IETI COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, INC.

Self-Learning Module in PHYSICAL SCIENCE 1st Semester SY 2021-2022

Module 1 1st Quarter

Big Bang, Elements and Beyond

Topics:
1. Big Bang Theory
2. Cosmic Inflation
3. Nuclear Fusion

Objectives:
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. give evidence for and explain the formation of light elements in the big bang theory;
2. enumerate the steps involved in the nuclear fusion and model them;
3. recognize the role played by nuclear fusion in stars and how it affects our everyday lives.

Introduction

Everything has an origin. Like a flower of plant which started from a seed, same goes with the universe
and the world where we live. The stars, our very own Sun, planets, meteors and other objects in the universe
may all originated from a single and simple matter and eventually evolved.

Around 13.8 billion years ago, the universe was for explained by the big bang theory. This theory explains
that the universe started as a very dense and hot state that expanded rapidly. As it cooled down, it became less
dense forming new particles, the protons, neutrons and electrons.

During the formation of these now what we call as subatomic particles, the universe entered the phase
called nucleosynthesis. Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting
nucleons, primarily protons and neutrons.

Cosmology and the Big Bang Theory

Cosmology is the study of how the universe began, how it continues to exist, and how it will end. Different
religions and cultures have different interpretations about cosmology based on their beliefs. Science brings forth
a cosmological theory not from beliefs but from scientific evidence that universe once began to expand and
continues to expand until today.

The Big Bang Theory, also known as Big Bang model,

explains how our observable universe evolved from the earliest
known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. The
theory also describes how the universe expanded from an initial state
of extremely high density and high temperature, and offers a
comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed
phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation, and large-scale structure. The expanding universe.

Only the lightest elements like hydrogen and helium formed during the formation of the universe along
with trace amounts of lithium and beryllium. Stars eventually formed as the cloud of cosmic dust and gases from
the Big Bang cooled and then grouped together to form galaxies. The other elements found in nature were
created in nuclear reactions in these stars and in huge stellar explosions known as supernovae.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

By the first millisecond, the universe had cooled to a few trillion kelvins (10 12 K) and quarks finally had
the opportunity to bind together into free protons and neutrons. Free neutrons are unstable with a half-life of
about ten minutes (614.8 s) and formed in much smaller numbers.

The abundance ratio was about seven protons for every neutron. Before one neutron half-life passed
nearly every neutron had paired up with a proton, and nearly every one of these pairs had paired up to form
helium. By this time the universe had cooled to a few billion kelvins (10 9 K) and the rate of nucleosynthesis had
slowed down significantly. By the time the universe was three minutes old the process had basically stopped
and the relative abundances of the elements was fixed at ratios that didn't change for a very long time: 75%
hydrogen, 25% helium, with trace amounts of deuterium (hydrogen-2), helium-3, and lithium-7.

Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced no elements heavier than lithium. To do that you need stars, which
means waiting around for at least 200 billion years.
Source: https://physics.info/nucleosynthesis/

Key stages of the Big Bang model

There are five key stages in the Big Bang model.

a. The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a point with all of space, time,
matter and energy. There is no space around the singularity.

b. Then it began to rapidly expand in a process called inflation. Space itself expanded faster than a speed of
light. In this still hot and dense mass of the universe, pairs of matter and antimatter (quarks and antiquarks
were formed from energy, but these cancelled each other back into energy (annihilation).

c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of matter – electrons, protons and neutrons and other
particles came to be in a highly energetic state. Photons (light particles) are being scattered everywhere.
Protons and neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei through the process called
nucleosynthesis and nuclear fusion.

d. Later on, electrons started to bind to ionize protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms in a process called
recombination. The bound particles no longer scattered photons so light and energy moved freely across
the space. This period is called “dark ages”.

e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and galaxies and other matter. This
still happens until today. Space continue to expand at an accelerating rate.

Cosmic Inflation

This refers to the expansion of the universe. How does the universe expand? Could you imagine if the
earth is expanding meaning becoming bigger, would you think we are now more nearer to the sun? If we go
nearer to the sun, what will happen to us? The expansion of the universe can be explained in an illustration in
inflating a balloon. For the next figure that you will see, it illustrates how the universe expands, in what directions
it is going into and to how much bigger is the expansion.

In the figure, the circle is the balloon represents the universe, the stickers are the galaxies. Galaxies are
group or cluster of stars including planets. Our planet earth, the solar system, belongs to one cluster or galaxy
called the milky way. We belong to milky way. There are so many billions of galaxies in the universe.

Overview on the proof of a big bang model

What are the proofs that there was really a big bang?

1.Redshift is the first evidence of the big bang model. Using different instrument can enable us to detect the
light of other galaxies. It was found out that the light of galaxies is found to be redshifted (the light looks
“stretched”) which suggests that galaxies are moving away from each other (red light has a longer wavelength
which shows going away compared to blue light we see in the skies with a shorter wavelength which means
nearer). It was later determined that they are not moving away instead space itself is expanding in all directions
causing all the galaxies to be relatively farther apart.

2.The relative abundance of light elements in the universe is the second evidence to prove. Through
measurements, we find that around 24% of the universe’s ordinary matter is currently comprised of helium, about
74% hydrogen and 2% of other elements. These figures only make sense if nucleosynthesis in the big bang
model actually occurred since no chemical process significantly changes these percentages.
Elements are arranged below in the order of their abundance,

3.Cosmic Microwave background or the energy (thermal radiation) that was left as a result of recombination.
Atoms became neutral due to the binding of nuclei and electrons. The remaining radiation began to scatter. This
is seen by scientists as a faint microwave glow emitted by any object in space.

The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

https://www.google.com/search?q=cosmic+microwave+background

Nuclear Fusion

The energy and temperature of the universe are extremely high to cause the neutrons and protons to
combine and form species of atomic nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear
reaction in which the light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. When this happens, a tremendous
amount of energy is released.

An example of nuclear fusion (Figure 1.5): deuterium (with one neutron and one proton) fuses with tritium
(with one proton and two neutrons) producing a helium nuclei and a neutron, and releasing energy.
4
In equation, D + T = He + n
(p + n) (p + 2n) (2p +2n)

Check: 2p + 3n = 2p + 3n

Formation of light elements

Light elements which includes Hydrogen (H), Helium

(He), and small amounts of Beryllium (Be) and Lithium
(Li) were formed through nuclear fusion in the big bang
nucleosynthesis. The isotopes produced were H-1, H-
2, H-3, He-4 and Li-7. After fusion, the total mass of
the light nuclei formed in the fusion process is less than
the total mass of the nuclei that fused. Nuclear fusion
reactions are accompanied with tremendous release of
energy.

The figure above shows the nuclear equation for the fusion reactions that took place during the big bang
nucleosynthesis. These main nuclear reactions were responsible for the abundance of lighter nuclei in the
universe.

Summary

• The expansion of the universe means the expansion of space in between galaxies and these galaxies are
moving farther apart from each other proportionately in all directions.
• The Big Bang Theory explains how the universe began as just a single point, then expanded and stretched
to grow as large as it is right now.

• The creation of new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons(primarily protons and neutrons) were due to
the process called nucleosynthesis.

• Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different
atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between the reactants
and products is manifested as either the release or absorption of energy.

More than ninety per cent of the universe is composed of hydrogen and helium. Both elements have been
around since shortly after the beginning of the universe. Yet, hydrogen and helium together won't make anything
as complex and as interesting as the Earth, or a bacterium, or a refrigerator, or you and I. To do that we need
carbon and oxygen and nitrogen and silicon and chlorine and every other naturally occurring element. Almost all
the hydrogen and helium present in the universe today (and some of the lithium) were created in the first three
minutes after the big bang. All of the other naturally occurring elements were created in stars.

Formation of light elements

Through nucleosynthesis, new atomic nuclei were formed by the process of fusing the nuclei. Starting
from the creation of lightest elements right after the Big Bang, around three quarters of the materials in the
universe was hydrogen atoms and the remaining quarter was helium atoms.

The process called stellar nucleosynthesis formed the heavier elements originated from hydrogen. This
was an extended duration process, in which, during various stages in a star’s life, hydrogen and helium were
fused together in nuclear fusion within the stars, which served as giant furnaces. This process led to the
emergence of carbon and a significant proportion of the elements that follow it in the periodic table. The process’
products eventually dispersed from star into the interstellar gas and created nebulae.

Most of the even heavier atoms were formed in the nucleosynthesis of a supernova. This, too, is a
process of nuclear fusion, but these reactions require enormous amounts of energy which is available only in
the most massive stars when they are at the stage of a supernova. The stage when a giant star explodes is
when the nuclear fusion occurring within it exhausts itself and is no longer able to prevent the star collapsing in
on itself due to the force of its own gravity.

Elements lighter than carbon but larger than hydrogen and helium, were created by cosmic ray spallation.
In this process, cosmic rays impact with the nuclei of larger heavier elements and shatter their nuclei so that
lighter nuclei are created such as lithium, beryllium, and boron.

The heaviest elements, those at the bottom of the periodic table, are created by man. That is, they were
artificially created by accelerating relatively heavy nuclei in particle accelerators and colliding with each other at
immense speed and incredible force. The collision creates heavy nuclei, which usually are not stable and fall
apart in a fraction of a second.

The abundance of the chemical elements is a measure of the occurrence of the chemical
elements relative to all other elements in a given environment. Abundance is measured in one of three ways: by
the mass-fraction (the same as weight fraction); by the mole-fraction (fraction of atoms by numerical count, or
sometimes fraction of molecules in gases); or by the volume-fraction. Volume-fraction is a common abundance
measure in mixed gases such as planetary atmospheres, and is similar in value to molecular mole-fraction for
gas mixtures at relatively low densities and pressures, and ideal gas mixtures. Most abundance values in this
article are given as mass-fractions.

For example, the abundance of oxygen in pure water can be measured in two ways: the mass fraction is
about 89%, because that is the fraction of water's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole-fraction is about
33% because only 1 atom of 3 in water, H2O, is oxygen. As another example, looking at the mass-
fraction abundance of hydrogen and helium in both the Universe as a whole and in the atmospheres of gas-giant
planets such as Jupiter, it is 74% for hydrogen and 23–25% for helium; while the (atomic) mole-fraction for
hydrogen is 92%, and for helium is 8%, in these environments. Changing the given environment to Jupiter's
outer atmosphere, where hydrogen is diatomic while helium is not, changes the molecular mole-fraction (fraction
of total gas molecules), as well as the fraction of atmosphere by volume, of hydrogen to about 86%, and of
helium to 13%.

The abundance of chemical elements in the universe is dominated by the large amounts of hydrogen and
helium which were produced in the Big Bang. Remaining elements, making up only about 2% of the universe,
were largely produced by supernovae and certain red giant stars. Lithium, beryllium and boron are rare because
although they are produced by nuclear fusion, they are then destroyed by other reactions in the stars. [1][2] The
elements from carbon to iron are relatively more abundant in the universe because of the ease of making them
in supernova nucleosynthesis. Elements of higher atomic number than iron (element 26) become progressively
rarer in the universe, because they increasingly absorb stellar energy in their production. Also, elements
with even atomic numbers are generally more common than their neighbors in the periodic table, due to
favorable energetics of formation.

The abundance of elements in the Sun and outer planets is similar to that in the universe. Due to solar
heating, the elements of Earth and the inner rocky planets of the Solar System have undergone an additional
depletion of volatile hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, and carbon (which volatilizes as methane). The crust,
mantle, and core of the Earth show evidence of chemical segregation plus some sequestration by density. Lighter
silicates of aluminum are found in the crust, with more magnesium silicate in the mantle, while metallic iron and
nickel compose the core. The abundance of elements in specialized environments, such as atmospheres, or
oceans, or the human body, are primarily a product of chemical interactions with the medium in which they
reside.

Formation of Elements Heavier that

Iron

For elements heavier than iron, they

cannot be formed through usual process
of fusion as tremendous amounts of
energy are needed for the reaction to
occur. They are formed in a supernova, a
massive explosion of a star.
There are many nuclear synthetic
pathways or nuclear fusions to produce
heavy elements such as (a) Carbon-
Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle, (b) Proton-Proton
Fusion, and (c) Triple Alpha process.

In supernova, neutron capture reaction takes place, leading to formation of heavy elements. In a neutron
capture reaction, heavy elements are created by addition of more neutrons to existing nuclei instead of fusion of
light nuclei. Adding neutrons to a nucleus doesn’t change an element. Rather, a more massive isotope of the
same elementis produced. Elements higher than iron requires tremendous amount of energy to be formed. Thus,
they were produced from a neutron capture reactionis a supernova.

Condense Things Up!!!

• There are 3 reactions that led to the formation of the elements: nucleosynthesis, fusion, and neutron
capture reaction.

• These reaction required a certain amount of energy to proceed, which was obtained from the heat of the
continuously expanding universe. Thus, energy in the form of heat does not only produce work but also
the elements that make up matter that we have today.

• The reaction involved in the formation of these elements are dependent on the atomic mass of the
elements. More energy, and thus higher temperature, is needed to form heavier elements.

• Nucleosynthesis formed light elements, whereas fusion in stars formed elements with an atomic mass
that is within the range of beryllium and iron. Thus, any element with an atomic mass higher than iron,
which required tremendous amount of energy to be formed was produced from a neutron capture-
reaction in supernova.
 WORKSHEET – Module No. 1 (Page 1)
Name: __________________________ Date Submitted: ________________
Strand & Section : ______________________
Personal Contact No. : _______________________ _____________________________
Subject : PHYSICAL SCIENCE Parent/Guardian’s Name and Signature

GENERAL INSTRUCTION: Complete the information above. Follow the instructions for each test. Use an
additional yellow paper if necessary and staple it with this worksheet or you may use the back of this
worksheet(s). Do not use pencil, only black inked pen. Deduction of points will be given for not following the
instructions.

Activity 1
Direction: Complete the crossword by filling in a word that fits its clue. Use a separate answer sheet.

ACROSS

1- light nuclei fuse together to

form to a heavier nucleus
2- subatomic particle with a
positive charge
3- isotope of hydrogen with 1
proton and 1 neutron
4- the lightest element
5- isotope of hydrogen with I
proton and 2 neutrons
6- with a negative charge
7- symbol for lithium
8- symbol for helium
DOWN
1- creates new atomic nucleus from preexisting nucleons
2- subatomic particle with a zero charge
3- symbol for beryllium
4- densely part of an atom containing p and n
5- ability to do work

Activity 2: Expansion of the Universe

1. Start with a balloon at its normal which means no air inside. Paste a small rounded stickers in 1 cm or 2cm
apart. Notice the distances from each other, designate a letter to identify the reference points (1 st circle).

2. Blow the balloon to at least half in size, notice the positioning of the stickers from each other, notice the
distances (2nd circle). Observe.

3. Do the stickers appear to be moving away from each other? Are the stickers moving across the balloons?
Do the stickers grow in size?

4. Blow again the balloon to its fullest, notice again the positioning of the stickers from each other, notice the
distances (3rd circle).

5. Did the positioning of the stickers (galaxies) from each other varies? by how much?

6. What is the direction of expansion?

7. Back to the question, would you think during the

expansion the distances of the planet changes? Like
our distance to the sun Yes or No, why?

8. What can you conclude about the expansion of the universe based on the activity?

9. Write your observation and answers at the back of this worksheet or use an extra yellow paper.

Activity 3
Illustrate and explain the formation of elements from light to heavy elements starting from Big Bang event. You
may use an extra bond paper in illustrating the process and for the explanation with a minimum of 150 words.

*Do not use exact sentences used in this module. Do paraphrasing and summarizing in explaning.