted upon by three forces equal to 50 N, 100 N and 130 N, along the three
sides of an equilateral triangle, taken in order Find graphically the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.
Sol.
The system of given forces is shown in Fig

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∙ First of all, name the forces according to Bow’s notations as shown in Fig.The 50 N
force is named as ab, 100 N force as bc and 130 N force as cd.

Fig:8
∙ Now draw the vector diagram for the given system of forces as shown in Fig and as
discussed below:
∙ Select some suitable point a and draw ab equal to 50 N to some suitable scale and
parallel to the 50 N force of the space diagram.
∙ Through b, draw be equal to 100 N to the scale and parallel to the 100 N force of the
space diagram.
∙ Similarly through c, draw cd equal to 130 N to the scale and parallel to the 130 N force
of the space diagram.
∙ Join ad, which gives the magnitude as well as direction of the resultant force.
∙ By measurement, we find the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to 70 N and
acting at an angle of 200° with ab.
NOTE: All above methods are different forms of addition of vectors as force is a vector.

4. NON-COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

4.1. RESOLUTION AND RESULTANT OF FORCE IN SPACE

Consider a force F acting at the origin O of the system of rectangular coordinates x, y, z

x , y
as shown in Fig. The direction of force F is defined by three angles , and 2 . Let

Fx ,Fy
, and Fz be the components of force F in x,y,andzdirections, respectively. From the

triangle OAB
OB Fx
cos x = =
OA F ,

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Fig:9

component of F along .x-direction F4 = F cos x

From the triangle OAC

OC Fy
cos y = =
OA F ,

Fy = F cos x
component of F along y-direction

From the triangle OAD

OC Fz
cos x = =
OA F ,

component of F along z-direction Fz = F cos z

x , y
The cosines of and z are known as the direction cosine of the force F. The angles

x , y and z are not independent, they are related as cos x + cos y + cos z = 1 . We
2 2 2

may express F in the vector form

F = Fxi + Fy j + Fxk

Fx ,Fy
When the components and Fz of the force F are given, the magnitude of force F is

F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

and direction of force

F   Fy  −1  Fz 
x = cos−1  x −1
 , y = cos   , and z = cos  
F  F F

5. MOMENTS

∙ The turning effect produced by a force, on the body, on which it acts.

Moment M = F X L SI Unit: Nm
Where
F = Force acting on the body, and

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L = Perpendicular distance of the point, about which the moment is determined and the line
of action of the force.
∙ Force F and position vector r in rectangular components may be written as

F = Fxi + Fy j + Fzk

r = xi + yj + zk

Thus,

i j k
Mo = r  F = x y z
Fx Fy Fz

( ) ( )
Mo = i yFz − zFy − ( xFz − zFx ) j + xFy − yFx k

In case of problems involving only two dimensions, the force F may be assumed to lie in the

xy-plane. Carrying z = 0 and Fz = 0 , we obtain

(
Mo = xFy − yFx k )
∙ Just as force has a tendency to translate the body, moment has a tendency to rotate the
body about the point.
5.1. DIRECTIONS OF MOMENTS
∙ Clockwise Moment whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, in the same direction in
which the hands of clock move.
∙ Anticlockwise Moment whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, in the opposite direction
in which the hands of clock move.
5.1.1. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTIONS
∙ Assume perpendicular distance as hand of clock.
∙ Keep the point (one end of perpendicular distance), about which the moment is to be
determined, hinged like hinged end of hands of a clock.
∙ Move the other end of perpendicular distance in the direction of action of force.

Fig:10
1. Anticlockwise
2. Clockwise
3. Clockwise
5.2. VARIGNON’S THEOREM
∙ Moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of
the components of that force about the same point.

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Fig:11

Mo = F cos   R 2 − F sin   R1
5.3. Couples
∙ The moment produced by two equal, opposite and non-collinear forces is called couple.
It does not produce any translation but produces only rotation. The resultant force of
a couple is zero.
∙ The moment of a couple is the product of the magnitude of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between their lines of action Fig.

Fig:12

M = F ( a + d) − Fa

M = Fd
∙ The magnitude of the moment of a couple is the same for all points in the plane of the
couple. A couple may be moved anywhere in its plane or a parallel plane without
changing its external effect. The magnitude of a couple is independent of the reference
point, and its tendency to create a rotation will remain constant.
∙ Consider the couple consisting of forces +F and −F acting at points A and B as shown

in Fig Denoting by rA and rB , respectively, the position vectors of the points A and B,

we find that the sum of the moments of the two forces about O is

Fig:13

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M = rA  F + rB  ( −F ) = (rA − rB )  F

Let r = rA + rB ,

Moment of couple M = r  F
Direction of couple M is perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces.

Magnitude of couple, M = fF sin  = Fd

M = Fd ,

where d is the distance between the lines of action of +F and F

6. FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM

6.1. RESOLUTION OF A FORCE INTO A FORCE AND A COUPLE

∙ Consider a force F acting on rigid body at point A defined by the position vector r as
shown in Figure No dynamical affects are produced by adding self-equilibrating forces
+F and –F at another point C as shown in figure The force F at A and the force –F at

point O constitute a couple Mo = r  F . Thus, the force F at point A is transferred to

point O, and a couple Mo is introduced a shown in Figure . This type of combination of

the force F and the couple M is called force couple system.

Fig:14

∙ Similarly, any number of forces F1 ,F2 ,F3 , that act on a body may be transferred to a

common point, provided that the couple r1  F1 ,F2  F2 ,r3  F3 , are introduced Fig. The

vector respectively. The forces F1 ,F2 ,F3 , are now concurrent at point O, and their

resultant R = F1 + F2 + F3 , and the resultant couple Mo = r1  F1  +r2  F2 + r3  F3 +

Fig:15

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6.2. REDUCTION OF FORCE-COUPLE SYSTEM TO SINGLE FORCE
∙ The fore-couple system of O may be replaced by a single force R acting along a new

line of action R and Mo are mutually perpendicular Fig. It is applicable in coplanar

force system.

Fig:16

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