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Unit 3

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Unit 3

dsa

Uploaded by

nam861836
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Unit 3.

Generative Grammars

1
Basic concepts of languages theory

• Parsing or syntactic analysis is the process of analysing


a string of symbols, either in natural languages or in computer
languages, conforming to the rules of a formal grammar.

• The formal language theory considers a language as a


mathematical object.

• A language is just a set of strings (sentences). To formally


define a language we need to formally define what are the
strings admitted by the language.

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Alphabet
Symbol
A physical entity that we shall not formally define; we shall rely on
intuition.
Alphabet
A finite, non-empty set of symbols
• We often use the symbol ∑ (sigma) to denote an alphabet
• Examples of alphabet
• Binary: ∑ = {0,1}
• All lower case letters: ∑ = {a,b,c,..z}
• Alphanumeric: ∑ = {a-z, A-Z, 0-9}
• DNA molecule letters: ∑ = {a,c,g,t}(guanine, adenine, thymine, and
cytosine)
• C character set
• KPL token set.
Example of an alphabet: C character set

Types Character Set


Lowercase Letters a –z
Uppercase Letters A-Z
Digits 0-9
~! # $% ^ & *( )_ +| \’ - =
Special Characters
{ } [] : ” ; < > ? , . /
White Spaces Tab Or New line Or Space
Token set of KPL

• Identifiers, numbers, character constants


• Keywords
PROGRAM, CONST, TYPE, VAR, PROCEDURE, FUNCTION, BEGIN, END,
ARRAY, OF, INTEGER, CHAR, CALL, IF, ELSE, WHILE, DO, FOR, TO
• Operators
:= (assign), + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), =
(comparison of equality), != (comparison of difference), > (comparison of
greateness), < (comparison of lessness), >= (comparison of greateness or
equality), <= (comparison of lessness or equality)
Separators:
:,;,(,),,,(.,.),.

5
String (sentence)

• A string is finite sequence of symbols chosen from some


alphabet

• Empty string is 

• Examples of string:
 1000010101111

 A C program is a string of tokens

 A human DNA pattern


Languages

A language over alphabet  is a set of strings over 

Examples of languages:

• The set of all words over {a, b},

• The set { an | n is a prime number },

• Programming language C: the set of syntactically correct


programs in C
Chomsky's Hierarchy
• Type-0 languages (recursive enumerable)

instances of a problem.

• Type-1 languages (context-sensitive)

natural languages, DNA languages

• Type-2 languages (context-free)

programming language, natural languages

• Type-3 languages (regular)

tokens of programming languages


Chomsky's Hierarchy

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A grammar to generate real numbers in BNF

<real number> ::= <sign><natural number> |


<sign><natural number>'.'<digit sequence> |
<sign>'.'<digit><digit sequence> |
<sign><real number>’E'<natural number>
<sign> ::=  | ‘+’ | ‘-‘
<natural number> ::= ‘0’ | <nonzero digit><digit sequence>
<nonzero digit> ::= ‘1’ | ‘2’ | ‘3’ | ‘4’ | ‘5’ | ‘6’ | ‘7’ | ‘8’ | ‘9’
<digit sequence> ::=  | <digit><digit sequence>
<digit> ::= ‘0’ | ‘1’ | ‘2’ | ‘3’ | ‘4’ | ‘5’ | ‘6’ | ‘7’ | ‘8’ | ‘9’

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Context Free Grammars (CFG)

A context free grammar G has:


• A set of terminal symbols, 
• A set of nonterminal symbols (variables), V
• A start symbol, S, which is a member of V
• A set R of production rules of the form A -> w, where A is a
nonterminal and w is a string of terminal and nonterminal symbols
or .

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Formal definition of a context free grammar

A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V,Σ, R, S), where


1) V is a finite set called the variables (or nonterminals)
2) Σ is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals,
3) R is a finite set of rules, with each rule being a variable and a string of
variables and terminals(form of a rule is A where AV and 
(V)*)
4) S V is the start variable.

Conversion:
• Variables are represented by uppercase letters.
• Terminals are represented by lowercase letters, digits or signs
• A   and A   can be replaced by A   | 
Context free grammar example
The grammar of decimal numbers
S  AB | ABC | A.EC | ASeB
A+|-|
B  0 | DC
C  EC | 
D1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
E0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
Here,
V = {S, A, B, C, D, E} where
• S is <real numbers>
• A is <sign>
• B is <natural number>
• C is <digit sequence>
• D is <nonzero digit>
• E is <digit>
 = {+, -, .,e, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
S is the start variable 13
Context Free Grammar Examples

• Grammar of nested parentheses

• G = (V, , R, S) where

V = {S}
 ={ (, ) }
R ={ S (S), SSS, S }

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How a string of a context free language can be generated
?
A context free grammar can be used to generate strings in the
corresponding language as follows:

let X = the start symbol s


while there is some nonterminal Y in X do
apply any one production rule using Y, e.g. Y -> w

15
Derivations

• When X consists only of terminal symbols, it is a string of the


language denoted by the grammar.

• Each iteration of the loop is a derivation step.

• If an iteration has several nonterminals to choose from at


some point, the rules of derviation would allow any of these
to be applied.

• Example : S  -A  -B.B  -B.C  -C.C -1.C  -1.5

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Leftmost and Rightmost Derivations

• In practice, parsing algorithms tend to always choose the


leftmost nonterminal, or the rightmost nonterminal, resulting
in strings that are leftmost derivations or rightmost
derivations
• Example:
Leftmost derivation:
S  -A  -B.B  -C.B  -1.B  -1.C  -1.5
Rightmost derivation:
S  -A  -B.B  -B.C  -B.5  -C.5  -1.5

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Derivation Tree (parse tree)

Derivation tree is constructed with


1) Each tree vertex is a variable (nonterminal) or terminal or epsilon
2) The root vertex is S
3) Interior vertices are from V, leaf vertices are from ∑ or epsilon
4) An interior vertex A has children, in order, left to right,
X1, X2, ... , Xk when there is a production in P of the
form A  X1 X2 ... Xk
5) A leaf can be epsilon only when there is
a production A  
and the leaf’s parent
can have only this child.
Here is the parse tree of string (()()) with grammar S (S), SSS, S
18
A parse tree of a tiny grammar for English

S  NP VP
NP  D N
VP  V NP
D  the
N  chef
N  soup
V  cooks
Ambiguity

Grammar
EE+E
EE*E
E(E)
E  ident

allows two different derivations for strings such as


ident + ident * ident (e.g. x + y * z)

The grammar is ambiguous

20
Disambiguation

EE+T
ET
TT*F
TF
F(E)
F  ident

(by adding some nonterminals and production rules to force operator precedence)

21
Recursion

• Direct recursion X ω1X ω2


• A production is recursive if X * ω1X ω2
• Recursion can be used to represent repetitions and nested
structures
• Left recursion X  b | Xa.
X X a X a a X a a a b a a a a a ...
• Right recursion X  b | a X.
X a X a a X a a a X ... a a a a a b
• Central recursion X  b | ( X).
X (X) ((X)) (((X))) (((... (b)...)))
• Indirect recursion X * ω1X ω2
Example:
X  b | Ya
Y  Xb
22
Removing Left Recursion

23
Removing Left Recursion

24
Example: Remove the left recursion

EE+T EE+T E  TE’


ET
ET E’  +TE’ | T
TT*F
TF
Add new symbol E’ T  FT’
F(E) E  TE’ T’  *FT’| F
F  ident E’  +TE’ | T F(E)
TT*F F  ident
TF
Add new symbol T’
T  FT’
T’  *FT’| F

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