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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

6 GRAVITY DAM & SPILLWAYS

1. INTRODUCTION

A gravity dam is defined as a structure which is designed in such a way that its own weight
resists the external forces. This type of structural is most durable and solid, and requires very
little maintenance. Such a dam may be constructed of masonry or concrete. Such a dam is
generally straight in plan, although sometimes it may be slightly curve. The line of the upstream
face of the dam, or the line of the crown of the dam if the upstream face in sloping, is taken
as the reference line for layout purpose, it is known as base line or Axis of the dam.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF A DAM SITE

• The topography of the region should be such that it has deep valleys of low submergence
(surface area) area.
• Base of the dam site should be such that it is made up of highly impermeable material.
• The region should be free from Earth quake activities.
• The rivers should be perennial in nature (i.e. it should be flowing throughout the year).
• Easy availability of construction material and cheap labour.

3. FORCES ACTING ON GRAVITY DAM

The various forces acting on a gravity dam are:

3.1. Self-weight
The self-weight of the dam is the major retarding force acts on the dam. It acts through
the center of gravity of dam.

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Here,
w1 = γc × A1 × 1
w2 = γc × A2 × 1
⟹ Total weight = γc (A1 + A2)
⟹ 𝑤𝑇 = 𝛾𝑐 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖
Where,
γc = specific unit weight of concrete
3.2. Force due to Water Pressure
Water pressure is the most major external force acting on such a dam. The horizontal
water pressure exerted by weight of the water stored on the upstream side on the dam
can be estimated from rule of hydrostatic distribution which is triangular in shape as
shown below:

Pressure at upstream
0 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
𝑃𝑢 = × (𝐻 × 1) =
2 2
𝛾𝑤 𝐻 2
⇒ 𝑃𝑢 =
2
Which is acting at a distance of H/3 from base of the dam.
Pressure at downstream
0 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ
𝑃𝑑 = × (ℎ × 1)
2
𝛾𝑤 ℎ2
𝑃𝑑 =
2
Acting at a distance of h/3 from base of the dam.

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3.3. Uplift pressure
Water seeping through pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation material, and water
seeping through dam body and then to the bottom through the joints between the body
of the dam and its foundation at the base, exert an uplift pressure on the base of the
dam.
It is the second major external force.
The uplift pressures can be controlled by constructing cut off walls under the upstream
face by constructing drainage channels between the dam and its foundation, and by
pressure grouting the foundation.

Uplift pressure at the drainage gallery is independent of heel and toe.

The drainage gallery is provided as close as possible to heel. So, the uplift pressure will
be lesser and gives better stability. Drainage gallery drain but the seeping water along
slope provided to reduce uplift pressure.
3.4. Earthquake force
The effect of an earthquake is equivalent to imparting an acceleration to the foundations
of the dam in the direction in which the wave is travelling at the moment. Earthquake
wave may move in any direction and for design purposes, it has to be released in vertical
and horizontal components. Hence, two acceleration i.e. one horizontal acceleration (αh)
and one vertical acceleration (αv) are induced by an earthquake. Value of basic seismic
coefficient (αo) according to zone is given below.

Seismic zones Value of αo

Zone I 0.01
Zone II 0.02
Zone III 0.04
Zone IV 0.05
Zone V 0.08

The seismic force can be analyzed as shown below:

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Where,
C: Centre of Earth
F: Focus/Hypo centre of Earthquake
E: Epi-centre
Generally, the value of vertical acceleration is 75% of horizontal acceleration.
 v = 75% of h

where,
h = k.g

k: seismic co-efficient, which is equal to

k = β I αo
where,
β: soil foundation system factor (1 for gravity dams)
I: importance factor (3 for gravity dams)
(i) Effect of 𝛂v (Vertical acceleration)

αv can act in upward direction also but we are taking for worst condition.
𝑤 ′ = 𝑤 − 𝐹𝐼𝑣 (↑)
⇒ 𝑤′= w – M.αv
𝑤
⇒ 𝑤 ′ = 𝑤 − 𝛼𝑣
𝑔
𝛼𝑣
⇒ 𝑤 ′ = 𝑤 (1 − )
𝑔

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(ii) Effect of 𝛂h (horizontal acceleration)
(a) Development of 𝐹𝐼𝐻 :

𝑤
𝐹𝐼𝐻 = × 𝑘. 𝑔
𝑔
⟹ F = kw (→)
(b) Development of hydrodynamic force:

4𝐻
𝑃𝐻𝐷 = 0.555 𝑘 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 2 @ (≃ 0.424 𝐻) from base.
3𝑧

3.5. Wave pressure

Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which causes
a pressure toward the downstream side. Wave pressure depends upon the wave height.
Wave height may be given by the equation.

hw = 0.032 V.F + 0.763 − 0.271(F)3/4 for F < 32 km.

hw = 0.032 V.F for F > 32 km

Where,
hw = height of water from top of crest to bottom of trough in meters.
V = wind velocity in km/hr
F = fetch or straight length of water expanse in km.

The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by

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hw
pw = 2.4 rm hw and acts at meters above the still water surface.
2

SWL = Still water level.

hw = height of wave.

2.4 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 5ℎ𝑤
𝐹𝑤 × × 1
2 3
2
𝐹𝑤 = 2 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 @ 3 hw/s above SWL.
3.6. Silt Pressure

Where,
ps = maximum active silt pressure
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ka = active silt pressure coefficient = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( 45 − 𝜙/2)
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
ϕ = angle of internal friction of soil.
γs = submerged unit weight of silt = γsat – γw
hs = height of silt load
1
∴ 𝐹𝑠 = × 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑠 ℎ𝑠 (ℎ𝑠 × 1)
2
𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑠 ℎ𝑠2 ℎ𝑠
𝐹𝑠 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 @ from base.
2 3
In any absence of any data silt pressure can be taken as
1
Fs = 360 h2s in kg.f
2
3.7. Ice pressure
The ice which may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries, may
sometimes melt and expand. The dam face then to resist the thrust exerted by the

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expanding ice. The magnitude of this force varies from 250 to 1500 kN/m2 depending
upon temperature variation. On an average, a value of 500 kN/m2 may be allowed under
ordinary condition.
3.8. Wind pressure
Its value is taken as 1 – 1.5 kN/m2 of exposed area

 dc 
Fwind = 1.5 × dc × 1 kN @  H +  from base.
 2
Example: For the dam profile shown in the figure below:

Find
(i) Self weight of the dam
(ii) Water pressure
(iii) uplift pressure.
The unit weight of concrete can be taken as 25 kN/m3.
Solution:
1
Self-weight of the dam = ( × 2 × 10 + 3 × 10) × 1 × 25 = 1000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
2
1 𝑘𝑁
Water pressure = × 7 × 7𝛾𝑤 × 1 = 240.345
2 𝑚
1
Uplift pressure = × 5 × 7𝛾𝑤 × 1 = 171.675 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
2

Example: Determine the uplift pressure for the dam shown in the figure below:

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Solution:
1 7 1 7 37
Uplift pressure = × (5𝛾𝑤 + 𝛾𝑤 ) × 2 + × (𝛾𝑤 + 𝛾𝑤 ) × 3 = 𝛾𝑤
2 3 2 3 3

4. MODES OF FAILURE FOR A GRAVITY DAM

A gravity dam may fail in the following ways:

(i) Over turning:
If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam any of it’s sections, passes outside the toe,
the dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe. The ratio of the righting moments about toe
to the overturning moments about toe is called the factor of safety against overturning.

For no overturning about the toe, MR  Mo

MR
 1
Mo
𝛴𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = ≥ 1
𝛴𝑀𝑜
For design condition,
𝛴𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = ≃ 1.5
𝛴𝑀𝑜
(ii) Sliding:
Sliding (or shear failure) will occur when the net horizontal force above any plane in the dam
or at the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level.

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For no sliding failure, resisting force ≥ sliding force

μ ΣV ≥ ΣH
𝜇𝛴𝑉
𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥ 1
𝛴𝐻
One more factor shear friction factor is also used to check stability of a dam against sliding
when the bond strength of concrete is also considered. It is given by
Resisting force 𝜇𝛴𝑉 + 𝑞 × 𝐵 × 1
𝑆𝐹𝐹 = =
Sliding force 𝛴𝐻
Where,
q = bond strength of concrete (kN/m3)
For same FOS against sliding mode of failure, the weight of concrete used in second case will
be less as compared to first case and therefore the second case gives us economical design.
(iii) Crushing/compression mode of failure
A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, i.e. the compressive stresses produced may
exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed.

Considering base area for 1 m length of dam (B x 1)

∴ The resultant normal (vertical) stress on base area

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V
(i) d = + (direct stess)
A
𝑀𝑌𝑌
(ii) 𝜎𝑏 = ± × 𝑥(𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝑌𝑌

Now,
 R = + d  b

V V
 R = +  x
B  1 1  B3
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Maximum compressive stress in the dam will be at the toe of the section i.e. x = B/2
𝛴𝑉 𝛴𝑉𝑒 𝐵
⇒ (𝜎𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = + 3 ×
𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝐵 1×𝐵 2
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𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
(𝜎𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = (1 + )
𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝐵 𝐵
And, minimum compressive stress will be at the heel of the section i.e. x = -B/2
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
(𝜎𝑉min ) = (1 − )
𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐵 𝐵
Now, the resultant stress on base width will have the following distribution depending upon the
value of e.

Here,
e = eccentricity of the resultant force from the centre of the base.
ΣV = total vertical force
B = base width.
Now, analyzing a stress element @ Toe

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Taking a small triangular section at the toe, the free body diagram of the stresses will be

Using equation of equilibrium,

(i) ΣFy = 0
⟹ + σv (1 × 1) – σ1 (1 cos α × 1) cos α – σ2 (1 sin α × 1) sin α = 0
⟹ σ1 = σv sec2 α – σ2 tan2 α
⟹ σ1 = σv + (σv – σ2) tan2 α
For no crusting,
 y 
1  f  = 
 Fos 
here,
f = failure strength of concrete.
(ii) ΣFx = 0
⟹ –τ(1 × 1) + σ1 (1 cos α × 1) sin α – σ2 (1sin α × 1) cos α = 0
⟹ τ = (σv – σ2) tan α.
If the value of σ, at the point of toe exceeds the value of failure strength of concrete then
crushing get initiated from the point of toe due to which effective base width reduces and
therefore the value of σ1 further increases. Thus, crushing become progressive in upstream
direction and thereby the whole body of gravity dam gets crushed within a short span of time.
(iv) Tension/tensile mode of failure
Masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension is
developed anywhere, because these materials cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses. If
subjected to such stresses, these materials may finally crack. The maximum permissible tensile
stress for height concrete gravity dams, under worst leadings, may be taken as 500 kN/m2
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
(𝜎𝑉min ) = (1 − )
𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐵 𝐵
Case1: When reservoir is full

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Case 2: When reservoir is empty

From above diagram, it can be concluded that no tension failure resultant force must always
pass through middle third strip of the base width.

tensile crack will start appearing initially at heel and progress in downstream direction due to
which effective base width will reduce.
Due to above reason, if the values of σ1 at toe exceeds the failure strength of concrete (f),
subsequent crushing may also start at toe and progress in upstream direction and thereby
ultimately causing the failure of the dam in crushing mode. which was initiated by the
appearance of tensile cracks at the point of heel.
Example: Calculate the factor of safety against overturning and sliding for the dam shown in
the figure below:

Assume unit weight of concrete to be 25 kN/m3 and coefficient of friction is 0.25.

Solution.

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Forces Magnitude of Point of Over

Magnitude of Resisting
acting on Horizontal Applicatio turning
vertical force Moment
the dam force n Moment

1
(8 × 2 + × 6 × 3) × 25 1.72m from
Self-weight 2 - 1075 kNm
= 625 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 heel

1
Water × 7 × 7 × 9.81 2.33m from
- 2 560 kNm
pressure = 240.345 𝑘𝑁 heel

1
Uplift − × 5 × 7 × 9.81 1.67m from 286.70
2 -
pressure = −171.675 𝑘𝑁 heel kNm

∑M0= ∑MR
∑V = 453.325 kN 846.7 =1075
kN-m kNm
Σ𝑀𝑅 1075
Hence, Factor of safety against overturning = = = 1.27
Σ𝑀0 846.7
𝜇𝛴𝑉 0.25×453.325
Factor of safety against sliding = = = 0.471 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒)
𝛴𝐻 240.345

Example: Find the compressive stress at the heel and toe for the above section.
Solution:
Σ𝑀 1075−846.7
Distance or resultant from the toe 𝑥̅ = = = 0.50𝑚
Σ𝑉 453.325
𝐵
Eccentricity e = − 𝑥̅ = 2.5 − 0.50 = 2𝑚
2

So,
Σ𝑉 6𝑒 453.325 6×2 126.93𝑘𝑁
Stress at the heel = (1 − )= (1 − )=− (𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑏 𝑏 5 5 𝑚2
Σ𝑉 6𝑒 453.325 6×2
Stress at the toe = (1 + )= (1 + ) = 308.261 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑏 𝑏 5 5

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5. DESIGN OF GRAVITY DAM

(i) Consider unit length of dam and find the magnitude and direction of all vertical and
horizontal forces.
(ii) Find the lever arm of all the forces about toe.
(iii) Find the moment of horizontal and vertical forces about the toe and hence find ΣMR and
ΣM0
(iv) Find resultant algebraic moment as following
ΣM = ΣMR – ΣM0
(v) Find the distance of resultant from the toe as following
𝛴𝑀 𝛴𝑀𝑅 − 𝛴𝑀0
𝑥̄ = =
𝛴𝑉 𝛴𝑉
(vi) Find the eccentricity of this force from the center of the base width as per following cases.
𝛴𝑀𝑅
a) 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥ 1
𝛴𝑀𝑜
𝜇𝛴𝑉
b) 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ≥ 1
𝛴𝐻

y
c) 1  f =
FoS
where,
σ1 = σv sec2 α – σ2 tan2 α
V  6e 
v = 1 + B 
B  
B
d) e 
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6. ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF GRAVITY DAM

The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on the upstream
side, will be a right angled triangle, having zero width at the water level and a base width (B)
at bottom i.e. the point where maximum hydrostatic water pressure acts.

Here,
C = U/L uplift pressure coefficient

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C = 1, if uplift pressure is considered
C = 0, if uplift pressure is absent
Case 1: When the reservoir is empty
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
The eccentricity in this profile = − =
2 3 6

In this case, there will be

a) No overturning failure
b) No sliding failure
c) No tension failure
Only mode of failure in reservoir empty case is crushing.
For no crushing mode of failure,
𝛴𝑉 6𝑒
(𝜎𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) =
(1 + )
𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝐵 𝐵
𝑊 2𝑊
= (1 + 1) = ≤ 𝑓
𝐵 𝐵

Case 2: When Reservoir is full

(a) For no tension failure:
For no tension failure:
e ≤ B/6
B B
 −x
2 6
B
x
3
So,
MR − Mo B

V 3
2B H 2B B
w −P  −U  (W − U) 
3 3 3 3
2B B H
 (W − U)  − (W − U)  P 
3 3 3

⟹ (W – U) × B ≥ P × H

𝑆𝑐 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝐶 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
⇒ ( − ) 𝐵 ≥ × 𝐻
2 2 2

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⟹ B2 (Sc – C) ≥ H2

H
B
Sc − C

H
 Bmin =
Sc − C

The critical width will be corresponding to the case when uplift pressure intensity is zero.

H
BCritical =
Sc

Where,

Sc = specific gravity of concrete

C = uplift pressure intensity factor

H = height of the dam.

(b) For no overturning failure:

∵ Mr ≥ Mo

2B H 2B
W P  + U
3 3 3

⟹ (W – U) × 2B ≥ P × H

𝑆𝑐 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝐶 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 2
⇒ [ − ] × 2𝐵 ≥ × 𝐻
2 2 2
⟹ 2B2 (Sc – C) ≥ H2

H
B
2(Sc − C)

H
 Bmin =
2(Sc − C)

And,

H
BCritical =
2 Sc

(c) For no sliding failure:

For no sliding failure,
Resultant force ≥ shear force
⟹ μ ΣV ≥ ΣH
⟹ μ (W – U) ≥ P
𝑆𝑐 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝐶 𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
⇒ 𝜇 ( − ) ≥
2 2 2

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⟹ μ (Sc – C) B ≥ H

H
B
 (Sc − C)

H
 Bmin =
 (Sc − C)

When there is no upward force,

H
BCritical =
 Sc

(d) For no crushing failure:

For no crushing failure
∵ σ1 ≤ f
⟹ σv sec2 α – σ2 tan2 α ≤ f
⟹ σv sec2 α ≤ f

V  6e  2
 1 + B  sec   f
B  
𝛾𝑤 𝐻𝐵 (𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶) 6 × 𝐵/6
⇒ (1 + ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼 ≤ 𝑓
𝐵 𝐵
(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶 + 1)
⇒ 𝛾𝑤𝐻 (𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶) ≤ 𝑓
𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶
𝑓
⇒ 𝐻 ≤
𝛾𝑤 (𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶 + 1)
𝑓
⇒ 𝐻=
𝛾𝑤 (𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶 + 1)𝑚𝑎𝑥

And, critical height for the dam is

𝑓
⇒ 𝐻𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝛾𝑤 (𝑆𝑐 + 1)
The critical height of an elementary profile of gravity dam is dependent only upon the properties
of the material. If the height of gravity dam is more than its critical height then it is called as
‘high dam’ and if its height is less than its critical height then it is called as a low dam.
Example: Find the width of the elementary dam having height 4m. Assume the specific gravity
of dam material is 2.15, the coefficient of friction to be 0.25 and the uplift pressure intensity
factor is 0.76.
Solution:
For no tension failure:
𝐻
𝐵=
√𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶
4
⇒𝐵= = 3.39𝑚
√2.15 − 0.76
For no overturning failure:

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𝐻 4
𝐵= = = 2.40 𝑚
√2(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶) √2(2.15 − 0.76)

For no sliding failure:

𝐻 4
𝐵= = = 11.51𝑚
𝜇(𝑆𝑐 − 𝐶) 0.25(2.15 − 0.76)
So, the minimum width of the elementary dam based on all the three criteria should be 11.51
m.

7. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: What do you understand by gravity dam? Explain the factors which affects the site
selection for a dam. Also, explain various forces that causes instability of a dam.
Problem 2: For the dam shown in the figure below, calculate:

(a) Factor of safety with respect to overturning and sliding

(b) The stress at heel and toe
(c) The major principle stress at the toe of dam.
Assume unit weight of concrete to be 24 kN/m3 and coefficient of friction is 0.28.
Problem 3: Design the practical profile of gravity dam for the following data:
RL of base of the dam = 548 m
RL of HFL of reservoir = 594 m
Specific gravity of concrete = 2.24
Safe compressive stress in concrete = 1365 kN/m2
Problem 4: What do you understand by elementary profile of dam?
Check the stability of the concrete gravity dam shown in the figure below. Assume any data
needed.

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****

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