UNIT II: Modern Engineering materials:

Semiconductors – Introduction, basic concept, application, Super conductors-Introduction basic concept,

applications. Super capacitors: Introduction, Basic Concept-Classification – Applications.
Nano materials: Introduction, classification, properties and applications of Fullerenes, carbon nano tubes
and Graphines nanoparticles.

Semiconductors:

 What are semiconductors. Give examples. Give its classification.

Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

(i) Conductor Conductors are those substances through which electricity can pass easily.
Ex: all metals are conductors. (Copper, Aluminum, Silver etc)
(ii) Insulator Insulators are those substances through which electricity cannot pass.
Ex: wood, rubber, mica etc.
(iii) Semiconductor Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity lies between
conductors and insulators.
Ex: Silicon, Germanium etc.
 In semiconductors the forbidden gap is very small.
 Germanium and silicon are the best examples of semiconductors.
 The forbidden gap energy is of the order of 0.7eV for Ge and 1.1eV for Si.
 There are no electrons in the conduction band. The valence band is completely filled at 0 K. With
a small amount of energy that is supplied, the electrons can easily jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.
 For example, if the temperature is raised, the forbidden gap is decreased and some electrons are
liberated into the conduction band.

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 Types of Semiconductors:
(i) Intrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor in its pure state is called intrinsic
semiconductor.
(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor: A semiconductor doped with suitable impurity is called
extrinsic semiconductor.

On the basis of doped impurity extrinsic semiconductors are of two types.

(i) n-type Semiconductor:

Extrinsic semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity like Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P),
Arsenic(As), Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi) is called n-type semiconductor.
Every pentavalent impurity atom donate one electron in the crystal, therefore it is called a donar atom.

p -type Semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity like

Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) is called p-type semiconductor.
Every trivalent impurity atom have a tendency to accept one electron, therefore it is called an
acceptor atom.

Semiconductors

Elemental Non elemental

semiconductors semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Stoichiometric Non-Stoichiometric
semiconductors semiconductors

N-type semiconductor P-type semiconductor

Let us consider the structure of Silicon (Si).

Si atomic no. is 14.
Therefore the Silicon electron configuration will
be 1s22s22p63s23p2.
It has 4 valance electrons.
These 4 electrons are shared by four neighbouring
atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent
bond.

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 Explain how n-type semiconductors are formed. (or) Explain extrinsic semiconductors. (or)
Describe about doped semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of current at
room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased
significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities it
becomes impure or doped or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as
doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

There are three different methods of doping a semiconductor.

(i) The impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor in its molten state. (Epitaxy method)
(ii) The pure semiconductor is bombarded by ions of impurity atoms. (Ion Implantation)
(iii) When the semiconductor crystal containing the impurity atoms is heated, the impurity atoms
diffuse into the hot crystal. (Diffusion technique)

Depending upon the type of impurity atoms added, an extrinsic semiconductor can be classified as
N- type (or) P-type.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR :
1) When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure silicon (or) germanium
semiconductor crystal, the resulting crystal is called N-type semiconductor.
2) Examples of pentavalent impurities are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic(As), Antimony (Sb),
and Bismuth (Bi).

3) The above diagram (Fig a) shows the crystal structure obtained when pentavalent arsenic impurity is
added with pure germanium crystal.
4) The four valence electrons of arsenic atom form covalent bonds with electrons of neighbouring four
germanium atoms.
5) The fifth electron of arsenic atom is loosely bound. This electron can move about almost as freely as
an electron in a conductor and hence it will be the carrier of current.
6) Every pentavalent impurity atom donate one electron in the crystal, therefore it is called a
donar atom.
7) Hence, in N-type semiconductor, free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are the
minority charge carriers.
8) For n-type semiconductors, we have, ne >> nh

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 Explain how p-type semiconductors are formed. (or) Explain extrinsic semiconductors. (or)
Describe about doped semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of current at
room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased
significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities it
becomes impure or doped or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as
doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

There are three different methods of doping a semiconductor.

(i) The impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor in its molten state. (Epitaxy method)
(ii) The pure semiconductor is bombarded by ions of impurity atoms. (Ion Implantation)
(iii) When the semiconductor crystal containing the impurity atoms is heated, the impurity atoms
diffuse into the hot crystal. (Diffusion technique)
Depending upon the type of impurity atoms added, an extrinsic semiconductor can be classified as
N- type (or) P-type.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR :
1) When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure silicon (or) germanium semiconductor
crystal, the resulting crystal is called P-type semiconductor.
2) Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In).

3) The above diagram (Fig a) shows the crystal structure obtained when trivalent boron impurity is
added with pure germanium crystal.
4) The three valence electrons of the boron atom form covalent bonds with valence electrons of three
neighbourhood germanium atoms.
5) In the fourth covalent bond, only one valence electron is available from germanium atom and there is
deficiency of one electron which is called as a hole.
6) Hence for each boron atom added, one hole is created.
7) Since the holes can accept electrons from neighbourhood, the impurity is called acceptor.
8) The hole, may be filled by the electron from a neighbouring atom, creating a hole in that position
from where the electron moves. This process continues and the hole moves about in a random
manner due to thermal effects.
9) Since the hole is associated with a positive charge moving from one position to another, this is called
as P-type semiconductor.
10) In the P-type semiconductor, the acceptor impurity produces an energy level just above the valence
band. (Fig b).
11) Hence, in P-type semiconductor, holes are the are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
12) For p-type semiconductors, we have, nh >> ne
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 Write the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

S.No Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

Semiconductor in a pure form is called Semiconductor which is doped with impurity is

1
intrinsic semiconductor. called extrinsic semiconductor.
2 They have low electrical conductivity. They have high electrical conductivity.
3 They have low operating temperatures. They have high operating temperatures.
Here the charge carriers are produced due to
Here the charge carriers are produced
4 impurities and may also be produced due to
only due to thermal agitation.
thermal agitation.
In n-type, the no. of electrons are greater than
The number of holes is always equal
5 that of the holes and in p-type the no. of holes
to the number of free electrons.
are greater than that of the electrons.
6 Examples are Si and Ge Examples are Si and Ge doped with Al, As etc.

 Compare n-type and p-type semiconductors.

S.No n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductor doped with

Extrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent
1 pentavalent impurity is called n-type
impurity is called p-type semiconductor.
semiconductor.
Pentavalent impurities are Nitrogen
Trivalent impurities are Boron (B), Aluminium
2 (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic(As),
(Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In).
Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi).
Pentavalent impurity atom donate one trivalent impurity atom have a tendency to
3 electron in the crystal, therefore it is accept one electron, therefore it is called an
called a donar atom. acceptor atom.
In n-type semiconductors electrons In p-type semiconductors holes are majority
4
are majority charge carriers. charge carriers.
In n-type semiconductors holes are In p-type semiconductors electrons are minority
5
minority charge carriers. charge carriers.
6 For n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh For p-type semiconductors, nh >> ne
Donar level lies close to the bottom of Acceptor level lies close to the top of the
7
the conduction band. valence band.
The conductivity of n-type
semiconductor is greater than that of
The conductivity of p-type semiconductor is less
8 p- type semiconductor as the mobility
than that of n-type semiconductor.
of electron is greater than that of hole.

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 Explain one method of preparation of semiconductors.
1) Preparation of Semiconductors by Zone Refining method:
Principle: It is based on the
principle that when an impure
metal in a molten state is allowed
to cool, only the metal crystallizes
while the impurities remain present
in the molten state.
Process:
A circular mobile heater is fixed at
one end of a rod of the impure
metal. When the heater is moved
forward then molten zone also
moves along with the heater. As
the heater moves forward, the pure metal crystallises out of the melt and the impurities pass on into
the adjacent molten zone. The process is repeated several times and the heater is moved in the
same direction. At one end, impurities get concentrated. This end is cut off. This method is very
useful for producing semiconductor and other metals of very high purity, e.g., germanium, silicon,
boron, gallium and indium.

 Describe the various applications of semiconductors.

APPLICATIONS OF SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors have enormous wide technological importance because of their special
properties, which can be modified by doping. Some applications include:
1) Semiconductors are the foundation for modern electronics.
2) Semiconductors are used in radio, computers, and telephones.
3) Semiconductors are used in solar cells.(PV Cells)
4) Semiconductors are used in the manufacture of electronic devices like diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits.
5) Semiconductors are used in light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and digital and analog integrated circuits.
6) Semiconductors can be used as thermometers. Because the resistivity of semiconductors changes
with temperature
7) Semiconductors are used in making of Hall Probes. These are used to measure magnetic field
strengths with a small piece of semiconductor with known properties.
8) Semiconductors are used in IR Sensors/Optoelectronic devices. Optoelectronic devices are capable of
recognizing or responding to light of different wavelengths. This is called a phenomenon of
photoconductivity.
9) Semiconductors are used in photocopying machines. (Xerox machines).
10) Semiconductors are used in many digital consumer products such as mobile phones / smart phones,
digital cameras, televisions, washing machines, refrigerators and LED bulbs etc.

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 Super conductors:

 What are super conductors. Give examples. Explain with a suitable graph.
Super Conductors: The phenomenon in which the electrical resistivity of the material suddenly falls
to nearly Zero, when it is cooled to a very low temperature is known as super conductivity and the
materials under this condition is called super conductors.
i.e; Super conductors have zero electrical resistance.

Superconductor Graph:
The below graph shows the temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity of normal metal (non
super conductor) and a superconductor.

Some examples of super conductors and their critical temperatures:

Critical
Material Temperature
S.No.
( Tc )

1 Gallium 1.1K
2 Aluminum 1.2 K
3 Indium 3.4 K
4 Tin 3.7 K
5 Mercury 4.2 K
6 Lead 7.2 K
7 Niobium 9.3 K
8 La-Ba-Cu-oxide 17.9 K
9 Y-Ba-Cu-oxide 92 K
10 Tl-Ba-Cu-oxide 125 K

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 Explain the characteristics of Type-I and Type-II super conductors. (or) Distinguish Type-I and
Type-II super conductors.
Based on the magnetic behaviour superconductors are
classified into two types namely,
Type I super conductors and
Type II super conductors.
Characteristics of Type -I superconductors:
1) They are perfectly diamagnetic.
2) They exhibit complete Meissner effect.
3) They have only one critical magnetic field. The transition at HC is reversible.
4) At the critical field the magnetization drops to zero suddenly.
5) Below HC the material behaves as a superconductor and above Hc it behaves as a normal
conductor.
6) Type I superconductors are also called soft superconductors.
7) Examples of Type I super conductors are Al, In, Ga, Hg, Sn etc.
8) No mixed state exists.
9) The value of HC is too low. It is about 0.1 tesla.
10) It requires low magnetic field to destroy the super conductivity.

Characteristics of Type –II superconductors:

1) They are not perfectly diamagnetic.
2) They do not exhibit complete Meissner effect.
3) They have two critical magnetic fields.
4) At the critical field the magnetization drops to zero gradually.
5) Below HC1 the material behaves as a superconductor; between
HC1 and HC2 material behaves in mixed state and above HC2 it
behaves as a normal conductor.
6) Type II superconductors are also called hard superconductors.
7) Examples of Type II super conductors are La-Ba-Cu-oxide, Y-
Ba-Cu-oxide, Tl-Ba-Cu-oxide etc.
8) Mixed state is present.
9) The value of HC is high and it is about 30 tesla.
10) It requires high magnetic field to destroy the super conductivity.

 Explain in detail the applications of super conductors.

1) Super conductors are used in MRI scans. i.e; Magnetic Resonance Imaging. It is used as diagnosis
tool to detect any abnormalities present in the body.
2) Super conductors are used in Maglev trains. (Modern super fast trains). Maglev is short form for
Magnetic levitation. It is the method in which object is made to float in air. Virtually eliminating
friction between the train and its tracks.
3) Super conductors are used as memory or storage devices in computers.
4) Super conducting cables can be used to transmit electrical power over long distances without
resistive losses.
5) Some super conductors act as excellent catalysts for industrial processes.
6) La2-x Sr x CuO 4 is a good sensor for alcohol vapours on contact with certain gases, the electrical
resistivity of super conductor changes sharply.

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 7) Superconductors are also used in the military. SQUIDS are being used by the U.S. NAVY to detect
mines and submarines. (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices)
8) Superconducting magnetic field may be used to launch satellite into orbit directly from the earth
without use of rockets.
9) Ore separation can be done by using machines made of superconducting magnets.
10) Using superconducting elements extremely fast and large scale computer can be built in compact
size.

Super Capacitors:

 What is a super capacitor or ultra capacitor. Explain the types of super capacitors.
The super capacitor is also known as an ultra capacitor.
Def: Super capacitors are electronic devices that are used to store extremely large amounts of electrical
charge. This capacitor is called an ultra capacitor since it has a higher capacitance value than other
regular capacitors.
 Super capacitors basically add up the properties of capacitors and batteries into one device.
 They consume less power and are completely safe and easy to operate.
 Super capacitors possess high capacitances of up to 2 kF.
 Super capacitors store enormous amounts of energy.
 Super capacitors offer to bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and rechargeable
batteries.
 The charging time of a super capacitor is around 1–10 seconds.

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Types of Super capacitors:
Super capacitors are classified into three main types which are
1) Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors
2) Pseudo Capacitors
3) Hybrid Capacitors

1) Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors:

 Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors comprises two electrodes, a separator, and an electrolyte.
 Electrolyte is a mixture comprising positive and negative ions dissolved in water.
 The two electrodes are separated from each other through a separator.
 The super capacitors use carbon electrodes with much higher electrostatic double-layer capacitance.
 The separation of charge in electrostatic double-layer capacitors is much less than in a conventional
capacitor which ranges from 0.3–0.8 nm.

2) Pseudo Capacitors:
 Pseudo Capacitors are also referred to as electrochemical pseudo-capacitors.
 They make use of metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes that have a high amount of
electrochemical pseudo capacitance.
 They store electrical energy by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte.
 It is done through the oxidation and reduction reaction commonly known as a redox reaction.
 Reduction: Reduction occurs when atom gains an electron and becomes more negative.
 Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when atom loses electron and becomes more positive.
 Reduction-oxidation: Reduction-oxidation occurs when one atom gains (or losses) an electron and
another atom loses (or gains) an electron. In pseudo-capacitors oxidation-reduction reaction occurs in
between electrode and electrolyte solution.

3) Hybrid Capacitors:
 Hybrid Capacitors are made by using the techniques of double-layer capacitors and pseudo-
capacitors.
 In these capacitors, electrodes with different characteristics are used.
 One electrode has the capacity to display electrostatic capacitance and the other electrode showcases
electrochemical capacitance.
 An example of a hybrid capacitor is the lithium-ion capacitor.

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 Explain the working of super capacitors.
Working Principle of Super capacitors:
1) A super capacitor operates by storing electrical energy between two electrostatic double layers
created by the formation of thin charge layers on the electrolyte-electrode interface.
2) Both positively and negatively charged ions are produced in the electrolyte solution between the two
plates of the super capacitor.
3) When a voltage is supplied across the super capacitor’s plates, one of the plates develops a positive
charge, while the other plate develops a negative charge.
4) This attracts the negatively charged ions in the electrolyte to the positively charged plate and the
positively charged ions to the negatively charged plate.
5) On the inner surface of both plates, a thin coating of ions is deposited.
6) This results in the production of an electrostatic double layer, which is similar to connecting two
capacitors in series.
7) Each charge possesses high capacitance as the distance between both the resultant capacitors is very
thin and the area of electrodes is high.

 Write the applications of super capacitors.

 Super capacitors are used in hybrid buses in the field of transportation as they combine with the
battery to increase battery life and decrease the size.
 Super capacitors are also used in electric cars
 The usage of super capacitors is increasing rapidly in the area of energy-efficient services and these
are being introduced in automotive vehicles to provide stored energy in a few seconds.
 Memory devices in laptops, smart phones, tablets etc., are developed using super capacitors.
 These are used in LED Flash units.
 These are also used in MP3 players and Photographic flashes.
 Super capacitors are even used in the field of renewable energy such as in wind energy to supply
power to the pitch control of blades.
 Super capacitors are consistently being used in other fields such as industry, military, medical,
transpiration, music etc.
 These are used in regenerative braking in the automotive industry.
 These are used in Static memories (SRAM)[ Static Random Access Memory].
 These are used in Industrial electrical motors.

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 Nano materials:

 What are fullerenes. Explain the classification of fullerenes.

Definition: A fullerene is an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon atoms connected by
single and double bonds so as to form a closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or many other shapes and sizes.
 Fullerenes can be of a different type C60, C70, C76, C78, etc; depending on the number of
carbon atoms.
 The most important fullerene is C60. It contains 60carbon atoms, which is commonly known as
Buckminster fullerene.

Structure of Fullerene:
C60 is a molecule that consists of 60 carbon atoms, arranged as 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons.
The shape is the same as that of a soccer ball. C60 fullerene is called Buckminster fullerene.
The name of Buckminster fullerene comes from the na me of an architect Richard Buckminster fuller who
had built the geodesic-dome with spherical shape.

Types of Fullerenes:
1. Buckminsterfullerene
2. Buckyball Clusters
3. Nanotubes
4. Megatubes
5. Linked bucky ball and chain Dimers
6. Spherical fullerenes.
7. Cylindrical fullerenes.
8. Planar fullerenes.

Some of the Forms of Fullerenes are Discussed Below

Buckminsterfullerene:
Buckminster fullerene is the most common form of fullerene. It exists in C 60 form.
Buckyball Clusters:
These forms of fullerenes are the smallest member of the fullerene group. Its structural formula is C20. These
fullerenes are unsaturated versions of dodecahedra.
Nanotubes:
These forms of fullerene are hollow tubes of very small dimensions, having single or multiple walls. These
types of fullerenes play an important role in the electronics industry.

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Megatubes:
These are larger in diameter than the nano tubes. These types of fullerenes are prepared with walls of
different thicknesses. It is potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes.
Linked Ball and Chain Dimer:
In this form of fullerene, two bucky balls are linked by a carbon chain.
Spherical fullerenes: They look like soccer (foot ball) ball and are often called bucky balls.
Cylindrical fullerenes: These are called carbon nanotubes or bucky tubes.
Planar fullerenes: Graphene is an example of planar fullerene sheet.

 Explain the properties of fullerenes.

A) Physical Properties of Fullerene:
 Fullerene has sp2 hybridized carbon atoms.
 Its behaviour and structure depend on the temperature.
 The structure of fullerenes can change under different pressures.
 Fullerene has an ionization enthalpy of 7.61 electron volts.
 Its electron affinity is 2.6 to 2.8 electrons volts.
B) Chemical Properties of Fullerene:
 Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive.
 In chemical reactions, fullerene can act as an electrophile.
 It acts as an electron-accepting group and is characterised as an oxidizing agent.
 Fullerenes are doped with alkali or alkaline earth metals so that they can exhibit superconductivity
properties.
 Fullerene is ferromagnetic.
 Some fullerenes are inherently chiral.
 It is soluble in organic solvents such as toluene, chlorobenzene, and 1,2,3-trichloropropane.

 Discuss the applications of fullerenes.

 Fullerenes are used in the medical field as light-activated antimicrobial agents.
 It is also used in several biomedical applications including the design of high-performance MRI
contrast agents, X-ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene delivery.
 Buckminsterfullerene is used in drug delivery systems, in lubricants and as a catalyst.
 It is also used as a conductor.
 Some types of fullerene can be used as an absorbent for gases.
 It is used in making cosmetic products.
 C60 based films are used for photovoltaic applications.
 Fullerenes are used in making carbon nanotubes-based fabrics and fibres.
 Fullerene is often used in nanotechnology by the production of small, stable structures.
 It is also utilized for delivering drugs to specific body parts, increasing the effectiveness of the drug.
 It is also widely used to boost efficiency of solar cells.
 Fullerene can be used to stimulate chemical reactions, acting as catalysts, and speeding up the
process.
 Fullerenes are utilized in biomedical programs, including the design of highly effective MRI
comparison agents, comparative X-ray agents, photodynamic therapy and genetic delivery.

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 Define carbon nano tubes. Give its classification.
Carbon NanoTubes (CNT):
Definition: Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure having length to diameter
ratio greater than 1,00,000.
 They are also called as Bucky tubes.
 These are long, thin cylinders of carbon, discovered by S. Iijima in 1991.
 They are considered as a sheet of graphite rolled into a cylinder.
 These have a broad range of electronic, thermal and structural properties depending on the length,
diameter, chirality or twist of nanotube.

Rolling up a graphene sheet to form carbon nanotubes:

Types of carbon nanotubes:

Depending on the arrangement of atoms in carbon nanotubes, there are two types of carbon nanotubes.
1) Single walled nanotubes (SWNT)
2) Multi walled nanotubes (MWNT)

Single-Walled Carbon Nano Tubes:

 It is represented as SWCNT.
 The diameter of Single-walled Carbon nanotubes is 2nm.
 The length of Single-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 2 micrometers.
 They exist in a one-dimensional structure. Therefore, it is also known as a nanowire.
 They are obtained by wrapping a sheet of graphene ( a single layer of graphite) into seamless
sheets.

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  Based on the way the graphene sheet is wrapped. single walled nanotubes are divided into three
types. They are zig-zig, arm- chair and chiral’.
 Graphene sheet is represented by a pair of indices (n, m) called the chiral vector.
 The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the honey comb
crystal of graphene.
 If m=0, the nanotubes are zig-zig. The lines of the carbon bonds are down the centre.
 If n=m, the nanotubes are called arm- chair. The lines of hexagons are parallel to the axis of the
nanotubes.
 Otherwise, they are called ‘chiral’. They have a twist or spiral around the nanotubes.

Multi-Walled Carbon Nano Tubes:

 It is represented as MWCNT.
 It is composed of several nested carbon nanotubes.
 This type of nanotubes has two diameters, one is known as outer diameter and another one is known
as inner diameter.
 The outer diameter of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 2-20 nanometres.
 The inner diameter of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is 1-3 nm.
 The length of Multi-walled Carbon nanotubes is around 5-6 micrometers.
 There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes.
a) Russian Doll model . b) Parchment model
a) In the Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders.
E.g:- A (0,8) single walled nanotube within a larger (0,10) Single – walled nanotube.
b) In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled around itself, resembling a rolled
newspaper.

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 Explain the properties of carbon nano tubes.
Properties of Carbon Nanotubes:
Carbon Nano Tubes [CNTs] have several unique chemical, optical and structural properties that make them
attractive.
CNT (carbon nano tubes) exhibit extraordinary mechanical properties, electrical properties and thermal
conductivity properties.
Properties of Carbon Nanotubes:
1) Carbon nanotubes are stiff. They are as stiff as a diamond (the hardest natural material in nature).
2) The gravitational weight of the nanotube is very low.
3) The density of the carbon nanotubes is one-fourth of that of steel.
4) Carbon nanotubes are stronger than steel. They exhibit extraordinary mechanical properties. Carbon
nanotubes are ten times stronger than steel.
5) Carbon nanotubes have a high thermal capacity. Generally, it is twenty times stronger than steel.
Therefore, it does not expand on heating like that of steel. Therefore carbon nanotubes uses in making
bridges and aircrafts material.
6) In carbon nanotubes, each carbon atom is surrounded by three other carbon atoms through covalent
bonds. These carbon-carbon covalent bonds form lattices in the shape of hexagons.
7) The crystalline structure of carbon nanotubes exists in the form of regular hexagons.
8) Carbon nanotubes are elastic.
9) Carbon nanotubes are good conductors of heat.
10) Carbon nanotubes have good electrical conductivity.
11) The young's modulus is high. The young modulus of carbon nanotubes is around 1 terra pascal which
makes carbon nanotubes ten times stronger than steel.
12) Carbon nanotubes are chemically neutral. So, they are chemically stable. Therefore, carbon nanotubes
resist corrosion.
13) The nano-materials possess very good catalytic activity due to increased area of contact.

 Discuss the applications of carbon nano tubes.

1) In Electronics.
 Carbon nano tubes play an important role in the battery technology, because some charge
carriers can be successfully stored inside the nanotubes.
 Multi-walled CNTs can be used as storage devices to store hydrogen gas in fuel cells.
 CNTs are used as light weight shielding materials to protect electronic equipments from
electromagnetic radiation.
 Nano wires are used to build transistors without p-n junction diode.
2) In medicine.
 CNTs can be used for drug delivery within the body by placing the drugs within the tubes
or by attaching the drug to the sides of the tubes.
 CNTs are used to treat cancer tumors.
 CNTs are used for cardiac autonomic regulation.
 CNTs are used for platelet activation.
 CNTs are used for tissue regeneration.
3) As catalyst.
 CNTs are used as catalyst in chemical reactions.
 The nano materials have more no. of surface atoms which make them catalytically active.
For example, bulk gold chemically inert while nano gold possess excellent catalytic property.

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 4) In automobiles.
 Fuel consumption in automobiles can be reduced by using specially designed nano
particles as fuel additives.
 Incorporation of small amount of nano particles in car bumpers make them stronger than
steel.
5) In food industry.
 Nano particles are used to make packing material and containers to store food.
6) In filtration.
 Dissolved salts and colour producing organic compounds can be filtered very easily from
water by using nano porous membrane having pores smaller than 10nm.
 Carbon nanotubes can be used to separate particles of size greater than the diameter of
carbon nanotubes during filtration through them.
7) Aircraft stress reduction.
 Nanotubes are also used in space and aircraft to reduce the weight and stress of the various
components working together.
 Nanotubes are utilized in airplanes to reduce the overall load on the system as a whole.
8) In Fabric industry.
 Embedding of Nano particles on fabrics make them stain repellent.
 Socks embedded with silver nano particles remove the bacteria and makes them odour
free.

 Write a short note on Graphines. Give its classification.

 Graphene is the name for a honeycomb sheet of carbon atoms.
 It is the building block for other graphitic materials.
 Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
 It is a crystalline allotrope of carbon with 2-dimensional properties(2D nanomaterial).
 It is one atomic layer of graphite.
 Each carbon atom in graphene is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms with sp2
hybridization.
 Well-known forms of carbon-containing molecules that derived from graphene are graphite, fullerene,
and carbon nanotube.
 Therefore, graphene can be called “the mother” of all these three sp2 carbon structures.(all carbon
nano materials)
Structure of Graphene:

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 Types of Graphenes:
(a) Graphene. (Single layer Graphene)
(b) Multilayer Graphene.
(c) Graphene oxide (GO).
(d) Reduced Graphene oxide (rGO).
(e) Graphene quantum dots (GQD).
(f) Reduced Graphene quantum dots (rGQD.)

 Explain the properties of Graphine nano particles.

Among various 2D materials, graphene has received extensive research attention in the last 2-3 decades
due to its fascinating properties.
Properties of Graphene:
 Graphene is the thinnest known material and at the same time it is the strongest material ever
to be measured.
 It has high thermal conductivity.
 It has high electrical conductivity.
 It has high elasticity and flexibility.
 It has high hardness.
 It is nearly transparent.
 It is chemically inert.
 It is non toxic.
 It is 200 times stronger than steel by weight due to its tightly packed carbon atoms.
 It can act as a perfect barrier due to its compact structure. Not even helium can pass through it.

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 Discuss about the applications of Graphines.
 Graphene has endless potential applications in electronics.
 It is used in the manufacture of microchips and transistors.
 It is used in energy storage devices.
 It is used as sensors.
 It is used to make biomedical devices.
 Its high surface area and biocompatibility make it an attractive material for drug delivery and tissue
engineering applications.
 It is used in solar panels.
 It is used for anti-corrosion coatings and paints.
 It is used for making flexible displays.
 It is commonly used in semiconductors, batteries, composite industries, and many more.

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