Higher Secondary Course

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
(Commerce)

CLASS - XII

Government of Kerala
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT),
Kerala
2015
 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
Jana-gana-mana adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Tava subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha.
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!

PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect, and treat
everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In their
well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.

Prepared by:
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in e-mail : [email protected]
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
To be printed in quality paper - 80gsm map litho (snow-white)
 Foreword

Dear learners,
The syllabus of Computer Applications for the Commerce discipline
at Higher Secondary Level has been revised and implemented in view
of the fact that computer is used currently as a tool for various
applications, especially in the field of e-Banking, e-Commerce, e-
Governance, etc. Higher studies and placements, at present, greatly
demand human resources with adequate knowledge in computer
applications and information technology. In Class XI, the syllabus
focussed on the fundamentals of computer, hardware and software
components, computer network and Intenet. Emphasis is also given to
put a strong foundation to develop problem solving skills and create
computer programs.
The syllabus of Class XII Computer Application (Commerce) is a
continuation to that of Class XI. Hence the text book, designed in
accordance with the syllabus, begins with some advanced features of
C++ programming language to solve complex problems. Since we are
in the age of Internet and most of us are users of web applications, an
introduction to develop the same is also provided. The concept of
database and facilities of information retrieval are included. A chapter
is dedicated to present a brief idea about Enterprise Resource Planning.
An exclusive section on the new trends and issues in the field of
Information Communication Technology is also incorporated.
Considering the increase in the use of Internet, an awareness about
Cyber laws is presented to safeguard against Cyber crimes.
I hope this book will meet all the requirements for stepping to levels
of higher education and pave the way to the peak of success.
Dr S. Raveendran Nair
Director
SCERT, Kerala
 Textbook Development Team
Joy John Prasanth P. M.
HSST, St. Joseph's HSS, HSST, St. Joseph's Boys' HSS,
Thiruvananthapuram Kozhikode
A. N. Sathian Sunil Kariyatan
HSST, GM HSS, Koyilandy, HSST, Govt. Brennen HSS,
Kozhikode Thalassery
Mustafa Shamsul Haq K. K. Asees V.
HSST, GHSS Kuthuparamba, HSST, Govt. HSS Velliyode,
Kannur Kozhikode
A. S. Ismael Rajamohan C.
HSST, PJMS GHSS, Kandassankadavu, HSST, Nava Mukunda HSS,
Thrissur Thirunavaya, Malappuram
Vinod V. Najeeb P. P.
HSST, NSS HSS, Prakkulam, HSST, Himayathul Islam HSS,
Kollam Kozhikode
Experts
Dr Lajish V. L. Dr Madhu S. Nair
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer
Science, University of Calicut Science, University of Kerala
Madhu V. T. Dr Binu P. Chacko
Director, Computer Centre, University of Associate Professor, Dept. of Computer
Calicut Science, Prajyoti Niketan College,
Dr Sushil Kumar R. Pudukad, Thrissur
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, Dr Deepa L. C.
D. B. College, Sasthamcotta Assistant Professor, Dept. of English,
Vinayakumaran Nair N. Govt. Women's College, Trivandrum
Assistant Commandant, Hi-Tech Cell, Maheswaran Nair V.
Police Head Quarters, Trivandrum Sub Divisional Engineer, Regional
Dr Kabeer V. Telecom Training Centre, Kaimanom,
Asst. Prof & Head, Dept. of Computer Tvpm.
Science, Farook College, Kozhikode
Artists
Sudheer Y. Vineeth V.
Academic Co-ordinator
Dr Meena S.
Research Officer, SCERT
 CONTENTS

1. Review of C++ Programming ............................................... 9

1.1 Basics of C++
1.2 Control statements
1.3 Nested loops
1.4 Jump statements
2. Arrays .................................................................................. 31
2.1 Array and its need
2.2 Array operations
2.3 String handling using arrays
2.4 Memory allocation for strings
2.5 Input/Output operations on strings
3. Functions .............................................................................. 45
3.1 Concept of modular programming
3.2 Functions in C++
3.3 Predefined functions
3.4 User-defined functions
3.5 Scope and life of variables and functions
4. Web Technology .................................................................. 81
4.1 Communication on the web
4.2 Web server technologies
4.3 Web designing
4.4 Static and dynamic web pages
4.5 Scripts
4.6 Cascading Style Sheet
4.7 Basic concepts of HTML documents
4.8 Creating an HTML document
4.9 Essential HTML tags
4.10 Some common tags
4.11 HTML entities for reserved characters
4.12 Adding comments in HTML document
4.13 Inserting images
5. Web Designing Using HTML ........................................... 131
5.1 Lists in HTML
5.2 Creating links
5.3 Inserting music and video
5.4 Creating tables in a web page
5.5 Dividing the browser window
5.6 Forms in web pages
5.7 Overview of HTML 5
6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript ............................ 173
6.1 Getting started with JavaScript
6.2 Creating functions in JavaScript
6.3 Data types in JavaScript
6.4 Variables in JavaScript
6.5 Operators in JavaScript
6.6 Control structures in JavaScript
6.7 Built-in functions
6.8 Accessing values in a text box using JavaScript
6.9 Ways to add scripts to a web page
7. Web Hosting ...................................................................... 217
7.1 Web hosting
7.2 Free hosting
7.3 Content Management System
7.4 Responsive web design
8. Database Management System ....................................... 229
8.1 Concept of database
8.2 Components of the DBMS environment
8.3 Data abstraction and data independence
8.4 Users of database
8.5 Relational data model
8.6 Terminologies in RDBMS
8.7 Relational algebra
9. Structured Query Language ............................................. 255
9.1 Structured Query Language
9.2 Working on MySQL
 9.3 SQL commands
9.4 Creating Tables
9.5 Inserting data into tables
9.6 Retrieving information from tables
9.7 Modifying data in tables
9.8 Changing the structure of a table
9.9 Deleting rows from a table
9.10 Removing table from a database
9.11 Nested queries
9.12 Concept of views
10. Enterprise Resource Planning .......................................... 301
10.1 Overview of an enterprise
10.2 Concept of Enterprise Resource Planning
10.3 Functional units of ERP
10.4 Business Process Re-engineering (BPR)
10.5 Implementation of ERP
10.6 ERP solution providers/ERP packages
10.7 Benefits and risks of ERP
10.8 ERP and Related Technologies
11. Trends and Issues in ICT .................................................. 317
11.1 Mobile computing
11.2 Mobile communication
11.3 Mobile operating system
11.4 ICT in business
11.5 Information security
kkkk

Icons used in this textbook

Let us do

Know your progress

Information box

Let us practice

Let us conclude
 Review of C++
1 Programming

T
he basic concepts of C++ language were
Significant Learning Outcomes
discussed in Class XI. A good
After the completion of this chapter the understanding of these concepts is very
learner
essential to attain the significant learning
outcomes envisaged in the following chapters.
• uses input statements in programs
This chapter is a quick tour to refresh the
to enter data into the computer. concepts and skills you acquired in C++
• uses output statements in programs language in Class XI. Each concept will be
to display various forms of output. presented with necessary details only. The most
• applies various forms of if important aspects like selection statements and
statements to make decisions while looping statements are explained with the help
solving problems. of programs. Some advanced features like
• compares else if ladder and switch
nested loops and the effect of break and
continue statements in loops are also
statement.
introduced in this chapter.
• distinguishes different looping
statements of C++. Since we use GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
with Geany IDE for developing C++ programs,
• selects appropriate loop in
we should be aware of the structure of
programs for solving problems.
program, format of specifying the header file,
• uses the concept of nested loop in size of the data types, etc.
problem solving and predicts the
output. 1.1 Basics of C++
• identifies the effect of break and C++ being a programming language, we started
continue statements in loops by by learning its character set followed by tokens,
explaining their effect on the expressions and statements. We also discussed
program flow. data types and their modifiers. While
constructing expressions, we identified the need
of data type conversions. Table 1.1 provides a
brief idea of these elements.
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

An overview of C++

Character set Fundamental unit of C++ language. Classified into letters

(a - z, A - Z), digits (0 - 9), special characters (# , ; : > { +
etc.), white spaces (space bar, tab, new line) and some other
characters whose ASCII code fall in the range from 0 to
255.
Tokens Basic building blocks of C++ programs. Constituted by
one or more characters. Classified into keywords, identifiers,
literals, punctuators and operators.
Keywords Reserved words that convey specific meaning to the
language compiler.
Identifiers User-defined words to identify memory locations,
statements, functions, data types, etc. Certain rules are to
be followed to ensure the validity of identifiers. Identifiers
include variables, labels, function names, etc.
Literals Tokens that do not change their value during the program
run. They are also known as constants. Classified into integer
constants, floating point constants, character constants and
string constants. Integer constant is constituted by digits
only with an optional plus (+) or minus (-) sign as the first
character. Floating point constant is expressed in fractional
form and exponential form. Character constant is a single
character of C++ enclosed within single quotes. There are
some special character constants, called escape sequences.
They represent some non-printable or non-graphic
characters like new line ('\n'), tab space ('\t') and
punctuation marks like single quote ('\' '), double quotes
('\"'), question mark ('\?') etc. String constant is a sequence
of characters enclosed by a pair of double quotes.
Operators Symbols that tell the compiler about some operations. Each
of them actually triggers a specific operation. Based on the
number of operands (data on which operation is carried
out), operators are classified into unary, binary and ternary.
Another classification is based on the type of operation

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 1. Review of C++ Programming

An overview of C++

performed. They consist of arithmetic (+, -, *, /, %),

relational (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=) and logical (&&, ||, !)
operators. These operators give some value as the result of
the operation. There are some special operators named get
from (>>) for input, put to (<<) for output and assignment
(=) for setting a value in a variable. Another category of
operators implicitly performs an assignment operation after
an arithmetic operation. They include increment (++),
decrement (--) and arithmetic assignment (+=, -=, *=, /=,
%=) operators.
Punctuators Special characters like comma (,), semi colon (;), hash (#),
braces ({}) etc. used for the perfection of syntax of various
constructs of the language used in programs. They have
semantic and syntactic meaning to the compiler.
Data types These are means to identify the type of data and associated
operations handling these data. Data types are classified
into fundamental and user-defined data types. Fundamental
data types represent atomic values and they include int,
char, float, double and void. Each data type excluding
void has its own size and range for the values they represent.
Data type void represents an empty set of data and hence
its size is zero.
Type modifiers The keyword signed, unsigned, short and long are
the type modifiers. They are used with data types to modify
the size of memory space and range of data supported by
the basic data types.
Expressions Expressions are constituted by operators and required
operands to perform an operation. Based on the operators
used, they are classified into arithmetic expressions,
relational expressions and logical expressions. Arithmetic
expression is divided into integer expression and real
expression. Integer expression consists only of integer data
as operands and it returns integer value. In real expressions,
the operands and the return-value are floating point data.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

An overview of C++

Relational expressions consist of numeric or character data

as operands and they return True or False as outputs.
Logical expressions use relational expressions as operands
in practice and return True or False value as results.
Type conversion When different types of operands are involved in an
arithmetic expression, type conversion takes place. It is the
process of converting the current data type of a value into
another type. It may be implicitly and explicitly converted.
In implicit type conversion, complier is responsible for the
conversion. It always converts a lower type into higher one
and hence it is also known as type promotion. In explicit
conversion, user is responsible for the conversion. Here
the user determines the destination data type and hence it is
known as type casting.
Table 1.1: Basic elements of C++ language
1.1.1 Various statements in a C++ program
Usually every program begins with pre-processor directives. We use #include
statement, the pre-processor directive to attach a header file to provide information
about predefined identifiers and functions used in the program. The pre-processor
directive statements are followed by using namespace statement. Usually we
use the predefined namespace std to specify the scope of identifiers cin and cout.
Then the main() function appears. It is an essential function in a C++ program,
where the program execution starts and ends. It consists of declaration statements
and a set of executable statements required for solving the problem. Let us have a
close look at these statements.
Declaration statement
Variables are identifiers of memory locations and are used in programs to refer to
data. They should be declared prior to their use in the program and data types are
required for this. The following statements are examples for variable declaration:
int n, sum;
float rad, area;
signed int a,b,c;
Values can be provided to the variables along with the declaration as shown below:
int n=10;

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 1. Review of C++ Programming

This kind of statement is known as variable initialisation statement. The value

assigned to the variable can be replaced by some other value later in the program.
But the following statement does not allow changing the value of the variable.
const int n=10;
Here the variable initialisation begins with the access modifier const, a keyword
that restricts a change in the value of the variable.
Input statement
C++ provides the operator >>, called extraction operator or get from operator. It
is a binary operator and hence it requires two operands. The first operand is the
pre-defined identifier cin that identifies keyboard as input object. The second
operand is strictly a variable. We can use more than one variable in the same
statement to receive more than one input. The following are valid examples:
cin>>rad;
cin>>a>>b>>c;
Output statement
To perform output operation, C++ gives the operator <<, called insertion operator
or put to operator. It is also a binary operator. The first operand is the pre-defined
identifier cout that identifies monitor as the output object. The second operand
may be a constant, a variable or an expression. The following are some examples
for output statements:
cout<< "hello";
cout<< area;
cout<< 25;
cout<< a+b+c;
cout<< "Sum of " << n << "numbers = " << sum;
Assignment statement
A specific data is stored in memory locations (variables) using assignment operator
(=). The statement that contains = is known as assignment statement. It is also a
binary operator and the operand to the left of = should be a variable. The operand
after = may be a numeric constant, a variable or an expression of numeric type. The
following assignment statements are valid:
n = 253;
area = 3.14*rad*rad;
a = b = c;

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

There are special assignment operators, called arithmetic assignment operators. They
are +=, -=, *=, /= and %=. These are all binary operators and the operand to left of
these operators should be variables. Their operations may be illustrated as follows:
n+=2; // It is equivalent to n=n+2;
a*=b; // It is equivalent to a=a*b;
sum-=n%10; // It is equivalent to sum=sum-n%10;
The operators ++ and -- are special operators of C++, which are, in a way, similar
to assignment statements. These are unary operators and the operand should be a
variable. The following statements illustrate the operations associated with them:
n++; // It is equivalent to n=n+1;
a--; // It is equivalent to a=a-1;
There are two versions for these operators: postfix form and prefix form. a++;
and a--; are the postfix form of increment and decrement operators respectively.
++a; and --a; are the prefix form. Whatever be the form, ++ operator adds 1 to
the content of the operand variable and the result is stored in it.
The two versions differ when used with an assignment or output statement. Assume
that a is an integer variable with value 5 and b is another integer variable. After the
execution of the statement: b=a++; the value of b will be 5 and that of a will be 6.
That is, b=a++; is equivalent to the statement sequence: b=a; a=a+1;. So this
method of incrementing is known as use and change method.
But the statement, b=++a; is equivalent to the statement sequence: a=a+1; b=a;.
So the values of both a and b will be 6. This method of incrementing is known as
change and use method.
Similarly, the statement cout<<a--; will display 5, but the value of a will be 4. It
is equivalent to the statement sequence cout<<a; a=a-1;. But the statement
cout<<--a; is equivalent to a=a-1; cout<<a;.
The input, output and assignment operators (>>, << and =) may appear more than
once in the respective statements. It is known as cascading. The following are
examples in each category for cascading of input, output and assignment operators
respectively.
cin >> a >> b >> c;
cout << "Sum of " << n << "numbers = " << sum;
a = b = c;

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 1. Review of C++ Programming

1.1.2 Structure of a C++ program

Program 1.1 shows the basic structure of a C++ program. It accepts the length
and breadth of a rectangle and computes its area and perimeter.
Program 1.1: To find the area and perimeter of a rectangle
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
float length, breadth, peri, area;
cout << "Enter the length and breadth of rectangle: ";
cin >> length >> breadth;
peri = 2*(length + breadth);
area = length * breadth;
cout << "Perimeter = " << peri << endl;
cout << "Area = " << area << endl;
return 0;
}

Program 1.1 uses the header file iostream, since the identifiers cin and cout are
used. The second line is also essential to use cin and cout independently. The
using namespace statement uses std to make cin and cout available in main().
In GCC, the function name main()is preceded by the data type int. Variables are
declared using float data type. Cascading of input operator and output operators
are utilised. Formulae are used in the assignment statements to solve the problem.
The endl is used
instead of '\n'
to print a new line
after each of the
results. Figure
1.1(a) shows the
screenshot of
Program 1.1 in
Geany IDE and
Figure 1.1(b)
shows the output
on execution.

Fig. 1.1(a): Program 1.1.in Geany IDE

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Fig. 1.1(b): Output of Program 1.1 in the terminal window of Geany IDE
This program follows a sequential structure. That is, all statements in the program
are executed in a sequential fashion.
While writing a C++ program, we use the statement "using namespace
std;". Why?
A program cannot have the same name for more than one identifier
(variables or functions) in the same scope. In our home two or more
persons (or even living beings) will not have the same name. If there are, it will surely
make conflicts in the identity within the home. So, within the scope of our home, a name
should be unique. But our neighbouring home may have a person (or any living being)
with the same name as that of one of us. It will not make any confusion of identity
within the respective scopes. But an outsider cannot access a particular person by
simply using the name; but the house name is also to be mentioned.
The concept of namespace is similar to a house name. Different identifiers are associated
to a particular namespace. It is actually a group name in which each item is unique in its
name. User is allowed to create own namespaces for variables and functions. The
keyword using technically tells the compiler about a namespace where it should search
for the elements used in the program. In C++, std is an abbreviation of 'standard' and
it is the standard namespace in which cout, cin and a lot of other things are defined.
So, when we want to use them in a program, we need to follow the format std::cout
and std::cin. This kind of explicit referencing can be avoided with the statement
using namespace std; in the program. In such a case, the compiler searches this
namespace for the elements cin, cout, endl, etc. So whenever the computer comes
across cin, cout, endl or anything of that matter in the program, it will read it as
std::cout, std::cin or std::endl.
The statement using namespace std; doesn't really add a function, it is the include
<iostream> that "loads" cin, cout, endl and all the like.

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 1. Review of C++ Programming

Know your progress

1. What is meant by token in C++?
2. Read the following tokens and identify the type of token to which
each of these belongs:
i. number ii. 23.98 iii. "\0" iv. cin v. ++
vi. void vii. '\\' viii. ; ix. = x. a
3. What is the role of #include statement in C++ program?
4. What is wrong in the statement: cin>>25; ?
5. List the type modifiers of C++.
1.2 Control statements
The sequential flow of execution in a program may need to be altered while solving
problems. It may be in the form of selection, skipping or repeated execution of
one or more statements. Usually this decision will be based on some condition(s).
C++ provides statements to facilitate this requirement with the help of control
transfer statements. These are classified into two: (i) decision making/selection
statements and (ii) iteration statements. Let us see how these statements help problem
solving.
1.2.1 Selection statements
C++ provides two statements to select a task from the alternatives based on a
condition. They are if statement and switch statements. if statement has different
versions: simple if, if - else and else if ladder. The following program illustrates
the mode of execution of these statements. This program accepts the CE scores of
Computer Applications in three terms and finds the highest as the final CE score.
Program 1.2: To find the best CE score from the three given scores
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
short int ce1, ce2, ce3, final_ce;
cout<<"Enter three CE scores: ";
cin>>ce1>>ce2>>ce3;
if (ce1>ce2)
final_ce=ce1;//Will be executed, if the condition is true
else
final_ce=ce2;//Will be executed, if the condition is false

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

if (ce3>final_ce) final_ce=c3;//No else block for this if

cout<<"Final CE Score is "<<final_ce;
return 0;
}
Program 1.2 uses short int data type for the variables. In GCC, int takes 4
bytes of memory, whereas short takes only 2 bytes. In this problem we need only
the values within the range of short. The program also uses if-else statement
and a simple if statement. Initially, the test expression ce1>ce2 will be evaluated.
If it evaluates to true, the value of ce1 will be assigned to final_ce, otherwise
that of ce2 will be assigned. After that, the third score stored in ce3 is compared
with the content of final_ce. If the score in ce3 is higher, it will be stored in
final_ce, otherwise final_ce will not be changed.
We learned that else if ladder is a multi-branching statement. Program 1.3
illustrates the working of else if ladder. It accepts a character and prints whether
it is an alphabet, digit or any other character.
Program 1.3: To check whether the character is uppercase letter, lowercase
letter, digit or other characters
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch;
cout<<"Enter a character: ";
cin>>ch;
if (ch>='A' && ch<='Z')
cout<<"Uppercase letter";
else if (ch>='a' && ch<='z')
cout<<"Lowercase letter";
else if (ch>='0' && ch<='9')
cout<<"Digit";
else
cout<<"Other character";
return 0;
}
Program 1.3 uses else if ladder or else if staircase to select a statement
from four different alternatives. Three conditions are provided for selecting one
among the three actions. The fourth alternative will be selected when all the three
conditions are evaluated to false.

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 1. Review of C++ Programming

In some cases, where integer equality conditions are used for decision making,
switch statement can replace else if ladder. Since char type data are treated
as numeric, they are also used in equality checking. Program 1.4 illustrates this
concept. This program accepts any one of the four letters a, b, c and d. If 'a' is the
input, the word 'Abacus' will be displayed. Similarly, 'Binary' for 'b', 'Computer' for
'c' and 'Debugging' for 'd' will be displayed. For the given problem, actually the
default statement is not required. In that case, there will not be any response
from the program for an input other than the four specified characters. So, to make
the program user-friendly, default case is mentioned in this program.
Program 1.4: To display a word for a given character
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch;
cout<<"Enter a, b, c or d: ";
cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{
case 'a': cout<<"Abacus";
break;
case 'b': cout<<"Binary";
break;
case 'c': cout<<"Computer";
break;
case 'd': cout<<"Debugging";
break;
default : cout<<"Invalid input!!";
}
return 0;
}

Program 1.4 also uses the concept of multi branching. Different cases are given,
out of which only one will be executed. Selection will be based on the match between
the value of the expression provided with switch and the constant attached with
any one case. If none of the constants is matched with the value of ch, the default
case will be executed.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Replace the switch statement used in Program 1.4 with else if ladder.
In Program 1.4, if break; statements are removed what will be the
output?
The else if ladder used in Program 1.3 cannot be replaced with switch.
Let us do
Why?
Conditional operator (?:)
It is a ternary operator of C++ and it requires three operands. It can substitute if -
else statement. The if - else statement used in Program 1.2 can be replaced by
the following:
final_ce = (ce1>ce2) ? ce1 : ce2;
If we have to find the largest among three scores, nesting of conditional operator
can be used as follows:
final_ce = (ce1>ce2) ? ((ce1>ce3)?ce1:ce3) :
((ce2>ce3)?ce2:ce3);
1.2.2 Looping statements
C++ provides three looping statements: while, for and do-while. A looping
statement has four components: initialisation expression, test expression, update
expression and loop-body. The loop-body is the set of statements for repeated
execution. The execution is continued as long as the test expression (condition) is
true. The variable used in the test expression, called loop control variable, gets its
initial value through the initialisation expression (or statement). Update expression
changes the value of the loop control variable. Usually, it takes place after each
execution of the loop-body.
Looping statements, also called iteration statements, are classified into two: entry-
controlled and exit-controlled. In entry-controlled loops, test expression is evaluated
before the execution of the loop-body. Program control enters the loop-body only
if the condition is true. while and for are examples of entry-controlled loops.
But in exit-controlled loop, condition is checked only after executing the loop-
body. So it is certain that the loop-body will be executed at least once in the case of
exit-controlled loop. do-while statement belongs to this category.
All the three expressions (initialization, test and update) are placed together in for
loop. But in the case of while and do-while, initialisation expression has to be
given before the loop and update expression within the loop-body. Test expression
appear along with the word while. Let us see some programs to understand the
working of these loops.

20
 1. Review of C++ Programming

Program 1.5: To find the sum of digits of a number

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int num, sum=0, dig;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cin>>num;
while (num>0)
{
dig=num%10;
sum=sum+dig;
num=num/10;
}
cout<<"Sum of the digits of the input number = "<<sum;
return 0;
}

In Program 1.5, num is the loop control variable as it is involved in the test
expression. The initialisation of this variable is through an input statement. Note
that the updation expression is within the loop-body. If the input is not a positive
number, the body will never be executed.
Let us see another program that uses for statement to constitute a loop.
Program 1.6: To find the sum of the first N natural numbers
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int n, sum=0;
cout<<"Enter the limit: ";
cin>>n;
for(int i=1; i<=n; i++)
sum=sum+i;
cout<<"Sum of the first "<<n<<" natural numbers = "<<sum;
return 0;
}

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

In Program 1.6, the variable i is the loop control variable and is initialised with an
assignment statement. The updation is done with increment operation. The program
needs a loop based on counting. The for statement is more appropriate in such
situations.
As mentioned earlier, do-while loop ensures the execution of loop-body at least
once. Its application is illustrated in the following program.
Program 1.7: To find the average height of a group of students
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
float hgt, sum=0, avg_hgt;
short n=0;
char ch;
do
{
cout<<"Enter the height: ";
cin>>hgt;
n++;
sum=sum+hgt;
cout<<"Any more student (Y/N)? ";
cin>>ch;
}while (ch=='Y' || ch=='y');
avg_hgt=sum/n;
cout<<"Average Height = "<<avg_hgt;
return 0;
}

The execution of the loop-body in Program 1.7 is repeated as long as user responds
by inputting 'Y' or 'y'.

Rewrite the looping segment of Program 1.5 using for and do-
while statements.
Rewrite the looping segment of Program 1.6 using while and do-
while statements.
Let us do
Rewrite the looping segment of Program 1.7 using for and while
statements.

22
 1. Review of C++ Programming

Know your progress

1. What are the selection statements of C++?
2. What are the four components of a loop?
3. Give examples for entry-controlled loop.
4. Which control transfer statement is equivalent to the conditional
operator (?:)?
5. All switch statements can be replaced by any form of if
statement. State whether it is true or false.

1.3 Nested Loops

Placing a loop inside the body of another loop is called nesting of a loop. In a
nested loop, the inner loop statement will be executed repeatedly as long as the
condition of the outer loop is true. Here the loop control variables for the two
loops should be different.
Let us observe how a nested loop works. Take the case of a minute-hand and second-
hand of a clock. Have you noticed the working of a clock? While the minute-hand
stands still at a position, the second-hand moves to complete one full rotation (say
1 to 60). The minute hand moves to the next position (that is, the next minute) only
after the second hand completes one full rotation. Then the second-hand again
completes another full rotation corresponding to the minute-hand's current position.
For each position of the minute-hand, the second-hand completes one full rotation
and the process goes on. Here the second hand movement can be treated as the
execution of the inner loop and the minute-hand's movement can be treated as the
execution of the outer loop. Figure 1.2 shows the concept of nested loops with the
help of digital watch.
As in Figure 1.2, the
value of second changes
from 0 to 59 keeping
the minute fixed. Once
the value of seconds
reached 59, the next
change will be in
minutes. Once the Fig. 1.2: Concept of nested loop using digital watch
minute is changed, the second resets its value to 0.
All types of loops in C++ allow nesting. An example is given to show the working
procedure of a nested for loop.
23
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

for( i=1; i<=2; ++i)

Outer loop
{
for(j=1; j<=3; ++j)
Inner loop
{
cout<< "\n" << i << " and " << j;
}
}
Initially value 1 is assigned to the outer loop variable i. Its test expression is evaluated
to be True and hence the body of the loop is executed. The body contains the inner
loop with the control variable j and it begins to execute by assigning the initial
value 1 to j. The inner loop is executed 3 times, for j=1, j=2, j=3. Each time it
evaluates the test expression j<=3 and displays the output since it is True.
1 and 1 The first 1 is of i and
1 and 2 the second 1 is of j
1 and 3
When the test expression j<=3 is False, the program control comes out of the
inner loop. Now the update statement of the outer loop is executed which makes
i=2. Then the test expression i<=2 is evaluated to True and once again the loop
body (i.e. the inner loop) is executed. Inner loop is again executed 3 times, for j=1,
j=2, j=3 and displays the output.
2 and 1
2 and 2
2 and 3
After completing the execution of the inner loop, the control again goes back to
the update expression of the outer loop. Value of i is incremented by 1 (now i=3)
and the test expression i<=2 is now evaluated to be False. Hence the loop terminates
its execution. Table 1.2 illustrates the execution of the above given program segment:
Iterations Outer loop (i) Inner loop (j) Output
1 1 1 1 and 1
2 1 2 1 and 2
3 1 3 1 and 3
4 2 1 2 and 1
5 2 2 2 and 2
6 2 3 2 and 3
Table 1.2: Execution of a nested loop

24
 1. Review of C++ Programming

When working with nested loops, the control variable of the outer *
loop changes its value only after the inner loop is terminated. Let * *
us write a program to display the given triangle using nested loop. * * *
Program 1.8: To display a triangle of stars * * * *
* * * * *
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
short int i, j;
for(i=1; i<=5; ++i) //outer loop
{
cout<< "\n" ;
for(j=1; j<=i; ++j) // inner loop
cout<< '*';
}
return 0;
}

In Program 1.8, what will the output be if we use the statement

cout<<i; instead of cout<<'*';?
Let us do Similarly, what will the output be if we use the statement cout<<j;?

1.4 Jump statements

The statements that facilitate the transfer of program control from one place to
another are called jump statements. C++ provides four jump statements that perform
unconditional control transfer in a program. They are return, goto, break and
continue statements. All of these are keywords. In addition, C++ provides a
standard library function exit()that helps us to terminate a program.
The return statement is used to transfer control back to the calling program or to
come out of a function. It will be explained in detail later in Chapter 3. Now, we will
discuss the other jump statements.
1.4.1 goto statement
The goto statement can transfer the program control to anywhere in the function.
The target destination of a goto statement is marked by a label, which is an identifier.
The syntax of goto statement is:

25
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

goto label;
............;
............;
label: ............;
............;
where the label can appear in the program either before or after goto statement.
The label is followed by a colon (:) symbol. For example, consider the following
code fragment which prints numbers from 1 to 50.
int i=1;
start:
cout<<i;
++i;
if (i<=50)
goto start;
Here, the cout statement prints the value 1. After that i is incremented by 1 (now
i=2), then the test expression i<=50 is evaluated. Since it is True the control is
transferred to the statement marked with the label start. When the test expression
evaluates to False, the process terminates and transfers the program control
following the if statement. It is to be noted that the usage of goto is not encouraged
in structured programming.
1.4.2 break statement
We have already discussed the effect of break in switch statement. It transfers
the program control outside the switch block. When a break statement is
encountered in a loop (for, while, do-while), it takes the program control outside
the immediate enclosing loop. Execution continues from the statement immediately
after the control structure. Let us see how it affects the execution of loops. Consider
the following two program segments.
Code segment 1:
i=1;
while(i<=10)
{
cin>>num;
if (num==0)
break;
cout<<"Entered number is: "<<num;
cout<<"\nInside the loop";
++i;
}
cout<<"\nComes out of the loop";
26
 1. Review of C++ Programming

The above code fragment allows to input 10 different numbers. During the input if
any number happens to be 0, the program control comes out of the loop by skipping
the rest of the statements within the loop-body and displays the message "Comes
out of the loop" on the screen. Let us consider another code segment that
uses break within a nested loop.
Code segment 2:
for(i=1; i<=5; ++i) //outer loop
{
cout<<"\n";
for(j=1; j<=i; ++j) //inner loop
{ *
cout<<"* "; * *
if (j==3) break; * * *
} * * *
} * * *
This code segment will display the given pattern:
The nested loop executes normally for the value of i=1, i=2, i=3. For each value
of i, the variable j takes values from 1 to i. When the value of i becomes 4, the
inner loop executes for the value of j=1, j=2, j=3 and comes out from the inner
loop on executing the break statement.
1.4.3 continue statement
The statement continue is another jump statement used for skipping over a part
of the code within the loop-body and forcing the next iteration. The break statement
forces termination of the loop, but the continue statement forces next iteration
of the loop. The following program segment explains the working of a continue
statement:
for (i=1; i<=10; ++i)
{
if (i==6)
continue;
cout<<i<<"\t";
}
This code gives the following output:
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
Note that 6 is not in the list. When the value of i becomes 6 the continue statement
is executed. As a result, the output statement is skipped and program control goes
to the update expression for next iteration.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

A break statement inside a loop will abort the loop and transfer control to the
statement following the loop. A continue statement will just abandon the current
iteration and let the loop continue with next iteration. When a continue statement
is used within while and do-while loops, care should be taken to avoid infinite
execution.
Let us compare break and continue statements. Table 1.3 is
designed to show the comparison aspects. Some of the entries are
filled. The remaining entries are left for you to fill with proper
Let us do comparison points.
continue break
• ....................................................... • Used only with loops
• Takes the control outside the loop • .......................................................
by skipping the remaining part of the .......................................................
loop
.......................................................
• ....................................................... • Program control goes outside only
....................................................... when the test expression of the loop
returns false
Table 1.3: Comparison between break and continue
Let us write a program that requires the use of nested loops. Program 1.9 can
display all prime numbers below 100.
Program 1.9: To display all prime numbers below 100
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ short int n, i, flag;
cout<<"Prime numbers below 100 are...\n";
for(n=2; n<=100; n++) //Outer loop
{ flag=1;
for(i=2; i<=n/2; i++) //Inner loop
if(n%i==0)
{ flag=0;
break;//Takes the control outside the iiner loop
}
if(flag==1) cout<<n<<'\t';
}
return 0;
}

28
 1. Review of C++ Programming

In Program 1.8, the variable n is given the values from 2 to 100 through the outer
loop. Each value is checked for prime using the inner loop. If any of the values
from 2 to n/2 is found to be a factor of n, inner loop is terminated by changing
the value of flag from 1 to 0. The value of n, for which flag remains 1 after the
termination of the inner loop, is prime and is printed.

Let us conclude
We have refreshed ourselves with the basic concepts of C++ language. Character
set, tokens, data types, type modifiers, expressions and type conversions are
presented in capsule form. Different types of C++ statements are recollected with
the help of examples. Various control transfer statements are briefly explained with
programs. Nested loops and the two jump statements break and continue are
introduced as the new concepts. A clear-cut idea about these topics is very much
essential to learn the concepts covered in Chapters 2 and 3 of this book.

Let us practice
1. Write a C++ program to display all palindrome numbers between 100 and 200.
2. Write a C++ program to display all Armstrong numbers below 1000.
3. Write a C++ program to display all perfect numbers below 1000.
4. Write a C++ program to display the multiplication table of a number.
5. Write a C++ program to prepare electricity bill for a group of consumers.
The previous meter reading and current reading are the inputs. The payable
amount is to be calculated using the following criteria:
Up to 300 units : Rs. 5.00/- per unit
Up to 350 units : Rs. 5.70/- per unit
Up to 400 units : Rs. 6.10/- per unit
Up to 500 units : Rs. 6.70/- per unit
Above 500 units : Rs. 7.50/- per unit
The program should provide facility to input the details of any number of
consumers as the user wants.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Let us assess 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

1. What is wrong with the following code segment?

for (short i=1; i<5; ++i)
for (i=5; i>0; --i)
cout<<i<<"\t";
2. Distinguish between break and continue statements.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

3. The default case in switch is equivalent to the else block of else if

ladder. Justify this statement with the help of example.
4. What will be the output of the following code fragment?
for (outer=10; outer>5; --outer)
for (inner=1; inner<4; ++inner)
cout<<outer<<"\t"<<inner<<endl;
5. Write a program to produce the following output using nested loop:
A
A B
A B C
A B C D
A B C D E
6. Read the following C++ code snippet:
for (n=1; n<5; ++n)
{
cout<<i;
if (i==2) continue;
if (i%3==0) break;
cout<<"Hello";
}
Choose the correct output of this code from the following:
a. 1Hello2Hello3Hello4Hello b. 1Hello2Hello3
c. 1Hello23 d. 1Hello23Hello
7. Read the following C++ code segment and replace it with a looping statement:
cin>>n;
loop: r=n%10;
s=s*10+r;
n=n/10;
if (n!=0) goto loop;
cout<<s;
8. Which of the following is not a character constant in C++?
a. '\t' b. 'a' c. '9' d. '9a'
9. Some of the following identifiers are invalid. Identify them and give reason for
the invalidity.
a. unsigned b. cpp c. 2num d. cout
10. What happens if break is not used in switch statement?

30
 2 Arrays

W
e use variables to store data in
Significant Learning Outcomes
programs. But if the quantity of
data is large, more variables are to
After the completion of this chapter, the be used. This will cause difficulty in accessing
learner the required data. We have revised the concept
• identifies the scenarios where an of C++ data types in Chapter 1 and we used
array can be used. basic data types to declare variables and
perform type conversion. In this chapter, a
• uses arrays to refer to a group of
derived data type in C++, named 'array' is
data.
introduced. The word ‘array’ is not a data type
• familiarises with the memory name, rather it is a kind of data type derived
allocation for arrays. from fundamental data types to handle large
• accesses any element in an array number of data easily. We will discuss the
while solving problems. creation and initialisation of arrays, and
• solves problems in which large operations like traversal.
amount of data is to be processed.
2.1 Array and its need
• represnts strings using character
arrays. An array is a collection of elements of the
same type placed in contiguous memory
• carries out various word processing
locations. Arrays are used to store a set of
operations using character arrays.
values of the same type under a single variable
name. Each element in an array can be accessed
using its position in the list, called index number
or subscript.
Why do we need arrays? We will illustrate this
with the help of an example. Let us consider a
situation where we need to store the scores of
20 students in a class and has to find their class
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

average. If we try to solve this problem by making use of variables, we will need 20
variables to store students’ scores. Remembering and managing these 20 variables
is not an easy task and the program may become complex and difficult to understand.
int a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t;
float avg;
cin>>a>>b>>c>>d>>e>>f>>g>>h>>i>>j>>k>>l>>m>>n>>o>>p>>q>>r>>s>>t;
avg = (a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p+q+r+s+t)/20.0;
As it is, this code is fine. However, if we want to modify it to deal with the scores of
a large number of students, say 1000, we have a very long and repetitive task at
hand. We have to find a way to reduce the complexity of this task.
The concept of array comes as a boon in such situations. As it is a collection of
elements, memory locations are to be allocated. We know that a declaration statement
is needed for memory allocation. Let us see how arrays are declared and used.

2.1.1 Declaring arrays

Just like the ordinary variable, the array is to be declared properly before it is used.
The syntax for declaring an array in C++ is as follows.
data_type array_name[size];

In the syntax, data_type is the type of data that the array variable can store,
array_name is an identifier for naming the array and the size is a positive integer
number that specifies the number of elements in the array. The following is an
example:
int num[10];
The above statement declares an array named num that can store 10 integer numbers.
Each item in an array is called an element of the array. The elements in the array
are stored sequentially as shown in Figure 2.1. The first element is stored in the first
location; the second element is stored in the second location and so on.
num[0] num[1] num[2] num[3] num[4] num[5] num[6] num[7] num[8] num[9]

Index→ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 2.1: Arrangement of elements in an array
Since the elements in the array are stored sequentially, any element can be accessed
by giving the array’s name and the element’s position. This position is called the
index or subscript value. In C++, the array index starts with zero. If an array is
32
 2. Arrays

declared as int num[10]; then the possible index values are from 0 to 9. In this
array, the first element can be referenced as num[0] and the last element as num[9].
The subscripted variable, num[0], is read as “num of zero” or “num zero”. It’s a
shortened way of saying “the num array subscripted by zero”. So, the problem of
referring the scores of 1000 students can be resolved by the following statement:
int score[1000];
The array, named score, can store the scores of 1000 students. The score of the
first student is referenced by score[0] and that of the last by score[999].
2.1.2 Memory allocation for arrays
The amount of storage required to hold an array is directly related to its type and
size. Figure 2.2 shows the memory allocation for the first five elements of array
num, assuming 1000 as the address of the first element. Since num is an integer type
array, size of each element is 4 bytes (in a system with 32 bit integer representation
using GCC) and it will be represented in memory as shown in Figure 2.2.

Fig. 2.2: Memory allocation for an integer array

The memory space allocated for an array can be computed using the following
formula:
total_bytes = sizeof(array_type) × size_of_array
For example, total bytes allocated for the array declared as float a[10]; will be
4 × 10 = 40 bytes.
2.1.3 Array initialisation
Array elements can be initialised in their declaration statements in the same manner
as in the case of variables, except that the values must be included in braces, as
shown in the following examples:
int score[5] = {98, 87, 92, 79, 85};
char code[6] = {‘s’, ‘a’, ‘m’, ‘p’, ‘l’, ‘e’};
float wgpa[7] = {9.60, 6.43, 8.50, 8.65, 5.89, 7.56, 8.22};

Initial values are stored in the order they are written, with the first value used to
initialize element 0, the second value used to initialize element 1, and so on. In the
first example, score[0] is initialized to 98, score[1] is initialized to 87, score[2]
is initialized to 92, score[3] is initialized to 79, and score[4] is initialized to 85.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

If the number of initial values is less than the size of the array, they will be stored in
the elements starting from the first position and the remaining positions will be
initialized with zero, in the case of numeric data types. For char type array, such
positions will be initialised with ' ' (space bar) character. When an array is initialized
with values, the size can be omitted. For example, the following declaration statement
will reserve memory for five elements:
int num[] = {16, 12, 10, 14, 11};
2. 1.4 Accessing elements of arrays
Array elements can be used anywhere in a program as we do in the case of normal
variables. We have seen that array is accessed element-wise. That is, only one element
can be accessed at a time. The element is specified by the array name with the subscript.
The following are some examples of using the elements of the array named score:
score[0] = 95;
score[1] = score[0] - 11;
cin >> score[2];
score[3] = 79;
cout << score[2];
sum = score[0] + score[1] + score[2] + score[3] + score[4];

The subscript in brackets can be a variable, a constant or an expression that evaluates

to an integer. In each case, the value of the expression must be within the valid
subscript range of the array. An important advantage of using variable and integer
expressions as subscripts is that, it allows sequencing through an array by using a
loop. This makes statements more structured keeping away from the inappropriate
usage as follows:
sum = score[0] + score[1] + score[2] + score[3] + score[4];

The subscript values in the above statement can be replaced by the control variable
of for loop to access each element in the array sequentially. The following code
segment illustrates this concept:
sum = 0;
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + score[i];
An array element can be assigned a value interactively by using an input statement,
as shown below:
for(int i=0; i<5; i++)
cin>>score[i];

34
 2. Arrays

When this loop is executed, the first value read is stored in the array element
score[0], the second in score[1] and the last in score[4].
Program 2.1 shows how to read 5 numbers and display them in the reverse order.
The program includes two for loops. The first one allows the user to input array
values. After five values have been entered, the second for loop is used to display
the stored values from the last to the first.
Program 2.1: To input the scores of 5 students and display them in
reverse order
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int i, score[5];
for(i=0; i<5; i++) // Reads the scores
{
cout<<"Enter a score: ";
cin>>score[i];
}
for(i=4; i>=0; i--) // Prints the scores
cout<<"score[" << i << "] is " << score[i]<<endl;
return 0;
}

The following is a sample output of program 2.1:

Enter a score: 55
Enter a score: 80
Enter a score: 78
Enter a score: 75
Enter a score: 92
score[4] is 92
score[3] is 75
score[2] is 78
score[1] is 80
score[0] is 55
Accessing each element of an array at least once to perform any operation is known
as traversal operation. Displaying all the elements of an array is an example of
traversal. If any operation is performed on all the elements in an array, it is a case of
traversal. Program 2.2 shows how traversal is performed in an array.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Program 2.2: Traversal of an array

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a[5], i;
cout<<"Enter the elements of the array :";
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
cin >> a[i]; //Reading the elements
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
a[i] = a[i] + 1; // A case of traversal
cout<<"\nNow value of elements in the array are...\n";
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
cout<< a[i]<< "\t"; // Another case of traversal
return 0;
}
The following is a sample output of program 2.2:
Enter the elements of the array : 12 3 6 1 8
Now value of elements in the are...
13 4 7 2 9

1. Write array declarations for the following:

a. Scores of 100 students
b. English letters
Let us do c. A list of 10 years
d. A list of 30 real numbers
2. Write array initialization statements for the following:
a. An array of 10 scores: 89, 75, 82, 93, 78, 95, 81, 88, 77,
and 82
b. A list of five amounts: 10.62, 13.98, 18.45, 12.68, and 14.76
c. A list of 100 interest rates, with the first six rates being
6.29, 6.95, 7.25, 7.35, 7.40 and 7.42.
d. An array of 10 marks with value 0.
e. An array with the letters of VIBGYOR.
f. An array with number of days in each month.
3. Write a C++ code to input values into the array: int ar[50];
4. Write a C++ code fragment to display the elements in the even
positions of the array: float val[100];
36
 2. Arrays

Let us solve another problem that requires traversal operation. Program 2.3 accepts
five numbers from a user and finds the sum of these numbers.
Program 2.3: To find the sum of the elements of an array
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a[5], i, sum;
cout<<"Enter the elements of the array :";
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
cin >> a[i]; //Reading the elements
sum = 0;
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
sum = sum + a[i]; // A case of traversal
cout<<"\nSum of the elements of the array is "<< sum;
return 0;
}
The following is a sample output of Program 2.3:
Enter the elements of the array : 12 3 6 1 8
Sum of the elements of the array is 30
Program 2.4 illustrates another case of traversal to find the largest element in an
array. In this program a variable big is used to hold the largest value. Initially it is
assigned with the value in the first location. Then it is compared with the remaining
elements. Whenever a larger value is found, it repalces the value of big.
Program 2.4: To find the largest element in an array
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int a[5], i, big;
cout<<"Enter the elements of the array :";
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
cin >> a[i];
big = a[0];
for(i=1; i<5; i++)
if (a[i] > big) // A case of traversal
big = a[i];

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

cout<<"\nThe biggest element is " << big;

return 0;
}

The following is a sample output of program 2.4:

Enter the elements of the array : 12 3 6 1 8
The biggest element is 12

2.2 String handling using arrays

We know that string is a kind of literal in C++ language. It appears in programs as
a sequence of characters within a pair of double quotes. Imagine that you are asked
to write a program to store your name and display it. We have learned that variables
are required to store data. Let us take the identifier my_name as the variable.
Remember that in C++, a variable is to be declared before it is used. A declaration
statement is required for this and it begins with a data type. Which data type should
be used to declare a variable to hold string data? There is no basic data type to
represent string data. We may think of char data type. But note that the variable
declared using char can hold only one character. Here we have to input string
which is a sequence of characters.
Let us consider a name “Niketh”. It is a string consisting of six characters. So it
cannot be stored in a variable of char type. But we know that an array of char
type can hold more than one character. So, we declare an array as follows:
char my_name[10];
It is sure that ten contiguous locations, each with one byte size, will be allocated for
the array named my_name. If we follow the usual array initialization method, we
can store the characters in the string “Niketh” as follows:
char my_name[10]={'N', 'i', 'k', 'e', 't', 'h'};
Figure 2.3 shows the memory allocation for the above declared character array.
Note that, we store the letters in the string separated by commas. If we want to
input the same data, the following C++ statement can be used:
for (int i=0; i<6; i++)
cin >> my_name[i];
During the execution of this statement, we have to input six letters of “Niketh”
one after the other separated by Space bar, Tab or Enter key. The memory allocation
in both of these cases will be as shown in Figure 2.3.

38
 2. Arrays

Array Name
my_name
Elements
N i k e t h
Subscripts
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 2.3 : Memory allocation for the character array

So, let us conclude that a character array can be used to store a string, since it is a
sequence of characters. However, it is true that we do not get the feel of inputting
a string. Instead, we input the characters constituting the string one by one.
In C++, character arrays have some privileges over other arrays. Once we declare a
character array, the array name can be considered as an ordinary variable that can
hold string data. Let’s say that a character array name is equivalent to a string variable.
Thus your name can be stored in the variable my_name (the array name) using the
following statement:
cin >> my_name;
It is important to note that this kind of usage is wrong in the case of arrays of other
data types. Now let us complete the program. It will be like the one given in Program
2.5.
Program 2.5 To input a string and display
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char my_name[10];
cout << "Enter your name: ";
cin >> my_name;
cout << "Hello " << my_name;
return 0;
}
On executing this program we will get the output as shown below.
Enter your name: Niketh
Hello Niketh
Note that the string constant is not "Hello", but "Hello " (a white space is
given after the letter 'o').

39
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Run Program 2.5 and input your full name by expanding the initials
if any, and check whether the output is correct or not. If your name
contains more than 10 characters, increase the size of the array as
Let us do needed.
2.3 Memory allocation for strings
We have seen how memory is allocated for an array of characters. As Figure 2.3
shows, the memory required depends upon the number of characters stored. But if
we input a string in a character array, the scene will be different. If we run Program
2.5 and input the string Niketh, the memory allocation will be as shown in Figure
2.4.
Null character '\0' is stored
Array Name
at the end of the string
my_name

N i k e t h \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 2.4 : Memory allocation for the character array
Note that a null character '\0' is stored at the end of the string. This character is
used as the string terminator and added at the end automatically. Thus we can say
that memory required to store a string will be equal to the number of characters in
the string plus one byte for null character. In the above case, the memory used to
store the string Niketh is seven bytes, but the number of characters in the string is
only six.
As in the case of variable initialization, we can initialize a character array with a
string as follows:
char my_name[10] = "Niketh";
char str[] = "Hello World";
In the first statement 10 memory locations will be allocated and the string will be
stored with null character as the delimiter. The last three bytes will be left unused.
But, for the second statement, size of the array is not specified and hence only 12
bytes will be allocated (11 bytes for the string and 1 for '\0').
2.4 Input/Output operations on strings
Program 2.5 contains input and output statements for string data. Let us modify
the declaration statement by changing the size of the array to 20. If we run the
program by entering the name Maya Mohan, the output will be as follows:
Enter your name: Maya Mohan
Hello Maya
40
 2. Arrays

Note that though there is enough size for the array, we get only the word "Maya" as
the output. Why does this happen?
Let us have a close look at the input statement: cin>>my_name;. We have
experienced that only one data item can be input using this statement. A white
space is treated as a separator of data. Thus, the input Maya Mohan is treated as
two data items, Maya and Mohan separated by white space. Since there is only
one input operator (>>) followed by a variable, the first data (i.e., Maya) is stored.
The white space after "Maya" is treated as the delimiter.
So, the problem is that we are unable to input strings containing white spaces. C++
language gives a solution to this problem by a function, named gets(). The function
gets() is a console input function used to accept a string of characters including
white spaces from the standard input device (keyboard) and store it in a character
array.
The string variable (character array name) should be provided to this function as
shown below:
gets(character_array_name);
When we use this function, we have to include the library file cstdio.h in the
program. Let us modify Program 2.5, by including the statement
#include<cstdio> , and replacing the statement cin>>my_name; by
gets(my_name); After executing the modified program, the output will be as
follows:
Enter your name: Maya Mohan
Hello Maya Mohan
The output shows the entire string that we input. See the difference between gets()
and cin.
Though we do not use the concept of subscripted variable for the input and output
of strings, any element in the array can be accessed by specifying its subscript along
with the array name. We can access the first character of the string by my_name[0],
fifth character by my_name[4] and so on. We can even access the null character
('\0') by its subscript. Program 2.6 illustrates this idea.
Program 2.6: To input a string and count the vowels in a string
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdio> //To use gets() function
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char str[20];

41
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

int vow=0;
cout<<"Enter a string: ";
gets(str);
for(int i=0; str[i]!='\0'; i++)
switch(str[i])
{ case 'a':
case 'e':
case 'i':
case 'o':
case 'u': vow++;
}
cout<<"No. of vowels in the string "<<str<<" is "<<vow;
return 0;
}

If we run Program 2.6 by inputting the string “hello guys”, the following output
can be seen:
Enter a string: hello guys
No. of vowels in the string hello guys is 3
Now, let us analyse the program and see how it works to give this output.
l In the beginning, the gets() function is used and so we can input the string
"hello guys".
l The body of the for loop will be executed as long as the element in the array,
referenced by the subscript i, is not the null character ('\0'). That is, the
body of the loop will be executed till the null character is referenced.
l The body of the loop contains only a switch statement. Note that, no
statements are given against the first four cases of the switch. In the last
case, the variable vow is incremented by 1. You may think that this is required
for all the cases. Yes, you are right. But, you should use the break statement
for each case to exit the switch after a match. In this program the action for
all the cases are the same and that is why we use this style of code.
l While the for loop iterates, the characters will be retrieved one by one for
matching against the constants attached to the cases. Whenever a match is found,
the variable vow is incremented by 1.
l As per the input string, matches occur when the value of i becomes 1, 4 and 7.
Thus, the variable vow is incremented by 1 three times and we get the correct
output.
We have seen how gets() function facilitates input of strings. Just like the other
side of a coin, C++ gives a console function named puts() to output string data.
42
 2. Arrays

The function puts() is a console output function used to display a string data on
the standard output device (monitor). Its syntax is:
puts(string_data);
The string constant or variable (character array name) to be displayed should be
provided to this function. Observe the following C++ code fragment:
char str[10] = "friends";
puts("hello");
puts(str);
The output of the above code will be as follows:
hello
friends
Note that the string "friends" in the character array str[10] is displayed in a
new line. Try this code using cout<<“hello”; and cout<<str; instead of the
puts() functions and see the difference. The output will be in the same line without
a space in between them in the case of cout statement.
Predict the output, if the input is “HELLO GUYS” in Program 2.6.
Execute the program with this input and check whether you get the
correct output. Find out the reason for difference in output. Modify
Let us do the program to get the correct output for any given string.

Let us conclude

We have discussed array as a data type to refer to a group of same type of data.
Memory allocation for arrays is explained with the help of schematic diagrams. The
use of looping statements, especially for loop in manipulating the elements of an
array are also illustrated through programs. We have also seen that how arrays help
to handle strings effectively in programs.

Let us practice
1. Write a C++ program to input the amount of sales for 12 months into an
array named SalesAmt. After all the input, find the total and average amount
of sales.
2. Write a C++ program to create an array of N numbers, find the average and
display those numbers greater than the average.

43
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

3. Write a C++ program to swap the first and the last elements of an integer
array.
4. Write a C++ program to input 10 integer numbers into an array and determine
the maximum and minimum values among them.
5. Write a C++ program to input a string and find the number of uppercase
letters, lowercase letters, digits, special characters and white spaces.
6. Write a C++ program to count the number of words in a sentence.
7. Write a C++ program12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
to find the length of a string.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Let us assess 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
1. The elements of an array with ten elements are numbered from ____ to ____.
2. An array element is accessed using _____.
3. If AR is an array, which element will be referenced using AR[7]?
4. Consider the array declaration int a[3]={2,3,4}; What is the value of a[1]?
5. Consider the array declaration int a[]={1,2,4}; What is the value of a[1]?
6. Printing all the elements of an array is an example for _____ operation.
7. Write down the output of the following code segment:
puts(“hello”);
puts(“friends”);
8. Write the initialisation statement to store the string "GCC".
9. Define an Array.
10. What does the declaration int studlist[1000]; mean?
11. How is memory allocated for a single dimensional array?
12. Write C++ statements to accept an array of 10 elements and display the count
of even and odd numbers in it.
13. Read the following statements:
char name[20];
cin>>name;
cout<<name;
What will be the output if you input the string “Sachin Tendulkar”? Justify
your answer.
14. Write C++ statements to accept two single dimensional arrays of equal length
and find the difference between corresponding elements.
15. Write a program to check whether a string is a palindrome or not.

44
 3 Functions

W
e discussed some simple programs
Significant Learning Outcomes
in the previous chapters. But to
After the completion of this chapter, the solve complex problems, larger
learner programs running into thousands of lines
• identifies the merits of modular of code are required. Complex problems
programming in problem solving. are divided into smaller ones and programs
• classifies various input output to solve each of these sub problems are
functions for character and string written. In other words, we break the larger
data. programs into smaller sub programs.. In
• compares character input functions. C++, function is a way to divide large
• uses appropriate character and
programs into smaller sub programs. We are
string functions for the I/O
familiar with the function main(). We know
operations.
that it is the essential function in a C++
• applies mathematical functions for
program. The statements required to solve
solving problems.
a problem are given within a pair of braces
{ and } after the header int main(). We
• uses string functions for the
manipulation of string data.
have not broken a problem into sub
• manipulates character data with
problems so far and hence the entire task is
predefined character functions.
assisgned to main()function. But there are
• implements modular programming
some functions readily available for use,
by creating functions.
which makes programming simpler. Each of
• identifies the role of arguments and
them is assigned with a specific task and they
compares different methods of
are stored in header files. So, these functions
function calling.
are known as built-in functions or predefined
• recognises the scope of variables
functions. Besides such functions, we can
and functions in a program.
define functions for a specific task. These are
called user-defined functions. In this chapter
we will discuss some important predefined
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

functions and learn how to define our own functions. Before going into these, let us
familiarise ourselves with a style of programming called modular programming.
3.1 Concept of modular programming
Let us consider the case of a school management software. It is a very large and
complex software which may contain many programs for different tasks. The
complex task of school management can be divided into smaller tasks or modules
and developed in parallel, and later integrated to build the complete software as
shown in Figure 3.1.

Fig. 31: Modular programming style

In programming, the entire problem will be divided into small sub problems that
can be solved by writing separate programs. This kind of approach is known as
modular programming. Each sub task will be considered as a module and we write
programs for each module. The process of breaking large programs into smaller
sub programs is called modularization. Computer programming languages have
different methods to implement modularization. The sub programs are generally
called functions. C++ also facilitates modular programming with functions.
3.1.1 Merits of modular programming
The modular style of programming has many advantages. It reduces the complexity
and size of the program, makes the program more readable, improves re-usability
and makes the debugging process easy. Let us discuss these features in detail:
Reduces the size of the program: In some cases, certain instructions in a program
may be repeated at different points of the program. Consider the expression
x5 + y7
x+ y
. To evaluate this expression for given values of x and y, we have to use

instructions for the following:

46
 3. Functions

1. find the 5th power of x.

2. find the 7th power of y.
3. add the results obtained in steps 1 and 2.
4. find the square root of x.
5. find the square root of y.
6. add the result obtained in steps 4 and 5.
7. divide the result obtained in step 3 by that in step 6.
We know that separate loops are needed to find the results of steps 1 and 2. Can
you imagine the complexity of the logic to find the square root of a number? It is
clear that the program requires the same instructions to process different data at
different points. The modular approach helps to isolate the repeating task and write
instructions for this. We can assign a name to this set of instructions and this can be
invoked by using that name. Thus program size is reduced.
Less chance of error occurrence: When the size of program is reduced, naturally
syntax errors will be less in number. The chance of logical error will also be minimized
because in a modularized program, we need to concentrate only on one module at
a time.
Reduces programming complexity: The net result of the two advantages
discovered above is reducing programming complexity. If we properly divide the
problem into smaller conceptual units, the development of logic for the solution
will be simpler.
Improves reusability: A function written once may be used later in many other
programs, instead of starting from scratch. This reduces the time taken for program
development.
3.1.2 Demerits of modular programming
Though there are significant merits in modular
programming, proper breaking down of the problem is a
challenging task. Each sub problem must be independent
of others. Utmost care should be given while setting the
hierarchy of the execution of the modules.
3.2 Functions in C++
Let us consider the case of a coffee making machine and
discuss its function based on Figure 3.2. Water, milk, sugar Fig. 3.2 : Function of
and coffee powder are supplied to the machine. The machine coffee making machine

47
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

processes it according to a set of predefined instructions stored in it and returns

coffee which is collected in a cup. The instruction-set may be as follows:
1. Get 60 ml milk, 120 ml water, 5 gm coffee powder and 20 gm sugar from the
storage of the machine.
2. Boil the mixture
3. Pass it to the outlet.
Usually there will be a button in the machine to invoke this procedure. Let us name
the button with the word “MakeCoffee”. Symbolically we can represent the
invocation as:
Cup = MakeCoffee (Water, Milk, Sugar, Coffee Powder)
We can compare all these aspects with functions in programs. The word
“MakeCoffee” is the name of the function, “Water”, “milk”, “sugar” and “coffee
powder” are parameters for the function and “coffee” is the result returned. It is
stored in a “Cup”. Instead of cup, we can use a glass, tumbler or any other container.
Similarly, a C++ function accepts parameters, processes it and
returns the result. Figure 3.3 can be viewed as a function Add
that accepts 3, 5, 2 and 6 as parameters, adds them and returns
the value which is stored in the variable C. It can be written as:
C = Add (3, 5, 2, 6)
We can say that function is a named unit of statements in a
C
program to perform a specific task as part of the solution. It is Fig. 3.3. Addition
not necessary that all the functions require some parameters and function
all of them return some value. C++ provides a rich collection of functions ready to
be used for various tasks. The tasks to be performed by each of these are already
written, debugged and compiled, their definitions alone are grouped and stored in
files called header files. Such ready-to-use sub programs are called predefined
functions or built-in functions.
While writing large programs, the predefined functions may not suffice to apply
modularization. C++ provides the facility to create our own functions for some
specific tasks. Everything related to a function such as the task to be carried out, the
name and data required are decided by the user and hence they are known as user-
defined functions.
What is the role of main() function then? It may be considered as user-defined in
the sense that the task will be defined by the user. We have learnt that it is an essential
function in a C++ program because the execution of a program begins in main().
48
 3. Functions

Without main(), C++ program will not run. All other functions will be executed
when they are called or invoked (or used) in a statement.
3.3 Predefined functions
C++ provides a number of functions for various tasks. We will discuss only the
most commonly used functions. While using these functions, some of them require
data for performing the task assigned to it. We call them parameters or arguments
and are provided within the pair of parentheses of the function name. There are
certain functions which give results after performing the task. This result is known
as return-value of the function. Some functions do not return any value, rather
they perform the specified task. In the following sections, we discuss functions for
manipulating strings, performing mathematical operations and processing character
data. While using these functions the concerned header files are to be included in
the program.
3.3.1 Console functions for character I/O
We have discussed functions for input/output operations on strings. C++ also
provides some functions for performing input/ouput operations on characters. In
Chapter 2, we discussed gets() function and its advantage in string input. Now
let us see some functions to input and output character data. These functions require
the inclusion of header file cstdio (stdio.h in Turbo C++ IDE) in the program.
getchar()
This function returns the character that is input through the keyboard. The character
can be stored in a variable as shown in the example given below:
char ch = getchar();
In the previous chapter we have seen puts() function and its advantage in string
output. Let us have a look at a function used to output character data.
putchar()
This function displays the character given as the argument on the standard output
unit (monitor). The argument may be a character constant or a variable. If an integer
value is given as the argument, it will be considered as an ASCII value and the
corresponding character will be displayed. The following code segment illustrates
the use of putchar() function.
char ch = 'B'; //assigns 'B' to the variable ch
putchar(ch); //displays 'B' on the screen
putchar('c'); //displays 'c' on the screen
putchar(97); //displays 'a' on the screen

49
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Program 3.1 illustrates the working of these functions. This program allows inputting
a string and a character to be searched.
Program 3.1: To search for a character in a string using console functions
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdio>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char str[20], ch;
int i, num=0;
puts("Enter a string:"); //To print '\n' after the string
gets(str);//To accept a string with white spaces
cout<<"\nEnter the character to be searched: ";
ch=getchar(); //To input the character to be searched
/* A loop to search for the character and count its
occurrences in the string. Search will be
terminated when null character is found */
for(i=0; str[i]!='\0'; i++)
if (str[i]==ch)
num++;
cout<<"\nThe number of occurences of the character ";
putchar(ch);
cout<<" is : "<<num;
return 0;
}
Sample output of the above program is given below
Enter a string:
examination
Enter the character to be searched: a
The number of occurences of the character a is : 2
3.3.2 Stream functions for I/O operations
C++ provides another facility to perform input/output operations on character
and strings. It is in the form of functions that are available in the header file iostream.
These functions are generally called stream functions since they allow a stream of
bytes (data) to flow between memory and objects. Devices like the keyboard and
the monitor are referenced as objects in C++. Let us discuss some of these functions.

50
 3. Functions

A. Input functions
These functions allow the input of character and string data. The input functions
such as get() and getline() allow a stream of bytes to flow from input object
into the memory. The object cin is used to refer to keyboard and hence whenever
we input data using keyboard, these functions are called or invoked using this object
as cin.get() and cin.getline(). Note that a period symbol (.), called dot
operator is used between the object cin and the function.
i. get()
It can accept a single character or multiple characters (string) through the keyboard.
To accept a string, an array name and size are to be given as arguments. Following
code segment illustrates the usage of this function.
char ch, str[10];
ch=cin.get(ch); //accepts a character and stores in ch
cin.get(ch); //equivalent to the above statement
cin.get(str,10); //accepts a string of maximum 10 characters
ii. getline()
It accepts a string through the keyboard. The delimiter will be Enter key, the number
of characters or a specified character. This function uses two syntaxes as shown in
the code segment given below.
char ch, str[10];
int len;
cin.getline(str,len); // With 2 arguments
cin.getline(str,len,ch); // With 3 arguments
In the first usage, getline() function has two arguments - a character array (here
it is, str) and an integer (len) that represents maximum number of characters that
can be stored. In the second usage, a delimiting character (content of ch) can also
be given along with the number of characters. While inputting the string, only
(len–1) characters, or characters upto the specified delimiting character, whichever
occurs first will be stored in the array.
B. Output functions
Output functions like put() and write() allow a stream of bytes to flow from
memory into an output object. The object cout is used with these functions since
we use the monitor for the output.
i. put()
It is used to display a character constant or the content of a character variable given
as argument.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

char ch='c';
cout.put(ch); //character 'c' is displayed
cout.put('B'); //character 'B' is printed
cout.put(65); //character 'A' is printed
ii. write()
This function displays the string contained in the argument. For illustration see the
example given below.
char str[10]="hello";
cout.write(str,10);
The above code segment will dispaly the string hello followed by 5 white spaces,
since the second argument is 10 and the number of characters in the string is 5.
Program 3.2: To illustrate the working of stream input/output functions
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring> //To use strlen() function
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char ch, str[20];
cout<<"Enter a character: ";
cin.get(ch); //To input a character to the variable ch
cout<<"Enter a string: ";
cin.getline(str,10,'.'); //To input the string
cout<<"Entered character is:\t";
cout.put(ch); //To display the character
cout.write("\nEntered string is:",20);
cout.write(str,strlen(str));
return 0;
}
On executing Program 3.2, the following output will be obtained:
Enter a character: p
Enter a string: hello world
Entered character is: p
Entered string is:
hello wo
Let us discuss what happens when the program is executed. In the beginning, get()
function allows to input a character, say p. When the function getline() is executed,
we can input a string, say hello world. The put() function is then executed to

52
 3. Functions

display the character p. Observe that the write() function displays only hello
wo in a new line. In the getline() function, we specified the integer 10 as the
maximum number of characters to be stored in the array str. Usually 9 characters
will be stored, since one byte is reserved for '\0' character as the string terminator.
But the output shows only 8 characters including white space. This is because, the
Enter key followed by the character input (p) for the get() function, is stored as
the '\n' character in the first location of str. That is why, the string, hello wo is
displayed in a new line.
If we run the program, by giving the input hello.world, the output will be as
follows: Observe the change in the content of str.
Enter a character: a
Enter a string: hello.world
Entered character is: a
Entered string is:
hello
The change has occurred because the getline() function accepts only the
characters that appear before the dot symbol.

3.3.3 String functions

While solving problems string data may be involved for processing. C++ provides
string functions for their manipulation. The header file cstring (string.h in Turbo
C++) is to be included in the program to use these functions.
i. strlen()
This function is used to find the length of a string. Length of a string means the
number of characters in the string. Its syntax is:
int strlen(string);
This function takes a string as the argument and gives the length of the string as the
result. The following code segment illustrates this.
char str[] = "Welcome";
int n;
n = strlen(str);
cout << n;
Here, the argument for the strlen() function is a string variable and it returns
the number of characters in the string, i.e. 7 to the variable n. Hence the program
code will display 7 as the value of the variable n. The output will be the same even
though the array declaration is as follows.
char str[10] = "Welcome";

53
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Note that the array size is specified in the declaration. The argument may be a string
constant as shown below:
n = strlen("Computer");
The above statement returns 8 and will be stored in n.
ii. strcpy()
This function is used to copy one string into another. The syntax of the function is:
strcpy(string1, string2);
The function will copy string2 to string1. Here string1 is an array of
characters and string2 is an array of characters or a string constants. These are
the arguments for the execution of the function. The following code illustrates its
working:
char s1[10], s2[10] = "Welcome";
strcpy(s1,s2);
cout << s1;
The string "Welcome" contained in the string variable s1 will be displayed on the
screen. The second argument may be a string constant as follows:
char str[10]
strcpy(str,"Welcome");
Here, the string constant "Welcome" will be stored in the variable str. The
assignment statement, str = "Welcome"; is wrong. But we can directly assign
value to a character array at the time of declaration as:
char str[10] = "Welcome";
iii. strcat()
This function is used to append one string to another string. The length of the
resultant string is the total length of the two strings. The syntax of the functions is:
strcat(string1, string2);
Here string1 and string2 are array of characters or string constants. string2
is appended to string1. So, the size of the first argument should be able to
accommodate both the strings together. Let us see an example showing the usage
of this function:
char s1[20] = "Welcome", s2[10] = " to C++";
strcat(s1,s2);
cout << s1;
The above program code will display "Welcome to C++" as the value of the
variable s1. Note that the string in s2 begins with a white space.

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 3. Functions

iv. strcmp()
This function is used to compare two strings. In this comparison, the alphabetical
order of characters in the strings is considered. The syntax of the function is:
strcmp(string1, string2)
The function returns any of the following values in three different situations.
• Returns 0 if string1 and string2 are same.
• Returns a –ve value if string1 is alphabetically lower than string2.
• Returns a +ve value if string1 is alphabetically higher than string2.
The following code fragment shows the working of this function.
char s1[]="Deepthi", s2[]="Divya";
int n;
n = strcmp(s1,s2);
if(n==0)
cout<<"Both the strings are same";
else if(n < 0)
cout<<"s1 < s2";
else
cout<<"s1 > s2";
It is clear that the above program code will display "s1 < s2" as the output.
v. strcmpi()
This function is used to compare two strings ignoring cases. That is, the function
will treat both the upper case and lower case letters as same for comparison. The
syntax and working of the function are the same as that of strcmp() except that
strcmpi() is not case sensitive. This function also returns values as in the case of
strcmp(). Consider the following code segment:
char s1[]="SANIL", s2[]="sanil";
int n;
n = strcmpi(s1,s2);
if(n==0)
cout<<"strings are same";
else if(n < 0)
cout<<"s1 < s2";
else
cout<<"s1 > s2";
The above program code will display "strings are same" as the output,
because the uppercase and lowercase letters will be treated as same during the
comparison.
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Program 3.3 compares and concatenates two strings. The length of the newly formed
string is also displayed.
Program 3.3 : To combine two strings if they are different and find its length
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std; Header file essential
int main() for using string
{ manipulating functions
char s1[15], s2[15], s3[30];
cout<<"Enter two strings: ";
cin>>s1>>s2;
int n;
n=strcmp(s1,s2);
if (n==0)
cout<<"\nThe input strings are same";
else
{
cout<<"\nThe input strings are not same";
strcpy(s3,s1);//Copies the string in s1 into s3
strcat(s3,s2);//Appends the string in s2 to that in s3
cout<<"String after concatenation is: "<<s3;
cout<<"\nLength of the new string is: "
<<strlen(s3);
}
return 0;
}
Sample Output:
Enter two strings:india
kerala
The input strings are not same
String after concatenation is:indiakerala
Length of the new string is: 11

3.3.4 Mathematical functions

Now, let us discuss the commonly used mathematical functions available in C++.
We should include the header file cmath (math.h in Turbo C++) to use these
functions in the program.
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 3. Functions

i. abs()
It is used to find the absolute value of an integer. It takes an integer as the argument
(+ve or –ve) and returns the absolute value. Its syntax is:
int abs(int)
The following is an example to show the output of this function:
int n = -25;
cout << abs(n);
The above program code will display 25. If we want to find the absolute value of a
floating point number, we can use fabs() function as used above. It will return
the floating point value.
ii. sqrt()
It is used to find the square root of a number. The argument to this function can be
of type int, float or double. The function returns the non-negative square
root of the argument. Its syntax is:
double sqrt(double)
The following code snippet is an example. This code will display 5.
int n = 25;
float b = sqrt(n);
cout << b;
If the value of n is 25.4, then the answer will be 5.03841
iii. pow()
This function is used to find the power of a number. It takes two arguments x and
y. The argument x and y are of type int, float or double. The function returns
the value of xy. Its syntax is:
double pow(double, double)
The following example shows the working of this function.
int x = 5, y = 4, z;
z = pow(x, y);
cout << z;
The above program code will display 625.
xy means 54 which is 5*5*5*5 i.e. 625

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Program 3.4 : To find the area of a triangle and a circle using mathematical
functions
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath> Header file essential
using namespace std; for using mathematical
int main() functions
{
const float pi=22.0/7;
int a,b,c, radius;
float s, area1, area2;
cout<<"Enter the three sides of the triangle: ";
cin>>a>>b>>c;
s = (a+b+c)/2.0;
area1 = sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c));
cout<<"The Area of the Triangle is: "<<area1;
cout<<"\nEnter the radius of the circle: ";
cin>>radius;
area2 = pi*pow(radius,2);
cout<<"Area of the Circle is: "<<area2;
return 0;
}
The following is a sample output of the above program:
Enter the three sides of the triangle: 5 7 9
The Area of the Triangle is: 17.4123
Enter the radius of the circle: 2.5
Area of the Circle is: 12.5714

3.3.5 Character functions

These functions are used to perform various operations on characters. Following
are the various character functions available in C++. The header file cctype (ctype.h
in Turbo C++) is to be included to use these functions in a program.
i. isupper()
This function is used to check whether a character is in upper case(capital letter) or
not. The syntax of the function is:
int isupper(char c)
The function returns 1 if the given character is in uppercase, and 0 otherwise.
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 3. Functions

The following statement assigns 0 to the variable n.

int n = isupper('x');
Consider the following statements:
char c = 'A';
int n = isupper(c);
The value of the variable n, after the execution of the above statements will be 1,
since the given character is in upper case.
ii. islower()
This function is used to check whether a character is in lower case (small letter) or
not. The syntax of the function is:
int islower(char c)
The function returns 1 if the given character is lower case, and 0 otherwise.
After executing the following statements, the value of the variable n will be 1 since
the given character is in lower case.
char ch = 'x';
int n = islower(ch);
But the statement given below assigns 0 to the variable n, since the given character
is in the uppercase.
int n = islower('A');
iii. isalpha()
This function is used to check whether the given character is an alphabet or not.
The syntax of the function is:
int isalpha(char c)
The function returns 1 if the given character is an alphabet, and 0 otherwise.
The following statement assigns 0 to the variable n, since the given character is not
an alphabet.
int n = isalpha('3');
But the statement given below displays 1, since the given character is an alphabet.
cout << isalpha('a');
iv. isdigit()
This function is used to check whether the given character is a digit or not. The
syntax of the function is:
int isdigit(char c)

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The function returns 1 if the given character is a digit, and 0 otherwise.

After executing the following statement, the value of the variable n will be 1 since
the given character is a digit.
n = isdigit('3');
When the following statements are executed, the value of the variable n will be 0,
since the given character is not a digit.
char c = 'b';
int n = isdigit(c);
v. isalnum()
This function is used to check whether a character is alphanumeric or not. The
syntax of the function is:
int isalnum (char c)
The function returns 1 if the given character is alphanumeric, and 0 otherwise.
Each of the following statements returns 1 after the execution.
n = isalnum('3');
cout << isalnum('A');
But the statements given below assigns 0 to the variable n, since the given character
is neither alphabet nor digit.
char c = '-';
int n = isalnum(c);
vi. toupper()
This function is used to convert the given character into its uppercase. The syntax
of the function is:
char toupper(char c)
The function returns the upper case of the given character. If the given character is
in upper case, the output will be the same.
The following statement assigns the character constant 'A' to the variable c.
char c = toupper('a');
But the output of the statement given below will be 'A' itself.
cout << (char)toupper('A');
Note that type conversion using (char) is used in this statement. If conversion
method is not used, the output will be 65, which is the ASCII code of 'A'.

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 3. Functions

vii. tolower()
This function is used to convert the given character into its lower case. The syntax
of the function is:
char tolower(char c)
The function returns the lower case of the given character. If the given character is
in lowercase, the output will be the same.
Consider the statement: c = tolower('A');
After executing the above statement, the value of the variable c will be 'a'. But
when the following statements will be executed, the value of the variable c will be
'a' itself.
char x = ‘a’;
char c = tolower(x) ;
In the case of functions tolower() and toupper(), if the argument is other than
alphabet, the given character itself will be returned on execution.
Program 3.5 illustrates the use of character functions. This program accepts a line
of text and counts the lowercase letters, uppercase letters and digits in the string. It
also displays the entire string both in uppercase and lowercase.
Program 3.5: To count different types of characters in the given string
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdio>
#include <cctype>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char text[80];
int Ucase=0, Lcase=0, Digit=0;
cout << "Enter a line of text: ";
Loop will be
gets(text);
terminated when the
for(int i=0; text[i]!=’\0'; i++) value of i point to the
if (isupper(text[i])) null character
Ucase++;
else if (islower(text[i]))
Lcase++;
else if (isdigit(text[i]))
Digit++;

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cout << "\nNo. of uppercase letters = " << Ucase;

cout << "\nNo. of lowercase letters = " << Lcase;
cout << "\nNo. of digits = " << Digit;
cout << "\nThe string in uppercase form is\n";
i=0;
while (text[i]!='\0')
{
putchar(toupper(text[i]));
i++;
}
cout << "\nThe string in lowercase form is\n";
i=0;
do If cout<< is used
{ instead of putchar(),
the ASCII code of the
putchar(tolower(text[i]));
characters will be
i++; displayed
}while(text[i]!='\0');
return 0;
}

A sample output is given below:

Enter a line of text : The vehicle ID is KL01 AB101
No. of uppercase letters = 7
No. of lowercase letters = 11
No. of digits = 5
The string in uppercase form is
THE VEHICLE ID IS KL01 AB101
The string in lowercase form is
the vehicle id is kl01 ab101

Prepare a chart in the following format and fill up the columns with all
predefined functions we have discussed so far.
Function Usage Syntax Example Output
Let us do

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 3. Functions

Know your progress

1. What is modular programming?
2. What is meant by a function in C++?
3. Name the header file required for using character functions.
4. Predict the output of cout<<sqrt(49).
5. Pick the odd one out and give reason:
a. strlen() b. pow() c. strcpy() d. strcat( )
6. Name the header file needed for the function pow( ).
7. Predict the output when we compare the strings "HELLO" and
"hello" using the function strcmpi().
8. What will be output of the statement
cout<<strlen("smoking kills"); ?
9. Which function converts the alphabet 'P' to 'p'?
10. Identify the name of the function which tests whether the
argument is an aphabet or number.
3.4 User-defined functions
All the programs that we have discussed so far contain a function named main().
We know that a C++ program begins with preprocessor directive statements
followed by using namespace statement. The remaining part is actually the
definition of a function. The int main() in the programs is called function
header (or function heading) of the function and the statements within the pair of
braces immediately after the header is called its body.
The syntax of a function definition is given below:
data_type function_name(argument_list)
{
statements in the body;
}
The data_type is any valid data type of C++. The function_name is a user-
defined word (identifier). The argument_list, which is optional, is a list of
parameters, i.e. a list of variables preceded by data types and separated by commas.
The body comprises of C++ statements required to perform the task assigned to
the function. Once we have decided to create a function, we have to answer certain
questions.
(i) Which data type will be used in the function header?
(ii) How many arguments are required and what should be the preceding data
type of each?
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Let us recollect how we have used the predefined functions strcpy() and sqrt().
We have seen that these functions will be executed when they are called (or used) in
a C++ statement. The function getchar() takes no arguments in the parentheses.
But for strcpy(), two strings are provided as arguments or parameters. Without
these arguments this function will not work, because it is defined with two string
(character array) arguments. In the case of sqrt(), it requires a numeric data as
argument and gives a result (of double type) after performing the predefined
operations on the given argument. This result, as mentioned earlier, is called the
return-value of the function. The data type of a function depends on this value. In
other words we can say that the function should return a value which is of the same
data type of the function. So, the data type of a function is also known as the return
type of the function. Note that we use return 0; statement in main() function,
since it is defined with int data type as per the requirement of GCC.
The number and type of arguments depend upon the data required by the function
for processing. Note that a function can return only one value. But some functions
like puts() and gets() do not return any value. The header of such functions
uses void as the return type. A function either returns one value or nothing at all.
3.4.1 Creating user-defined functions
Based on the syntax discussed above, let us create some functions. The following is
a function to display a message.
void saywelcome()
{
cout<<"Welcome to the world of functions";
}
The name of the function is saywelcome(), its data type (return type) is void
and it does not have any argument. The body contains only one statement.
Now, let us define a function to find the sum of two numbers. Four different types
of definitions are given for the same task, but they vary in definition style and hence
the usage of each is different from others.
Function 1 Function 2
void sum1() int sum2()
{ {
int a, b, s; int a, b, s;
cout<<"Enter 2 numbers: "; cout<<"Enter 2 numbers: ";
cin>>a>>b; cin>>a>>b;
s=a+b; s=a+b;
cout<<"Sum="<<s; return s;
} }

64
 3. Functions

Function 3 Function 4
void sum3(int a, int b) int sum4(int a, int b)
{ {
int s; int s;
s=a+b; s=a+b;
cout<<"Sum="<<s; return s;
} }

Let us analyse these functions and see how they are different. The task is the same in
all these functions, but they differ in the number of parameters and return type.
Table 3.1 shows that the function defined with a data type other than void should
return a value in accordance with the data type. The return statement is used for
this purpose (Refer to functions 2 and 4). The return statement returns a value to
the calling function and transfers the program control back to the calling function.
So, remember that if a return statement is executed in a function, the remaining
statements within that function will not be executed.

Name Arguments Return value

sum1( ) No arguments Does not return any value
sum2( ) No arguments Returns an integer value
sum3( ) Two integer arguments Does not return any value
sum4( ) Two integer arguments Returns an integer value
Table 3.1 : Analysis of functions

In most of the functions, return is placed at the end of the function. The functions
defined with void data type may not have a return statement within the body. But
if we use return statement, we cannot provide any value to it.
Now, let us see how these functions are to be called and how they are executed. We
know that no function other than main()is executed automatically. The sub
functions, either predefined or user-defined, will be executed only when they are
called from main() function or other user-defined function. The code segments
within the rectangles of the following program shows the function calls. Here the
main() is the calling function and sum1(), sum2(), sum3(), and sum4()are the
called functions.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

int main()
{
int x, y, z=5, result;
cout << "\nCalling the first function\n";
sum1();
cout << "\nCalling the second function\n";
result = sum2();
cout << "Sum given by function 2 is " << result;
cout << "\nEnter values for x and y : ";
cin >> x >> y;
cout << "\nCalling the third function\n";
sum3(x,y);
cout << "\nCalling the fourth function\n";
result = sum4(z,12);
cout << "Sum given by function 4 is " << result;
cout << "\nEnd of main function";
return 0;
}
The output of the program will be as follows:
Calling the first function Input for a and
Enter 2 numbers: 10 25 b of sum1()
Sum=35
Calling the second function
Enter 2 numbers: 5 7
Sum given by function 2 is 12 Input for a and b
Enter values for x and y : 8 13 of sum2()
Calling the third function
Sum=21
Input for x and y of
Calling the fourth function
main()
Sum given by function 4 is 17
End of main function
Function 4 requires two numbers for the task assigned and hence we provide two
arguments. The function performs some calculations and gives a result. As there is
only one result, it can be returned. Comparatively this function is a better option to
find the sum of any two numbers.
Now, let us write a complete C++ program to find the product of two numbers.
We will write the program using a user-defined function. But where do we write the

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 3. Functions

user-defined function in a C++ program? The following table shows two styles to
place the user-defined function:
Program 3.6 - Product of two numbers - Program 3.7

Function before main() Function after main()

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
int product(int a, int b) int main()
{ {
int p; int ans, num1,num2;
p = a * b; cout<<"Enter 2 Numbers:";
return p; cin>>num1>>num2;
} ans = product(num1,num2);
//Definition above main() cout<<"Product = "<<ans;
int main() return 0;
{ }
int ans, num1,num2; //Definition below main()
cout<<"Enter 2 Numbers:"; int product(int a, int b)
cin>>num1>>num2; {
ans = product(num1,num2); int p;
cout<<"Product = "<<ans; p = a * b;
return 0; return p;
} }

When we compile Program 3.6, there will be no error. But if we compile Program
3.7, there will be an error ‘product was not declared in this scope'.
Let us see what this error means.
3.4.2 Prototype of functions
We have seen that a C++ program can contain any number of functions. But it
must have a main() function to begin the execution. We can write the definitions
of functions in any order as we wish. We can define the main() function first and
all other functions after that or vice versa. Program 3.6 contains the main() function
after the user-defined function, but in Program 3.7, the main() is defined before
the user-defined function. When we compile this program, it will give an error -
"product was not declared in this scope". This is because the function
product() is called in the program, before it is defined. During the compilation
of the main() function, when the compiler encounters the function call product(),
it is not aware of such a function. Compiler is unable to check whether there is such
a function, whether its usage is correct or not, and whether it is accessible or not. So
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

it reports an error. This error can be removed by giving a declaration statement

about the function and this statement is known as prototype. A function prototype
is the declaration of a function by which compiler is provided with the information
about the function such as the name of the function, its return type, the number and
type of arguments, and its accessibility. This information is essential for the compiler
to verify the correctness of the function call in the program. This information is
available in the function header and hence the header alone will be written as a
statement before the function call. The following is the format:
data_type function_name(argument_list);
In the prototype, the argument names need not be specified. Number and type of
arguments must be specified.
So, the error in Program 3.7 can be rectified by inserting the following statement
before the function call in the main() function.
int product(int, int);
Like a variable declaration, a function must be declared before it is used in the
program. If a function is defined before it is used in the program, there is no need
to declare the function separately. The declaration statement may be given outside
the main() function. The position of the prototype differs in the accessibility of
the function. We will discuss this later in this chapter. Wherever be the position of
the function definition, execution of the program begins in main().
3.4.3 Arguments of functions
We have seen that functions have arguments or parameters for getting data for
processing. Let us see the role of arguments in function call. Consider the function
given below:
float SimpleInterest(int P, int N, float R)
{
float amt;
amt = P * N * R / 100;
return amt;
}
This function gives the simple interest of a given principal amount for a given period
at a given rate of interest. The following code segment illustrates different function
calls:
cout << SimpleInterest(1000,3,2);//Function call 1
int x, y; float z=3.5, a;
cin >> x >> y;
a = SimpleInterest(x, y, z); //Function call 2
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 3. Functions

When the first statement is executed, the values 1000, 3 and 2 are passed to the
argument list in the function definition. The arguments P, N and R get the values
1000, 3 and 2, respectively. Similarly, when the last statement is executed, the values
of the variables x, y and z are passed to the arguments P, N and R.
The variables x, y and z are called actual (original) arguments or actual parameters
since they are the actual data passed to the function for processing. The variables P,
N and R used in the function header are known as formal arguments or formal
parameters. These arguments are intended to receive data from the calling function.
Arguments or parameters are the means to pass values from the calling function
to the called function. The variables used in the function definition as arguments are
known as formal arguments. The constants, variables or expressions used in the
function call are known as actual (original) arguments. If variables are used in
function prototype, they are known as dummy arguments.
Now, let us write a program that uses a function fact() that returns the factorial
of a given number to find the value of nCr. As we know, factorial of a number N is
the product of the first N natural numbers. The value of nCr is calculated by the
n!
formula r!(n − r )! , where n! denotes the factorial of n.

Program 3.8: To find the value of nCr

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int fact(int); //Function prototype
int main() Actual
{ arguments
int n,r, ncr;
cout<<"Enter the values of n and r : ";
cin>>n>>r;
Function call
ncr=fact(n)/(fact(r)*fact(n-r));
according to the
cout<<n<<"C"<<r<<" = "<<ncr; formula
return 0;
}
int fact(int N) //Function header
{ Formal
int f; argument
for(f=1; N>0; N--)
f=f*N;
Factorial
return f;
is returned
}
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The following is a sample output:

Enter the values of n and r : 5 2
User inputs
5C2 = 10

3.4.4 Functions with default arguments

Let us consider a function TimeSec() with the argument list as follows. This function
accepts three numbers that represent time in hours, minutes and seconds. The
function converts this into seconds.
int TimeSec(int H, int M=0, int S=0)
{
int sec = H * 3600 + M * 60 + S;
return sec;
}
Note that the two arguments M and S are given default value 0. So, this function can
be invoked in the following ways.
long s1 = TimeSec(2,10,40);
long s2 = TimeSec(1,30);
long s3 = TimeSec(3);
It is important to note that all the default arguments must be placed from the right
to the left in the argument list. When a function is called, actual arguments are
passed to the formal arguments from left onwards.
When the first statement is executed, the function is called by passing the values 2,
10 and 40 to the formal parameters H, M and S, respectively. The initial values of M
and S are over-written by the actual arguments. During the function call in the
second statement, H and M get values from actual arguments, but S works with its
default value 0. Similarly, when the third statement is executed, H gets the value
from calling function, but M and S use the default values. So, after the function calls,
the values of s1, s2 and s3 will be 7840, 5400 and 10800, respectively.
We have seen that functions can be defined with arguments assigned with initial
values. The initialized formal arguments are called default arguments which allow
the programmer to call a function with different number of arguments. That is, we
can call the function with or without giving values to the default arguments.
3.4.5 Methods of calling functions
Suppose your teacher asks you to prepare invitation letters for the parents of all
students in your class, requesting them to attend a function in your school. The
teacher can give you a blank format of the invitation letter and also a list containing
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 3. Functions

the names of all the parents. The teacher can give you the name list in two ways. She
can take a photo copy of the name list and give it to you. Otherwise, she can give
the original name list itself. What difference would you feel in getting the name list
in these two ways? If the teacher gives the original name list, you will be careful not
to make any marks or writing in the name list because the teacher may want the
same name list for future use. But if you are given a photo copy of the name list,
you can make any marking in the list, because the change will not affect the original
name list.
Let us consider the task of preparing the invitation letter as a function. The name
list is an argument for the function. The argument can be passed to the function in
two ways. One is to pass a copy of the name list and the other is to pass the original
name list. If the original name list is passed, the changes made in the name list, while
preparing the invitation letter, will affect the original name list. Similarly, in C++,
an argument can be passed to a function in two ways. Based on the method of
passing the arguments, the function calling methods can be classified as Call by
Value method and Call by Reference method. The following section describes the
methods of argument passing in detail.
a. Call by value (Pass by value) method
In this method, the value contained in the actual argument is passed to the formal
argument. In other words, a copy of the actual argument is passed to the function.
Hence, if the formal argument is modified within the function, the change is not
reflected in the actual argument at the calling place. In all previous functions, we
passed the argument by value only. See the following example:
void change(int n)
{ The parameter n has its
n = n + 1; own memory location to
cout << "n = " << n << '\n'; store the value 20 in
} change().
void main()
{ The value of x is
int x = 20; passed to n in
change()
change(x);
cout << "x = " << x;
}
When we pass an argument as specified in the above program segement, only a
copy of the variable x is passed to the function. In other words, we can say that only
the value of the variable x is passed to the function. Thus the formal parameter n in
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

the function will get the value 20. When we increase the value of n, it will not affect
the value of the variable x. The following will be the output of the above code:
n = 21
x = 20
Table 3.2 shows what happens to the arguments when a function is called using call-
by-value method:
Before function call After function call After function execution
main() x main() x main() x
{ 20 { 20 { 20
....... ....... .......
....... ....... .......
} } }

change(int n) change(int n) change(int n) n

n n
{ { { 21
20 ........
........ ........
} } }

Table 3.2: Call by value procedure

b. Call by reference (Pass by reference) method

When an argument is passed by reference, the reference of the actual argument is
passed to the function. As a result, the memory location allocated to the actual
argument will be shared by the formal argument. So, if the formal argument is
modified within the function, the change will be reflected in the actual argument at
the calling place. In C++, to pass an argument by reference we use reference variable
as formal parameter. A reference variable is an alias name of another variable.
An ampersand symbol (&) is placed in between the data type and the variable in
the function header. Reference variables will not be allocated memory exclusively
like the other variables. Instead, it will share the memory allocated to the actual
arguments. The following function uses reference variable as formal parameter and
hence call by reference method is implemented for function call.
void change(int & n)
The parameter n is a
{
reference variable and
n = n + 1;
hence there is no
cout << "n = " << n << '\n'; exclusive memory
} allocation for it

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 3. Functions

void main()
{ The reference of x will be
int x=20; passed to n of the
change(x); change() function, which
cout << "x = " << x; results into the sharing of
} memory.

Note that the only change in the change() function is in the function header. The
& symbol in the declaration of the parameter n means that the argument is a reference
variable and hence the function will be called by passing reference. Hence when the
argument x is passed to the change() function, the variable n gets the address of
x so that the location will be shared. In other words, the variables x and n refer to
the same memory location. We use the name x in the main() function, and the
name n in the change() function to refer the same storage location. So, when we
change the value of n, we are actually changing the value of x. If we run the above
program, we will get the following output:
n = 21
x = 21

Table 3.3 depicts the changes in the arguments when call-by-reference is applied for
the function call.

Before function call After function call After function execution

main() x main() x main() x
{ 20 { 20 { 21
....... ....... .......
....... n ....... n
.......
} } }

change(int &n) change(int &n) change(int &n)

{ { {
........ ........ ........
} } }

Table 3.3: Call by value reference procedure

We have discussed the difference between the two methods of function calling.
Basically the methods differ in the mode of passing arguments. Let us consolidate
the difference between these two methods of function calling. Table 3.4 gives the
clear picture.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Call by Value Method Call by Reference Method

• Ordinary variables are used as formal • Reference variables are used as
parameters. formal parameters.
• Actual parameters may be constants, • Actual parameters will be variables
variables or expressions. only.
• The changes made in the formal • The changes made in the formal
arguments do not reflect in actual arguments do reflect in actual
arguments. arguments.
• Exclusive memory allocation is • Memory of actual arguments is
required for the formal arguments. shared by formal arguments.
Table 3.4 : Call by value v/s Call by reference

Let us discuss a typical example for call by reference method. This program uses a
function that can be called by reference method for exchanging the values of the
two variables in the main() function. The process of exchanging values of two
variables is known as swapping.
Program 3.9: To swap the values of two variables
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void swap(int & x, int & y)
{
int t = x;
x = y;
y = t;
}
int main()
{
int m, n;
m = 10;
n = 20;
cout<<"Before swapping m= "<< m <<" and n= "<<n;
swap(m, n);
cout<<"\nAfter swapping m= "<< m <<" and n= "<<n;
return 0;
}
Let us go through the statements in Program 3.9. The actual arguments m and n
are passed to the function by reference. Within the swap() function, the values of
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 3. Functions

x and y are interchanged. When the values of x and y are changed, actually the
change takes place in m and n. Therefore the output of the above program code is:
Before swapping m= 10 and n= 20
After swapping m= 20 and n= 10
Modify the above program by replacing the formal arguments with ordinary
variables and predict the output. Check your answer by executing the code in the
lab.

Know your progress

1. Identify the most essential function in C++ programs.
2. List the three elements of a function header.
3. What is function prototype?
4. Which component is used for data transfer from calling function
to called function?
5. What are the two parameter passing techniques used in C++?
6. Identify the name of the function call where & symbol is used
along with formal arguments.

3.5 Scope and life of variables and functions

We have discussed C++ programs consisting of more than one function. Predefined
functions are used by including the header file concerned. User-defined functions
are placed before or after the main() function. We have seen the relevance of
function prototypes while defining functions. We have also used variables in the
function body and as arguments. Now, let us discuss the availability or accessibility
of the variables and functions throughout the program. Program 3.10 illustrates
the accessibility of local variables in a program.
Program 3.10: To illustrate the scope and life of variables
#include <iostream>
This is an error because the
using namespace std;
variable x is declared within the
int cube(int n) main() function. So it cannot
{ be used in other functions.
int cb;
cout<< "The value of x passed to n is " << x;
cb = n * n * n;
return cb;
}
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

int main()
{
int x, result;
cout << "Enter a number : "; This is an error because
the variable cb is declared within
cin >> x;
the cube() function. So it
result = cube(x); cannot be used in other functions.
cout << "Cube = " << result;
cout << "\nCube = "<< cb;
return 0;
}

When we compile the program, there will be two errors because of the reasons
shown in the call-outs. The concept of availability or accessibility of variables and
functions is termed as their scope and life time. Scope of a variable is that part of
the program in which it is used. In the above program, scope of the variable cb is
in the cube() function because it is declared within that function. Hence this
variable cannot be used outside the function. This scope is known as local scope.
On completing the execution of a function, memory allocated for all the variables
within a function is freed. In other words, we can say that the life of a variable,
declared within a function, ends with the execution of the last instruction of the
function. So, if we use a variable n within the main(), that will be different from
the argument n of a called function or a variable n within the called function. The
variables used as formal arguments and/or declared within a function have local
scope.
Just like variables, functions also have scope. A function can be used within the
function where it is declared. That is the function is said to have local scope. If it is
declared before the main() function and not within any other function, the scope
of the function is the entire program. That is the function can be used at any place
in the program. This scope is known as global scope. Variables can also be declared
with global scope. Such declarations will be outside all the functions in the program.
Look at Program 3.11 to get more clarity on the scope and life of variables and
functions throughout the program.

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 3. Functions

Program 3.11 : To illustrate the scope and life of variables and functions
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int cb; //global variable
void test()//global function since defined above other functions
{
int cube(int n); //It is a local function
cb=cube(x); //Invalid call. x is local to main()
cout<<cb;
}

int main() // beginning of main() function

{
int x=5; //local variable
test(); //valid call since test() is a global function
cb=cube(x); //Invalid call. cube() is local to test()
cout<<cb;
}
int cube(int n)//Argument n is local variable
{
int val= n*n*n; //val is local variable
return val;
}

The given comments explain the scope and life of functions. A function which is
declared inside the function body of another function is called a local function as
it can be used within that function only. A function declared outside the function
body of any other function is called a global function. A global function can be
used throughout the program. In other words, the scope of a global function is the
entire program and that of a local function is only the function where it is declared.
Table 3.5 summarises the scope and life time of variables and functions.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Scope & Local Global

life

Variables • Declared within a function or a • Declared outside all the

block of statements. functions.
• Available only within that • Available to all functions in the
function or block. program.
• Memory is allocated when the • Memory is allocated just before
function or block is active and the execution of the program
freed when the execution of the and freed when the program
function or block is completed. stops execution.
Functions • Declared within a function or a • Declared or defined outside all
block of statements and defined other functions.
after the calling function.
• Accessible only within that • Accessible by all functions in
function or the block. the program
Table 3.5: Scope and life of variables and functions

Let us conclude

Modular programming is an approach to make programming simpler. C++

facilitates modularization with functions. Function is a named unit of program to
perform a specific task. There are two types of functions in C++: predefined
functions and user-defined functions. Predefined functions can be used in a program
only if we include the header file concerned in the program. User-defined functions
may need to be declared if the definition appears after the calling function. During
function call, data may be transferred from calling function to the called function
through arguments. Arguments may be classified as actual arguments and formal
arguments. Either call by value method or call by reference method can be used to
invoke functions.

78
 3. Functions

Lab activity
1. Define a function to accept a number and return 1 if it is odd, 0 otherwise.
Using this function write a program to display all odd numbers between 10
and 50.
2. Write a program to find the product of three integer numbers using a user
defined function. Invoke the function using call by value and call by reference
methods. Verify the results.
3. Write a program to find the smallest of three or two given numbers using a
function (use the concept of default arguments).
4. With the help of a user-defined function find the sum of digits of a number.
That is if the given number is 345 then the result should be 3+4+5 = 12.
5. Using a function, write a program to find the area of a circle.
6. Write a program to check whether a number is positive, negative or zero. Use
a user defined function for checking.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Let us assess 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

1. What is a meant by a function in C++?

2. The built-in function to find the length of a string is _________.
3. Write down the role of header files in C++ programs.
4. When will you use void data type for function definition?
5. Distinguish between actual parameters and formal parameters.
6. Construct the function prototypes for the following functions
a. Total() takes two double arguments and returns a double
b. Math() takes no arguments and has no return value
7. Discuss the scope of global and local variables with examples.
8. Distinguish between Call-by-value method and Call-by-reference method used
for function calls.
9. In C++, function can be invoked without specifying all its arguments. How?
10. How a local function differs from a global function?
11. Identify the built-in functions needed for the following cases
a. To convert the letter 'c' to 'C'
b. To check whether a given character is alphabet or not.
c. To combine strings "comp" and "ter" to make "computer"
d. To find the square root of 25
e. To return the number 10 from -10

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

12. Look at the following functions:

int sum(int a,int b=0,int c=0)
{
return (a + b + c);
}
a. What is the speciality of the function regarding the parameter list?
b. Give the outputs of the following function calls by explaining its working
and give reason if the function call is wrong.
i. cout << sum (1, 2, 3); ii. cout << sum(5, 2);
iii. cout << sum(); iv. cout << sum(0);
13. The prototype of a function is: int fun(int, int);
The following function calls are invalid. Give reason for each.
a. fun("hello",4); b. cout<<fun(); c. val = fun(2.5, 3.3);
d. cin>>fun(a, b); e. z=fun(3);
14. Consider the following program and predict the output if the radius is 5. Also
write the reason for the output.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
float area(float &);
int main()
{
float r, ans;
cout<<"Enter radius :";
cin>>r;
ans = area(r);
cout<<area;
cout<<r;
return 0;
}
float area(float &p)
{
float q;
q = 3.14 * p * p;
p++;
return q;
}
15. Modify the program given in question 14 by applying call by value method to
call the function and write the possible difference in the output.

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 4. Web Technology

4 Web Technology

W
e are all living in an era of the Internet
Significant Learning Outcomes
and might have accessed it for seeking
infor mation. You might have
After the completion of this chapter, the learner searched for your Class XI results and viewed
• explains how secure communication is
brought about on the web. it from a website. People rely on different
• describes the use of a web server and websites for various purposes like submitting
the concept of web hosting. online applications, viewing web contents,
• differentiates static and dynamic pages. watching movies, banking transactions, purchase
• identifies the differences between
programming languages and scripts. of goods through online transaction, and so
• compares the different types of scripting on. We know that a website is a collection of
languages. web pages. A web page may contain texts,
• explains the need for cascading style graphics, sounds, animations, and movies. A
sheet.
• identifies the basic HTML elements to website consisting of several web pages are
create web pages. designed to give information about an
• lists fundamental HTML tags and their organisation, product, service, etc. How is this
important attributes. website made available on the Internet? These
• classifies the HTML tags.
• uses formatting tags appropriately in web pages are to be stored in web servers
an HTML document to make the web page connected to the Internet, to be made available
attractive. to others. This chapter presents an overview
• identifies the similarities and of communication over the Internet and the
differences among the formatting tags.
• observes the use of the tags <PRE> and role of web servers in it. The different tools
<DIV>. and technologies that are available for
• chooses the tag for moving objects/ developing websites are introduced here. The
contents in a document. concept of dynamic web pages and an
• uses the <FONT> tag to format the text
content effectively. overview of the scripting languages used to
• utilises the facility of comments in an make web pages dynamic are also discussed.
HTML document. Web pages are developed with the help of a
• inserts images into HTML document language called Hyper Text Markup Language
using <IMG> tag.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

(HTML). HTML is also known as the language of the Internet. HTML tells the
browser how to display the contents on a browser window. In this chapter, we will
also familiarise ourselves with the fundamentals of creating web pages using HTML.
4.1 Communication on the web
We have learned the actions that occur when a web browser (client) tries to access a
website from the Internet in Chapter 9 of Class XI. First, the URL (Uniform
Resource Locator) is sent to a Domain Name System (DNS) server to obtain its
corresponding IP (Internet Protocol) address and then the browser connects to
this server using the IP address. The web server software installed in the server
computer processes this request and the web page to be displayed is then sent to
the client. The client browser formats and displays this web page.
In order to communicate on the web, computers/devices need to understand each
other. This is made possible by making all devices follow the same protocol, namely
the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). We have discussed
TCP/IP protocol and its working in detail in Chapter 8, Computer Networks of
Class XI. The data to be sent is broken down into small data packets along with the
address of the recipient computer by the TCP protocol. The devices called routers,
route and transport these data packets to their destination computers using Internet
Protocol. Figure 4.1 shows the route of a data packet from a sender to a recipient.
STEP 2: The
STEP 3: TCP
packets travel
reassembles the
from router to
data packets
STEP 1: router over
back to original
TCP breaks the Internet
form
the data into according to
packets the IP

Fig. 4.1: Routing of a data packet from a sender to a recipient

In the Internet, there are several types of communication like, accessing websites,
sending e-mails, etc. We have already learned in Chapter 9, Internet of Class XI that
websites are accessed using HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) and e-mail

82
 4. Web Technology

communication happens using SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). Both these
protocols work on top of lower level protocol called Internet Protocol. Internet
Protocol provides the basics of communication over Internet. The use of a single
protocol - Internet Protocol - for all communication over the Internet has several
advantages. The routers need not be programmed separately to handle different
types of data. They do not need to know about the data they are transporting and
are concerned only about the address to which the packet is to be delivered. This
openness of the data part of the packet gives the freedom to design new protocols
for the Internet. It is this openness and flexibility of TCP/IP that led to the
development of protocols for social media websites to handle messages, content
websites to handle video and audio, banking websites to handle money transfer
securely, etc. This turned out to be a deciding factor for the economic success of
the Internet.
Communication on the web can be categorised as (i) client (browser) to web server
and (ii) web server to web server communication. Authentication and security are
essential for communication over the Internet. Authentication on the web is the
process of determining whether a computer/server is the computer that it claims
to be. Security should be provided to communication over Internet so that the
messages are not intercepted and modified by hackers.
4.1.1 Client to web server communication
Client to web server communication does not usually require authentication. But in
the case of web based banking applications/e-mail services, user names and
passwords are required to be sent to the server. This information cannot be sent to
the server in plain text due to security reasons. The hackers may steal usernames
and passwords, if it is communicated and shared as plain text. In such cases we use
HTTPS (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure) technology to encrypt the username
and password, and then send it to the server. HTTPS works using Secure Sockets
Layer (SSL) which provides a standard security technology for establishing an
encrypted connection between computers on Internet. SSL provides security
capabilities to HTTP. The SSL protocol not only ensures privacy, but also ensures
that no other website can impersonate the user's login account nor alter the
information sent.
When the browser requests for a secure web page, the server first returns its SSL
certificate. The browser then verifies whether this certificate is valid by checking it
with the corresponding certification authority. A certification authority certifies
whether an SSL certificate given to it is a valid one. This is an assurance that the
particular website is of the organisation it claims to be. Verisign Inc. is a certification

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

authority. If an SSL certificate is valid, the browser starts an encrypted session.

During this session, the browser and the server encrypts all the transmitted data.
This process is displayed in Figure 4.2(a). In India, Information Technology Act
makes it mandatory for websites that provide banking transactions to use HTTPS
to accept confidential information from clients. You can click on the lock symbol in
the address bar and view the certificate as shown in Figure 4.2(b).

Browser requests to start a secure SSl session

Server returns its SSL certificate

Browser checks that:

1 • Certificate is valid 2
• Signed by someone user trusts
3 If valid, browser initiates and encrypted session

4 Server and browser encrypts all the transmitted data

01010010110 01010010110

Fig. 4.2(a) : Client - server authentication process Fig. 4.2(b): https authentication of SBI
website
4.1.2 Web server to web server communication
Web server to web server communication also may be required in certain web
applications. For example, the web server of an online shopping website (seller/
merchant on Internet) needs to send confidential information to a bank web server
and vice versa. In such cases the web servers of the merchant and the bank are to be
authenticated. Digital certificates help to verify whether the data received is from

Merchant's
web server

Payment
gateway

User placing Bank

order Merchant web server
Fig. 4.3 : End to end online trading process bank account

84
 4. Web Technology

the actual server itself. Once the servers are authenticated, the servers communicate
using encrypted data. Payment gateway is a server that acts as a bridge between
merchant server and bank server and transfers money in an encrypted format
whenever an online payment/money transfer is made. This process is shown in
Figure 4.3.
4.2 Web server technologies
Let us see what happens internally when we visit the website www.dhsekerala.gov.in,
the official website of the Directorate of Higher Secondary Education (DHSE).
At first, the home page (the first page displayed when a website will be accessed) of
the website will be transferred to our computer (client) from the web server of
DHSE. The client is usually a computer or a mobile device which has a browser
software that requests for web pages. The web server uses the web server software
to store the pages of the websites and delivers it on request from the client. In the
following sections, we will discuss the features of a web server and the requirements
for setting up a web server.
4.2.1 Web server
The term web server is often used for referring to the server computer that hosts
websites. It is also used to refer to a web server software that is installed in a server
computer in order to make it a web server. In this section we will discuss the features
of a web server computer and a web server software.
A web server enables us to deliver web
pages or services like e-mail, blog, etc.
to users on the Internet. A web server
consists of a server computer that runs
a server operating system and a web
server software installed on it for
providing services like www, e-mail,
etc. over the Internet.
A web server is a powerful computer
Fig. 4.4 : A data center
which is always switched on and
connected to a high bandwidth Internet connection. This will facilitate Internet users
around the world to access the websites and services hosted by it at any point of
time. Depending on the requirements, a web server can have single or multiple
processors, fast access RAM, high performance hard disks, Ethernet cards that
supports fast communication, etc. To ensure faster Internet connectivity and
redundant power supply, a web server is usually installed in a data center.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

A data center is a dedicated physical location where

organisations house their servers and networking
systems. Data centers are used for storing, processing
and serving large amounts of mission-critical data
to their clients. A data center requires extensive
backup power supply systems, cooling systems, high
speed networking connections and security systems.
A typical data center facility is shown in Figure 4.4.
In a data center several servers may be mounted into
special racks that offer good ventilation and easy
maintenance as shown in Figure 4.5.
Popular server operating systems include various
Linux distributions (Redhat, openSUSE, Debian,
Fig. 4.5 : Rack mounted servers
Ubuntu, etc.), Microsoft Windows Server, FreeBSD,
Oracle Solaris, etc.
After setting up a server, a web server software has to be installed in it and configured
according to the given operating system. The web server software is a program
that uses the client-server model and the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to
ensure timely distribution of files stored in it to the users. These files are sent as
webpages to the user on request using the web server software and can be accessed
using a web browser. Some of the preferred web server packages are Apache Server,
Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS), Google Web Server (GWS) and nginx
(pronounced as engine-x).
After the installation and configuration of a web server software, software packages
like FTP (File Transfer Protocol), e-mail, DNS, database, etc. can be added as well.
The main features provided by the web server software are the provisions to create
multiple websites, configure website security, etc.
4.2.2 Software ports
We have discussed hardware ports in Chapter 2, Components of the Computer
System of Class XI. Hardware ports are used to connect external devices to the
computer. These devices communicate with the computer using these ports, i.e.,
VGA ports are used to connect monitors, PS/2 ports for keyboard/mouse, etc.
Similarly, a software port is used to connect a client computer to a server to access
its services like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc. To distinguish the ports, the software ports
are given unique numbers. The purpose of software ports is to identify different
services like e-mail, file transfer, etc. running on a single server computer. Each
service available on the server can be set and accessed using a different port number.

86
 4. Web Technology

Port number is a 16-bit number which when added to a computer's IP address/

URL, can be used for communicating with a particular service available on that
server. A service in a website can be accessed in the format given below:
http://google.co.in:80
Here http is the protocol, google.co.in is the domain name and 80 is the port number.
Some well-known ports and the associated services are listed in Table 4.1.
Default Port No. Service
20 & 21 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
22 Secure Shell (SSH)
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
53 Domain Name System (DNS) service
80 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
110 Post Office Protocol (POP3)
443 HTTP Secure (HTTPS)
Table 4.1: Ports and their services
4.2.3 DNS servers
In Chapter 8, Computer Networks of Class XI, we learned about Domain Name
System (DNS). A DNS server runs a special purpose networking software that
contains a database of domain names and their IP addresses. The Domain Name
System (DNS) runs on a DNS server and returns the IP address of a domain name
requested by the client computer.
A Domain Name System contains several DNS server computers. The DNS servers
are arranged in a hierarchy. At the top level there are 13 root servers that contain
name server information for all the
generic top-level domains such as
.com and .org as well as country-
specific domain addresses such as
.in or .uk. Several copies of these
root servers are placed in different
locations around the globe as
shown in Figure 4.6. All other DNS
servers are installed in the lower
level of hierarchy. Fig. 4.6 : Root servers around the globe

87
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Let us see how the DNS searches

and locates the IP address of a
domain name. Suppose we are
visiting the website of the Police
department of the Government of
Kerala. Let us type the domain Fig. 4.7
Fig. 4.7::DNS
DNSsearch
search
name for the police department, namely www.keralapolice.org in our browser. The
following steps illustrate how the DNS resolves the IP address. See Figure 4.7.
1. All browsers store the IP addresses of the recently visited websites in its cache.
Therefore, the browser first searches its local memory (mini cache) to see
whether it has the IP address of this domain. If found, the browser uses it.
2. If it is not found in the browser cache, it checks the operating system's local
cache for the IP address.
3. If it is not found there, it searches the DNS server of the local ISP.
4. In the absence of the domain name in the ISP's DNS server, the ISP's DNS
server initiates a recursive search starting from the root server till it receives
the IP address.
5. The ISP's DNS server returns this IP address to the browser.
6. The browser connects to the web server using the IP address of
www.keralapolice.org and the webpage is displayed in the browser window. If
the IP address is not found, it returns the message 'Server not found' in the
browser window.
The 13 root servers around the globe manage the entire database of
domain names and their corresponding IP addresses. Each of these root
servers are a network of servers installed in many countries around the
world. They are named as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L and M. These
servers are maintained by various agencies like ICANN, NASA (National Aeronautics
and Space Administration), University of Maryland, VeriSign Inc., etc. ICANN's
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) Root Server System Advisory
Council is comprised of the organisations that manage the root servers. They are
responsible for advising ICANN on matters relating to the operation, administration,
security and integrity of the Internet's Root Server System. In India, NIXI (National
Internet Exchange of India) has sponsored three root servers at Mumbai (I Root),
Delhi (K Root) and Chennai (F Root).

In large organisations like educational institutions, government departments,

software firms, etc. where there are hundreds of computers or devices connected
to the Internet, a local DNS server is hosted inside the intranet of the organisation.

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This local DNS server contains a list of domain names and their IP addresses which
the users in the organisation regularly access. This list can be updated periodically
to include new domain names. Whenever a computer in the intranet tries to access
a website in the Internet, it first searches for the domain name in the local DNS
server and finds the IP address. This speeds up the Internet access in the organisation.
Only if the domain name is not found in the local DNS server, it searches the DNS
of ISP.
Instead of directing the computer to search for IP address in the ISP's
DNS server, we can direct it to search the public DNS operated by
Google. Google Public DNS is a free Domain Name System (DNS)
resolution service that can be used as an alternative to our current DNS
provider. The IP addresses for Google's public DNS are 8.8.8.8 and 8.8.4.4. We can
configure our network settings to direct to Google's public DNS using either of the IP
addresses.

Know your progress

1. Name a protocol that works on top of the Internet Protocol
(IP).
2. Expand HTTPS.
3. What are the advantages of installing web servers in data centers?
4. State whether true or false.
a. The web server software works based on a client-server model.
b. The web server consists of server operating system and web
server software.
5. The number of bits in a software port number is _____.
a. 8 b. 16 c. 32 d. 64
6. A Domain Name System returns the ___________ of a domain
name.

4.3 Web designing

The first step in setting up a website is planning the web pages for the website.
Suppose we are going to develop a website for our school. After deciding the
pages and the links, we need to design these web pages. Any text editor can be used
to create a home page, a page for displaying the courses in the school, facilities
available, contact address, etc. and link them using a menu to form an attractive
website.
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There are many web designing softwares available. You can also employ the features
available in any of the web designing tools that helps you to create a web page with
the ease of preparing a document in a word processor. These software also provide
features to design web pages and link them together to form a website. Facilities to
transfer files to the server using FTP protocol is also built into such software. Popular
web designing softwares are Bluefish, Bootstrap, Adobe Dreamweaver, Microsoft
Expression Web, etc. Figure 4.8 shows the Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) of popular web designing softwares.

Bluefish Dreamweaver
Fig. 4.8 : IDE of web designing software
You have already learned the basics of creating web pages in high school classes.
HTML consists of tags and its attributes used to format web pages. In this chapter
we will also get familiar with the different HTML tags and attributes.
4.4 Static and dynamic web pages
You might have noticed that the web pages in the website of some small business/
organisations, school website, etc. remain the same whenever you visit it. These
websites are called static websites. There are some other websites like the website
that displays your mark in SSLC or Higher Secondary Examination (HSE), that
changes when different register numbers are given to them. They are called dynamic
web pages.
Static web pages are web pages that remain the same all the time until their code is
changed manually. Initially, web pages were created with HTML only and such web
pages are static web pages. Later, the emergence of scripting languages like JavaScript,
VBScript, etc. brought animations into the web page. The colour and style of a
portion of the web page changes when the mouse is kept over it, images are loaded
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and displayed one after another in a sequence - all these are designed using scripting
languages. The web pages that contain all these features are also classified as static
web pages.

Web Application
Server Server
t
ues
P req
Client HTT (JRL
)
Computer

HTTP r
espons
e

Requested
web page Database

Static web page requests Dynamic web page requests

Fig. 4.9 : Static and dynamic web page requests
The web pages that contain server side code which creates a web page each time it
is accessed are called dynamic web pages. Program code that runs on the server is
called server side code. Dynamic web pages are executed using a server side
application program that is installed on a web server. The script in the web page is
executed on the web server and the resulting HTML page is sent to the client browser.
In most cases data is accessed from databases to create web pages. The web pages
that display SSLC, HSE results, bus, train and flight booking, banking/financial
transactions, etc. display dynamic content, and are considered as dynamic web pages.
Technologies like PHP, ASP, JSP, etc. are used to develop dynamic web pages. The
working of static and dynamic web pages is represented using Figure 4.9. A
comparison of static and dynamic web pages is given in Table 4.2.
Static web page Dynamic web page
The content and layout of a web page is The content and layout may change
fixed. during run time.
Static web pages never use databases. Database is used to generate dynamic
content through queries.
Static web pages directly run on the Dynamic web page runs on the server
browser and do not require any server side application program and displays
side application program. the results.
Static web pages are easy to develop. Dynamic web page development
requires programming skills.
Table 4.2: Comparison of static and dynamic web pages
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4.5 Scripts
Scripts are program codes written inside HTML pages. They are written using a
text editor like notepad. Scripting languages like JavaScript, VB script, PHP, Perl,
etc. are used to create dynamic web pages.
Traditional programming languages are set of instructions carried out by the
computer hardware with the help of an operating system, whereas scripting languages
are interpreted by a web browser or by a web server software. Today most of the
standalone programs are being replaced by web based programs. Earlier, the
software used in banks were installed in the branches of the bank itself. Almost all
banks have their banking software available on the bank's web server and the bank
employees access them using the Internet. Web based software like banking software,
higher secondary admission software, etc. use scripting languages for their
development.
In an HTML page, a script is written inside <SCRIPT> and </SCRIPT> tags.
<SCRIPT> is used to embed or refer to an executable script within an HTML
document. It has the attributes Type and Src. Type attribute is used to identify
the scripting language code embedded within the script tag. We will see more
about HTML tags and attributes later in this chapter.
<SCRIPT Type="text/javascript"> is used to insert JavaScript code in the
HTML code.
Scripts can be written as an external file and can be linked to an HTML file. Src
attribute is used to specify the URL of an external file containing scripting code to
be linked to a web page.
<SCRIPT Type="text/javascript" Src="scriptcode.js"> is used to
insert JavaScript code inside the file scriptcode.js into an HTML file.
4.5.1 Types of scripting languages
Let us consider a login page of a website in the Internet. Usually the page will
prompt the user to enter the user name and password. User will click the 'Login'
button after entering the user name and password. What will happen if the user
clicks the 'Login' button without entering the user name? Naturally, the computer
will tell the user that he/she has not entered the user name. Remember that the web
page we are viewing is controlled by two computers - the client computer where
the web page is viewed and the server computer where the web page comes from.
Where will we check whether the user has entered a user name or not - in the client
computer or in the server computer? The server computer is thousand times busier

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than the client computer, because a large number of people may be visiting the
same web site and the server is the only one computer to handle all those requests.
Therefore, all the tasks that can be done at the client side must be done at the client
side itself. This will reduce the workload of the server.
It should also be noted that, if this type of checking is done at the server, when the
user clicks the 'Login' button, the entered data has to be sent to the server from the
client through the Internet. The data has to travel a long distance through the Internet
to reach the server. When the data reaches the server, it will be placed in a queue
because a large number of clients may be sending the same request to the server.
The sent data will wait in the queue till it gets the chance to be processed by the
server. The server will check whether any user name or password is entered by the
client or not. If not, it will send a message back to the client specifying that the user
name is not given as displayed in Figure 4.10. Again, the message has to travel a
long distance back from the
server to the client through the
Internet. In short, if the user
clicks the submit button, without
entering the user name, he/she
has to wait a few seconds till he/
she gets the message that he/she
has not given the user name.
Besides this, the data has to travel
from client to server and back
from server to client, which
Fig. 4.10 : Response from the server
unnecessarily makes network
traffic busy.
If this checking is done at the client side itself, when the user clicks the submit
button, the script code in the client side can check whether the user has given some
entry as the user name and password. If not, a message can be displayed. During
this process, the data does not travel across the Internet to the server, nor does it
disturb the server for this simple task. When the user clicks the submit button, the
user gets the message that he has not given the user name, within a second as shown
in Figure 4.11. It also does not engage network resources unnecessarily.
Now let us consider another situation. Suppose a user enters a wrong user name
and password. The client computer may be able to check whether there is any entry
with such a user name and password. However it cannot check whether the user
name and password are correct or not. This is because only the server computer
has the details of all user names and corresponding passwords. Therefore, whether
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the user name and password match

each other, can be checked at the
server side only. This is a situation
where you have to use the server side
scripting for the validation. When
you need to perform some kind of
validation of data that makes use of
information from the server, it must
be done at the server side itself.
Isn't it now clear that scripting
languages are classified into client
side scripts and server side scripts?
Client side scripting is used to
perform any task at the client side Fig. 4.11 : Response from client browser
and is executed in the browser. Scripts that are executed in the server are called
server side scripts. The output produced after execution of the server side scripts
is in the form of an HTML page which is sent to the client.
A. Client side scripting
In client side scripting, the script code for validation is downloaded along with the
HTML code to our browser. When we click the submit/save button this client side
script is executed in our browser. If there is an error, it displays the message. It will
send the data to the web server only if the validations are correct.
Since the script code is executed on the client browser, it provides a quicker response
to users. This type of scripting will allow the client browser to share some of the
burden on the web server while running a web application. The disadvantage of
client side scripting is that there are browsers that do not support scripts. In some
cases users may turn off the execution of scripts in the browser. In such cases client
side scripting may not work.
Popular client side scripting technologies are JavaScript and VB script. Client side
scripting is mostly used for validations and also for performing simple calculations
at the client side before sending the data to the web server.
B. Server side scripting
We discussed dynamic web pages in the previous section. Server side scripts are
used to create dynamic web pages. Let us discuss another example for server side
scripting. Consider the website that displays the results of SSLC examination. When
we enter the SSLC register number of a student, the website displays the scores of

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that particular student. This is the same for each student who has appeared for the
SSLC examination. We know that it is not practical to design a web page for each
of the several lakhs of students who have written the SSLC examination. If so, how
is this done? The results of these several lakhs of students are stored in a database
in the web server. Server side scripts are used to access the result of a particular
student from the database whose register number is entered by the user. The server
side script then uses this result to create
a simple HTML web page. This web page
is then sent to the client browser and the
browser displays it. This way the server
side script creates a web page for each
student who has appeared for SSLC
examination as shown in Figure 4.12. The
rapid growth of web based applications
has increased the use of server side
scripting. Fig. 4.12 : Working of server side scripts

Server side scripting is a technology in which the web page containing server side
scripts requested by the user is executed in the server and the result, which is an
HTML code, is sent to the client browser. Server side scripting creates web pages
dynamically. Since the scripts are executed at the server, the type and version of the
browser or operating system on the client's computer does not affect its execution.
Since the scripts are executed on the server, it consumes server resources. Popular
server side scripting languages are Perl, PHP, ASP, JSP, etc.
A comparison of the classifications of scripting languages is given in Table 4.3.
Client side scripting Server side scripting
Script is copied to the client browser Script remains in the web server
Script is executed in the client browser Script is executed in the web server and
the web page produced is returned to the
client browser
Client side scripts are mainly used for Server side scripts are usually used to
validation of data at the client. connect to databases and return data
from the web server
Users can block client side scripting Server side scripting cannot be blocked
by a user
The type and version of the web browser The features of the web browser does
affects the working of a client side script not affect the working of server side
script
Table 4.3 : Comparison of client side and server side scripting

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We have seen that the client side scripts are mainly used for validations
at the user's browser and that it reduces the load on the server and
network traffic. Therefore, the entire validation checking scripts are
moved to the client side. Now the data sent to the web server is free
from all errors and can be directly saved to the database. But if the client's browser
does not support scripts or the user has turned off the scripting in the browser for
security reasons, the data will be sent to the server without validation. This causes
invalid data to be stored in the database. In order to protect the validity of the data
saved in the database, it is better to have a validation check at the server side also.

4.5.2 Scripting languages

We have learned the different classifications of scripting languages. Let us now
discuss the features of some of the popular scripting languages.
A. JavaScript
JavaScript is a client side scripting language used to make web pages interactive.
JavaScript was developed by Brendan Eich (Figure 4.13) while he was working for
Netscape Communications Corporation. On the client side, JavaScript is
implemented as an interpreted language. Any text editor such as Geany IDE,
Notepad, etc. can be used to write JavaScript code. It is popular as a client side
scripting tool and works in almost every web browser.
JavaScript can be inserted inside HTML code or can be written
as an external file and then included inside HTML file. If a
JavaScript code is written as an external file, it is common to
use the extension .js. This identifies the file as a JavaScript file.
JavaScript is popular as a tool for validation of forms in the
client side. It can also be used for performing simple
calculations and also for bringing animations to a web page. Fig. 4.13: Brendan
We will discuss JavaScript in detail in Chapter 6. Eich (1961 - )

The popularity of JavaScript has led to more developments in client side scripting.
While applying online for Higher Secondary Plus One admissions, immediately
after entering your SSLC register number, you might have noticed that your name,
date of birth and other details appear in the text boxes below. This is done without
reloading the entire web page. The data is taken from the server and filled in the
text boxes without refreshing the web page. Ajax is the technology used here. Ajax
improves the interactivity of the browsers. Ajax is Asynchronous JavaScript and
Extensible Markup Language (XML). XML is a markup language which helps users
to create new tags. After implementing Ajax on a website, it does not require the
entire page to be reloaded for displaying dynamic content on web pages. Ajax
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allows web pages to be updated by exchanging small amounts of data between the
client and the server behind the scenes. This means that it is possible to update
parts of a web page, without reloading the entire web page. However, since Ajax
relies more on JavaScript, if the browser is not capable of handling JavaScript or
the user has turned off JavaScript functionality in the browser, the Ajax application
will not work.
B. VB Script
VBScript is a scripting language developed by Microsoft Corporation based on
the popular programming language Visual Basic. VBScript was developed to use
either as a client side scripting language for the Microsoft Internet Explorer or as a
server side scripting language with the Microsoft Internet Information Server (IIS).
Unfortunately, browsers other than Internet Explorer may not be able to correctly
interpret and display the VBScript code. Therefore, it is less popular as a client side
scripting tool. Since Windows operating system is popular as a server based
operating system, VBScript is popular for server side scripting. With the introduction
of .NET framework - a library of usable program code, Microsoft has taken the
decision to incorporate VBScript as a part of ASP.NET in .NET framework.
C. PHP
PHP stands for 'PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor'. PHP is an open
source general-purpose scripting language that is suited for web
development and can be embedded into HTML code. It is a server
side scripting tool and its code is similar to Java, C and Perl. The
main objective of PHP is to develop dynamic web pages at ease.
PHP was originally created by Rasmus Lerdorf (Figure 4.14) in
1994 but it is now developed by The PHP Group. The web page
Fig. 4.14: Rasmus
files that contain PHP code have the extension .php. Lerdorf (1968 - )
PHP code is inserted inside HTML code and when the user requests for a PHP
web page, it is interpreted and executed on the web server. To process the PHP
code on the web server, a PHP interpreter has to be installed on the web server.
After execution of the PHP code in the web server, an HTML page is created,
which is sent to the client browser. One of the strongest and most significant features
in PHP is its support for database programming. The most common database
used with PHP is MySQL. PHP interpreter is available for all operating systems.
Linux platforms commonly use LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL and PHP) server
software which is freely downloadable. LAMP uses Linux as the server operating
system, Apache as the web server, MySQL as the database and PHP for server side
scripting. Windows operating systems use WAMP server software which is also
available for free download.
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D. Active Server Pages

Microsoft Active Server Pages (ASP) is a server-side scripting environment that
can be used to create and run interactive web applications. ASP contains HTML
and a scripting language code. The scripting language can be VBScript or JavaScript.
ASP files have the extension .asp. These files are compiled using a feature built in
Microsoft's web server software, Internet Information Server (IIS). ASP files are
executed only on Windows operating systems. After execution at the server, the
resultant HTML web page is sent to the client browser. It is a very powerful scripting
language that provides support to a variety of databases. The introduction of
ASP.NET stopped Microsoft from releasing further versions of ASP. ASP.NET
provides features like reduced coding, availability of a variety of buttons, text boxes
etc. which help in creating web based applications.
E. Java Server Pages
Java Server Pages (JSP) technology provides a simple and fast way to create dynamic
web content. It is a server side scripting language that was developed by Sun
Microsystems in 1999. JSP is similar to PHP, but uses Java as programming language.
JSP files have the extension .jsp. To run JSP, Apache Tomcat web server is required.
The JSP code consisting of HTML and Java is executed on the web server and the
resulting HTML code is sent to the browser. JSP is an integral part of Java 2 Platform
Enterprise Edition (J2EE) which is used for developing and running large scale
web based softwares.
4.6 Cascading Style Sheet
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for describing the
formatting of a document written in HTML. Using CSS, we can control the colour
of the text, the style of fonts, the spacing between paragraphs, how columns are
sized and laid out, borders and its colours, what background images or colours are
used, as well as a variety of other effects in a web page. A CSS file allows us to
separate HTML content from its style. CSS can be implemented in three different
ways - inline, embedded and linked.
• In inline style, the CSS style is applied to each tag separately using the style
attribute in the body part of the web page.
• Embedded CSS codes are placed within the <HEAD> part of the web page.
• Linked CSS implementation is done using an external file with the file extension
.css that contains only CSS code and is linked with the web page.
The advantage of CSS is that we can reuse the same code for all the pages. If the
CSS styles for a website is implemented as a linked external file, then the modification
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of a style, modifies the way the tags are presented in all the web pages of the website.
Since CSS styles are written in a common place, it separates CSS and HTML, which
makes it easy for maintenance. Moreover, the tags in web pages are well organised
with the style specifications and therefore it is easy to understand. This also reduces
the size of the web page thereby providing faster downloads for web pages.
CSS allows adapting the presentation of a web page to devices with different screen
sizes such as desktop monitors, tablets or mobiles. It is considered that CSS along
with JavaScript will be used in the next version of HTML called HTML5, to bring
animations and interaction to web pages.
Know your progress
1. The web pages that remain the same until their code is changed
manually are called ______.
2. Name two technologies that can be used to develop dynamic
web pages.
3. The tag used to embed scripts is ______.
4. Write any one of the uses of client side scripting.
5. A JavaScript file has the extension ______.
6. What is the advantage of using Ajax?
7. Classify the following scripting languages into client side and
server side.
Javascript, PHP, ASP, VBScript
8. .asp files are compiled using the web server software ______.
9. List the different ways of implementing CSS.

4.7 Basic concepts of HTML documents

HTML is the most widely used language to write web pages. Every web page is
actually an HTML file. Each HTML file is a plain text that defines a set of commands
for creating hypertext documents. These commands are known as HTML tags.
While using these tags, some keywords may be attached to them, which make the
instruction more specific. These words are known as attributes. Therefore, an
HTML document is made up of tags and attributes which work together to decide
how the contents of the web page have to be displayed on the browser. Actually,
the study of HTML means the study of tags and their attributes. Before going into
the details of tags and attributes, let us have a look at the basic structure of an
HTML document.
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4.7.1 Basic structure of an HTML document

The basic structure of an HTML document is shown in Example 4.1.
Example 4.1: A sample HTML document to illustrate the structure of a web page
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> This is the title of web page </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Hello, Welcome to the world of web pages!
</BODY>
</HTML>
You can see some of the words in the upper case within a pair of angle brackets <
and >. These are HTML tags. It is not necessary that tags be written in the upper
case. HTML is not case sensitive. We can use either the upper or lower case or even
a mix of the two. In this book, we follow the style of using the upper case for
HTML tags and sentence case (i.e., the first letter is capital) for attributes to
distinguish them from other words or text.
As shown in Example 4.1, all HTML pages begin with the tag <HTML> and end
with tag </HTML>. There are mainly two sections in an HTML document namely
head section and body section. The <HEAD> tag is used to define the head section.
The head section contains the information about the document, including the title
of the web page. The <TITLE> tag is used to define the title of the page, which will
be displayed on the title bar of the browser window. The <BODY> tag is used to
define the body section. The body section contains the contents to be displayed in
the web page. If we open this document in a web browser, it will appear as shown
in Figure 4.15.

Fig. 4.15 : A sample web page opend in a web browser

Versions in HTML: HTML was created by Tim Berners Lee in late 1991
but "HTML 2.0" was the first standard HTML specification which was
published in 1995. HTML 4.01 was a major version of HTML and it was
published in late 1999. The latest version, HTML 5 was released in 2012.
But it is still being modified for adding more multimedia integration.

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4.7.2 Tags in HTML document

As mentioned earlier, tags are the commands used in the HTML document that tell
web browsers how to format and organise our web pages to show the contents.
Every tag consists of a tag name enclosed between the angle brackets '<' and '>'.
HTML tags are not case sensitive. Therefore the tags <HTML>, <html>, <Html>,
<HtmL>, etc. have the same meaning.

4.7.3 Container tags and empty tags

Most tags are used in pairs - an opening tag and a closing tag. For example <HTML>
is the opening tag and </HTML> is the closing tag. Note that the closing tag has the
same text as the opening tag, but has an additional forward slash (/) character after
the first angle bracket. Tags that require opening tag as well as closing tag are known
as container tags. Container tags are applicable for a section. The opening tag is
given at the beginning of a section and closing tag is placed at the end of the section.
For example, <HTML> and </HTML> forms the opening and closing tag pairs for
an HTML document.
Some tags are given an exemption to this rule, and these tags do not require closing
tag. Such tags are known as empty tags. This kind of tag does not span over a
section. The tags <BR>, <HR>, <IMG>, etc. are examples of empty tags. We will see
these tags in the forthcoming section of this chapter.
4.7.4 Attributes of tags
Certain parameters are frequently included within the opening tag to provide
additional information such as colour, measurement, location, alignment or other
appearances to the web browser. These parameters are called attributes. Most of
the attributes require a value. In HTML, the value can be given in single quotes or
double quotes (i.e., attribute='value' or attribute="value"). Each tag
has a standard set of attributes and we can use them as per the requirement. If an
attribute is used, normally it appears after the tag name separated by a space. If
more than one attribute is used, their order of appearance is not important.
For example, to change the background colour of the web page to yellow, we can
write the code as <BODY Bgcolor = "Yellow">. Here, Bgcolor is the attribute
and Yellow is the value of this attribute. The other attributes of <BODY> tag and
other tags will be discussed in the forthcoming section.
4.7.5 HTML Elements
A pair of tags and the content enclosed between these tags are known as an element.
Figure 4.16 shows that the Body element contains the opening tag <BODY> with
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attributes if any, the closing

tag < / B O D Y > , and the Element
contents in between these two
tags. <BODY> Welcome to HTML </BODY>

The basic structure of an Opening tag Closing tag

HTML document contains
four sets of HTML tags. Fig. 4.16 : An HTML element

They are:
<HTML> </HTML>
<HEAD> </HEAD>
<TITLE> </TITLE>
<BODY> </BODY>

4.8 Creating an HTML document

Now, let us create a simple web page using the HTML code given in Example 4.1.
Text editors like Geany, Gedit, TextPad, Notepad, Notepad++, etc. can be used to
create HTML documents. The file is to be saved with a name with an extension
.html or .htm (for example, sample.html). Figure 4.17 shows an HTML code in
Geany editor, saved as sample.html.

Fig. 4.17: HTML code in Geany Editor

Viewing an HTML document in a Browser
Once the HTML document is prepared, it can be viewed in a browser by opening
the document with the browser. There are many browsers like Mozilla Firefox,
Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Netscape navigator, etc. Screen shots given in
this book, are obtained by opening the web page using Mozilla Firefox. The output
of the HTML code created using Geany can also be obtained by clicking the Execute
button in the tool bar of Geany.
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4.9 Essential HTML tags

Let us have a detailed discussion on the essential tags required to create web pages.
The tags, their use, associated attributes and their values, and their appearance in
the browser window will be illustrated in this section.
4.9.1 <HTML> - Starting an HTML page
The entire HTML document is bounded by a pair of <HTML> and </HTML> tags.
The <HTML> tag identifies the document as an HTML document. In general <HTML>
is always the first tag in an HTML page and the </HTML> is the last tag. Everything
else in the web page is in between these two tags. That is, the Head section and the
Body section lie inside the <HTML> and </HTML> tags. It is a container tag pair. The
main attributes of the <HTML> tag are Dir and Lang.
Dir
The Dir attribute of <HTML> tag specifies the Sl. No. Code Language
direction of the text to be displayed on the web 1 En English
page. This attribute can have values either ltr 2 Fr French
(left-to-right) or rtl (right-to-left). By default, 3 De German
the value of this attribute is ltr. The value rtl
4 It Italian
is used when languages like Arabic, Hebrew,
Chinese etc. are used for content presentation. 5 El Greak
For example, <HTML Dir = "rtl"> specifies 6 Es Spanish
that the document is to be read from right-to- 7 Ar Arabic
left.
8 Ja Japanese
Lang Hi
9 Hindi
The Lang attribute of <HTML> tag specifies the 10 Ru Russian
language we have generally used within the Table 4.3 : Some common language
document. The value "en" is used for English codes
language and "it" is used to specify Italian language.
For example, the code <HTML Lang = "ar"> specifies that the language used in
the HTML document is Arabic language. Some common language codes used with
Lang attribute are given in Table 4.3.
4.9.2 <HEAD> - Creating head
It contains the head of an HTML document, which holds information about the
document such as its title, scripts used, style definitions, etc. The tag pair <HEAD>
and </HEAD> declares the head section. It is also a container tag pair.

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4.9.3 <TITLE> - Creating a title

It is a container tag pair that contains the title of the HTML document, which will
appear in the web browser's title bar. The search engine uses the Title to identify the
page. The tag pair <TITLE> and </TITLE> is used inside the tag pair <HEAD> and
</HEAD> to mention the document title.

4.9.4 <BODY> - Creating a body

The body tag pair <BODY> and </BODY> specifies the document body section.
This section contains the content to be displayed in the browser window. Hence, all
other tags, which define the document content are given in the body section. Before
discussing these tags, let us discuss various attributes of <BODY> tag.
Background
This attribute sets an image as background for the documents body. This attribute
of <BODY> tag makes the page more attractive. The general format is:
<BODY Background = "URL of the picture">
The HTML code given in Example 4.2 shows the sky as the background image of
a web page.
Example 4.2: To set an image as background for a web page
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Background Image </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Background = "Sky.jpg">
Hello, Welcome to the world of Web Pages!........
</BODY>
</HTML>

Here, the HTML code in Example 4.1

is modified by prioviding an attribute
Background with the value "Sky.jpg"
in the < B O D Y > tag as < B O D Y
Background = "Sky.jpg">. Before
opening the page, we have to place the
image file in the current working
directory. The web page is displayed as
shown in Figure 4.18.
Fig. 4.18 : An image as background
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Bgcolor
This attribute specifies a colour for the background of the document body. For
example, <BODY Bgcolor = "grey"> will display the background in grey
colour.
The value of Bgcolor attribute can be given in two ways.
• Color_name - specifies the background colour with a colour name (like "red",
"grey" etc.)
• Hex_number - specifies the background colour with a hexadecimal code (like
"#ff6080", "#303030" etc.). Each hexadecimal code will be preceded with a
hash sign #.
The six digit number and letter
combinations represent colours by Colour Colour
Colour
Name HEX
giving their RGB (Red, Green, Blue)
value. Of the six digits, the first two Black #000000
digits represent the amount of red, the Red #FF0000
second two digits represent the amount
of green, and the last two digits Green #00FF00
represent the amount of blue as a Blue #0000FF
hexadecimal value in the range 00 - FF.
For example, #000000 is black, Yellow #FFFF00
#FF0000 is bright red, #00FF00 is Aqua #00FFFF
bright green, and #FFFFFF is white
(fully saturated with all the three Grey #C0C0C0
colours). We can try various colour White #FFFFFF
combinations according to our choice
Table 4.4: List of colours with their
of hex number. Table 4.4 shows a few Name and Hexadecimal value
colours with their Names and Hex
values.
Text
This attribute specifies the colour of the text content in the page. By default the
browser displays the text in black colour on a white/grey background. We have
already discussed how to change the background colour using Bgcolor attribute.
Simillarly the colour of the text can be changed using the attribute Text. For
example, <BODY Text = "yellow"> shows the text in yellow colour. Like
Bgcolor, the value of Text attribute can be given as colour name or hexadecimal
code. For example, Text = "Blue" or Text = "#00FFDD" etc.

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Link, Alink and Vlink

A hyperlink is an element, a text or an image that we can click on, and jump into
another document or another section of the same document. A hyperlink points to
a whole document or to a specific element within a document. We will discuss
hyperlink in detail later in this chapter.
Link: This attribute specifies the colour of the hyperlinks that are not visited by
the viewer. The default colour for Link attribute is blue.
Alink: It specifies the colour of the active hyperlink. The link remains active only
for the moment the mouse is clicked on it. Hence at the time of selection
the colour of the link will be changed to Alink value. The default Alink
colour is green.
Vlink: It specifies the colour of the hyperlink which is already visited by the viewer.
The default colour for Vlink is purple.
Leftmargin and Topmargin
The margin refers to the blank area left from the edge of the page. Leftmargin
attribute is used to leave some blank area on the left side of the document and
Topmargin refers to the blank area at the top edge of the document window. The
value is specified in pixels.
For example, <BODY Leftmargin = "60" Topmargin = "70"> will make
the body text indent 60 pixels away
from left edge of the page and 70
pixels away from the top edge of
the page. Text Color Blue
Top margin
The code in Example 4.3 is an
illustration to the attributes
Bgcolor, Text, Topmargin, and
Leftmargin of <BODY> tag. Bgcolor is cyan
Left margin
Figure 4.19 shows the
corresponding web page. Fig. 4.19: Use of attributes with BODY tag

Example 4.3: To set a colour in the background of a web page

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> This is the title of web page </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "cyan" Text= " Blue"

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Topmargin= "70" Leftmargin= "60">

Hello, Welcome to the world of Web Pages!........
</BODY>
</HTML>

Know your progress

1. HTML stands for _______.
2. What is a container tag?
3. The type of tag that requires only a starting tag but not an ending
tag is called ______.
4. State true or false
a. Tags are case sensitive.
b. Bgcolor is an attribute of <BODY> tag.
c. <TITLE> tag is an empty tag.
d. Dir is an attribute of <HEAD> tag.
5. Name the attributes of <HTML> tag.
6. What is the use of attributes in a tag?
7. List the different attributes of <BODY> tag.

Create an HTML document to display the name of your school with

an image of the school as background of the web page. Then modify
Let us do
the page by changing the colour of the text and background.

4.10 Some common tags

We have discussed the basic tags and their attributes needed for an HTML
document. There are several other tags, with which web page contents can be made
more attractive. Some of these tags are used for formatting the text contents in the
body section of the HTML document and therefore they are called formatting
tags. Now let us see some of them, which are essential for the layout of the body
content.
4.10.1 <H1>, <H2>, <H3>, <H4>, <H5> and <H6> - Heading tags
A heading is a word, phrase, or sentence given at the beginning of a written passage
that explains what it is about. Headings are typically displayed in larger and/or
bolder fonts than normal body texts. HTML has six levels of headings from <H1>
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to <H6>. Here <H1> creates the biggest text and <H6> the smallest. While displaying
any heading, browser adds one line before and one line after that heading. The main
attribute of this tag is Align and the possible values are,
Left : Text is aligned to the left margin.
Right : Text is aligned to the right margin.
Center : Text is aligned to the centre of the page.
Example 4.4 shows different heading types and alignments and Figure 4.20 shows
the corresponding web page.
Example 4.4: To illustrate different heading styles
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Heading Tags </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#FFEFD5">
<H1 Align= "left"> This is a Heading type 1 </H1>
<H2 Align= "center"> This is a Heading type 2 </H2>
<H3 Align= "right"> This is a Heading type 3 </H3>
<H4> This is a Heading type 4 </H4>
<H5> This is a Heading type 5 </H5>
<H6> This is a Heading type 6 </H6>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Note the various

headings. <H1> is the
biggest and <H6> is
the smallest
headings

Note the various alignments of

headings. No alignments are
specified for <H4>, <H5> and
<H6>. The default alignment is left

Fig. 4.20 : Setting different heading tags with different alignments

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4.10.2 <P> tag - Creating paragraphs

The <P> tag enables us to organise the text within the <BODY> tag into paragraphs.
It indicates a new paragraph and instructs the browser to add a blank line before
the paragraph. Paragraphs in HTML acts much like the paragraphs in any word
processor. The paragraph element begins with the <P> tag and ends with </P> tag.
The Align attribute sets the alignment of the text in the paragraph with the values
left, right, center or justify.
The code given in Example 4.5 shows how paragraphs are designed with different
alignments. Figure 4.21 shows the resultant web page.
Example 4.5: To design paragraphs with different alignments
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Paragraph Tags </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>
This paragraph contains
a lot of lines in the source code,
but the browser ignores it.
</P>
<P Align= "right">
This paragraph contains a lot of spaces
in the source code,but the browser ignores it.
</P>
<P Align= "justify">
The number of lines in a paragraph depends on
the size of the browser window.
If you resize the browser window, the number of lines
in this paragraph will change.
When we align a paragraph as justify, the space between
the words in a line will be adjusted
so that the lines will be both left and right aligned
at the same time.
</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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Fig. 4.21: Use of <P> tag with Align attribute

In Example 4.5, we can see that the source code contains three lines in the first
paragraph and two lines in the second paragraph with extra spaces. But the web
page of this code shown in Figure 4.21 gives a single line for the first two paragraphs.
That is, the browser will remove extra spaces and extra lines when the page is
displayed. Note that the second paragraph is right aligned and the third paragraph
is aligned as justified. Any number of spaces and any number of lines count as only
one space. Therefore with HTML, we cannot change the output by adding extra
spaces or extra lines in the HTML code. But this is possible in HTML. Now let us
discuss how an extra line can be added to the text content using <BR> tag. Note
that the web pages obtained in large or small screens and resized windows may not
match with the one given in Figure 4.21.
4.10.3 <BR> tag - Inserting line break
The purpose of BR element is that it creates a line break within a block of text in a
web page. The <BR> tag is used to break the current line of text and continue from
the beginning of the next line. The <BR> tag is an empty tag, which means that it
has no ending (closing) tag.
The HTML code in Example 4.6 displays our National Pledge and Figure 4.22
shows the resultant page in which we can see the effect of <BR> tag and the difference
between <P> tag and <BR> tag.
Example 4.6: To show the National Pledge with line breaks
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Line Breaks </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor = "#FFEFC5">
<H1 Align = "center"> Our National Pledge </H1>
<P>India is my country and all Indians
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are my brothers and sisters.<BR>

I love my country and I am proud of its
rich and varied heritage.<BR>
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.<BR>
I shall give respect to my parents, teachers and all
elders and treat everyone with courtesy.<BR>
To my country and my people, I pledge my
devotion. <BR>In theirwell-being and prosperity alone
lies my happiness.
</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 4.22 : Output showing the use of <BR>tag

Referring to Example 4.6 and Figure 4.24, fill in Table 4.5 with
appropriate points to distinguish between <P> tag and <BR> tag.
Let us do
<P> tag <BR> tag
Breaks the current line and continues to
the next line.
Container tag
Table 4.5: <P> tag Vs <BR> tag
4.10.4 <HR> tag - creating horizontal line
The <HR> tag produces a horizontal line (rule) spread across the width of the browser
window. We can change the size (thickness) and width (length) of the line using its
attributes Size and Width. The value of Size is given in pixels; and the value of
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Width attribute is given in pixels or in percentage of total width of the document

window (72 pixels = 1 Inch). The other important attributes of <HR> tag are Noshade
and Color. The Noshade attribute has no value. The Color attribute sets the
colour of the line (rule). Remember that <HR> is an empty tag. Obviously Align is
another attribute which makes the alignment of the ruler left, center or right.
The code given in Example 4.7 creates a web page as shown in Figure 4.23 to show
the effect of <HR> tag and its attributes.
Example 4.7: To draw various types of lines
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Horizontal Rules </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#BDB76B">
<H1 Align= "center"> Horizontal Rules </H1>
Line 1<HR Width= "50%" Align= "center"> <BR>
Line 2<HR Width= "40%" Align= "center" Noshade> <BR>
Line 3<HR Size= "10" Width= "30%" Align= "center"> <BR>
Line 4<HR Size= "10" Width= "30%" Align= "center" Noshade><BR>
Line 5<HR Size= "10" Width= "20%" Align= "center" Noshade
Color= "gold"> <BR>
Line 6<HR Size="10" Width="20%" Align="center" Color="Aqua">
</BODY>
</HTML>
Examining this HTML document and its
output, can you identify the similarities
and the differences in the shapes of lines?
Here, the first two lines are drawn
without the Size attribute and the first
line hasn't any Noshade atribute. Line 3
and Line 4 are of size 10 but the third
one does not have any N o s h a d e
attribute. The last two lines have an
additional attribute Color. Note the
different shapes of these lines in each
case. You may modify this code with all
possible values for different attributes
and see the changes in the web page,
Fig. 4.23 : Different types of horizontal rules
during your lab activity.
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4.10.5 <CENTER> tag - Centering the content

The <CENTER> tag brings the content to the centre of a web page horizontally. The
content may be text, image, table, etc. This is a container tag and the content enclosed
between <CENTER> and </CENTER> tag pair will be centred in the browser window.
There is no attribute for this tag.
4.10.6 Text formatting tags
The text in the web page can be formatted, as we often do in word processors. The
importance of a text is usually specified with features such as bold, italics, underline,
etc. Let us discuss the HTML tags available for this purpose.
<B> - Making text bold
This tag sets the text style to bold. The <B> element displays the content enclosed
in bold typeface.
<I> - Italicising the text
It sets the text style to italics. The content enclosed between <I> and </I> tags
become italicised.
<U> - Underlining the text
The <U> tag is used to underline a text in HTML. The contents enclosed between
<U> and </U> tags become underlined. The formatting tags <U>, <B> and <I> can
be combined, so that the content will become bold, italicized and underlined.
<S> and <STRIKE> - Striking through the text
The <S> and <STRIKE> tags are used for the same effect. They display the text in
strike through style. For example, Thank you all is a strike through text.
<BIG> - Making the text bigsized
The <BIG> tag is used to make the content bigger in size than the normal text size.
It is often used to emphasise the word or lines in the document. Normally the font
size of <BIG> tag is one size bigger than the current font size.
<SMALL> - Making the text smallsized
The <SMALL> tag is used to make the size of the text smaller than the current size.
Normally the font size of <SMALL> tag is one size smaller than the current font
size.
<STRONG> - Making bold text
The <STRONG> tag is a phrase tag. It defines an important text. The <STRONG> text
is usually rendered in bold face. It is just the same as <B> tag. The strong element is
used to emphasize a phrase of text content.
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The code given in Example 4.8 illustrates the application of these tags. For instance,
let us quote the words of Mahatma Gandhi. Figure 4.24 shows the resultant web
page of this code.
Example 4.8: To illustrate the text formatting tags
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Formatting Tags </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<P>
<CENTER><B>Mahatma Gandhi </B>is the <I> <U> Father of
our Nation.</U> </I> </CENTER>
Every student must learn the inspiring words (quotes)
of Gandhiji. It will inspire everyone. Let us have a
look at it.
</P><BR>
<SMALL> The weak can never forgive </SMALL>.
<BIG> Forgiveness is an attribute of the strong</BIG>
<BR> Live as if you were to die tomorrow.
<STRONG> Learn as if you were to live forever.</STRONG>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 4.24: Illustration of text formatting tags

Let us see some more tags which give the text some special appearance.
<EM> - Emphasising the text
The <EM> tag is used to emphasise the text. In practice, the element is usually
rendered in italics. The effect of using <EM> tag is the same as that of <I> tag.
<SUB> and <SUP> tags- Creating subscripts and superscripts
We have studied the molecular formula of water, sulfuric acid, etc. in high school
classes. Obviously they are H2O and H2SO4 respectively. How can we represent
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such notations in HTML? We can see that the figures are written in subscript form.
The <SUB> tag is used to create subscripts in a web page. We can display the text
H2O with the code H<SUB>2</SUB>O.
Similarly, the superscripts as in algebraic expressions like (a+b)2 = a2 + 2ab+ b2 can
be represented by the tag <SUP>. The above expression can be written as
(a+b)<SUP>2</SUP> = a<SUP>2</SUP> + 2ab + b<SUP>2</SUP>
<BLOCKQUOTE> and <Q> tags - Indenting a quotation
The <BLOCKQUOTE> tag is used to indent the content enclosed in these tags. The
HTML <Q> tag (Quote tag) is used to indicate the text enclosed in double quotation
marks with an indent. This tag is intended for short quotations that do not require
paragraph breaks, whereas <BLOCKQUOTE> is used for long quotations.
The illustration of the tags mentioned above is done in Example 4.9. Let us remember
that World Environment Day is celebrated on June 5. Let us create thoughts for
this day and create a web page using these tags. The corresponding web page is
shown in Figure 4.25.
Example 4.9: To illustrate <SUP>, <BLOCKQUOTE> and <Q> tags
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> BlockQuote and Q tags </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#98FB98" Text= "#008000">
Every year we celebrate World Environment Day on 5<SUP>
th</SUP> June. Let us have a message to all on this
occassion.
<BLOCKQUOTE> <B>June 5<SUP>th</SUP> is World Environment
Day. </B>
Mother nature too needs care and protection. Show her
your care by caring for her trees. Love trees and love
nature. And work for a greener environment because
generations have to come... The future depends on us...
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<Q>Keep your world clean and green. Save trees, Save the
environment!!
</Q>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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From Figure 4.25, it can be

seen that the first paragraph
is a nor mal paragraph,
which starts from the left
edge of the browser
window. The superscripting
is also applied in it. The
second paragraph starts with
an indent due to the use of
<BLOCKQUOTE> tag. Finally,
the third paragraph is within
double quotes. It is the
Fig. 4.25: Output of Example 4.9
content enclosed by the <Q>
tag pair. Observe the alignment of these paragraphs also. Note that, the
<BLOCKQUOTE> tag may include more than one paragraph.

Know your progress

1. Name some of the text formatting tags.
2. List the different attributes of <HR> tag.
3. How many levels of heading tags are available in HTML?
4. Write an HTML code segment to display x3+y3.
5. State True or False.
a. <BR> tag is an empty tag.
b. <EM> and <I> tags have same usage in HTML document.
c. <U> and <I> tags are not allowed to be used together.
6. What is the use of <STRONG> tag?
7. Which tag performs the same function as that of <STRONG>
tag?
8. Pick the odd one out from the following:
a. HTML b. ALIGN c. HEAD d. CENTER
4.10.7 <PRE> - Displaying preformatted text
Suppose we want to display the content as we entered in the text editor. The <PRE>
tag can facilitate this purpose. Normally the browser delimitted the white spaces,
new line characters, the tab spaces, etc. Therfore, we can turn off the automatic
formatting applied by the browser with the help of <PRE> tag. This tag tells the
browser that the enclosed text is preformatted and should not be reformatted again;
i.e., it tells the browser to display the text exactly in its original form.
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Example 4.10 and Figure 4.26 give us an idea of this tag. Let us create a web page
that contains some slogans on World Environment Day.
Example 4.10: To illustrate <PRE> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Pre Formatting tags </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor = "#eee8aa" Text = "#b22222">
<PRE>
Don't Pollute Water,
Don't Pollute Air,
Don't Pollute Environment,
And Don't Pollute Yourself,
Celebrate World Environment Day ...
</PRE>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The web page in Figure
4.26 shows that anything
written within <PRE> and
< / P R E > tags will be
displayed as it is in the
HTML document.
Fig. 4.26: Illustration of <PRE> tag
4.10.8 <ADDRESS> - Displaying the address
The <ADDRESS> tag defines the contact information for the author/owner of a
document or an article. The content of this tag can include name, phone numbers,
PIN numbers, e-mail addresses, etc. Most of the browsers display the texts in italics.
The code given in Example 4.11 illustrates the <ADDRESS> tag. The appearance of
this page is shown in Figure 4.27.
Example 4.11: To illustrate <ADDRESS> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Address tag </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#DDA0DD">

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The contact details of the "SCERT" is the following:

<ADDRESS>
State Council of Educational Research and Training
(SCERT),<BR>
Poojappura,<BR>
Thiruvananthapuram,<BR>
PIN: 695012, KERALA.<BR>
Tel : 0471 - 2341883
</ADDRESS>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The <ADDRESS> tag is
usually used to describe
a postal address, when
it is considered as a
part of the contact
information.
Although the address
Fig. 4.27 : Web page containing <ADDRESS> Tag
element displays the
text with the same default styling as that of <I> or <EM> elements, it is suitable for
use while dealing with contact information. Typically an <ADDRESS> element can
be placed inside the footer which contains information about the author, copyright,
etc. of the current section, if any.
4.10.9 <MARQUEE> - Displaying text in a scrolling Marquee
So far we discussed the tags in HTML that just display the contents in the browser.
But there is a tag called <MARQUEE>, which displays a piece of text or image scrolling
horizontally or vertically in the web page.
Given below is the list of important attributes that are used with <MARQUEE> tag.
• Height: Sets the height of the marquee in pixels or in percentage of browser
window height.
• Width: This specifies the width of the marquee in pixels or in percentage of
browser window's width value.
• Direction: This specifies the direction in which marquee should scroll. This
can have a value like up, down, left or right.
• Behaviour: This specifies the type of scrolling of the marquee. This can have
a value like scroll, slide and alternate.

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• Scrolldelay: This specifies time delay between each jump. This will have
value in seconds like 10, 15, etc.
• Scrollamount: This specifies the speed of the marquee text.
• Loop: This specifies how many times the marquee element should scroll on
the screen. The default value is Infinte, which means that the marquee scrolls
endlessly.
• Bgcolor: This specifies background colour in terms of colour name or colour
hex value.
• Hspace: This specifies horizontal space around the marquee. This can be a
value in pixels or percentage value.
• Vspace: This specifies vertical space around the marquee. This can be a value
in pixels or percentage value.
The code given in Example 4.12 illustrates the use of <MARQUEE> tag and Figure
4.28 shows the corresponding web page.
Example 4.12: To illustrate <MARQUEE> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> HTML marquee Tag </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<MARQUEE Width= "50%"> This will take only 50% width of
Browser Window</MARQUEE>
<MARQUEE Height= "100" Hspace= "100" Bgcolor= "#44BB22"
Direction= "up"> Scrolling up </MARQUEE>
<MARQUEE Height= "20" Vspace= "30" Bgcolor= "#FFBB00"
Direction= "right"> This will scroll from left to right
</MARQUEE>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The first marquee starts from
the middle and scrolls
towards the left of the
window since the width is
50%. The second marquee is
in the green coloured portion
and 100 pixels height is
provided for scrolling. The Fig. 4.28 : Marquee tag with different attributes

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scroll area is set 100 pixels horizontally away from the left margin. The third marquee
is filled with the background colour "#FFBB00" and placed 30 pixels vertically
below the previous marquee. The scroll window has a height of 40 pixels and it
scrolls from left to right. Instead of words or phrases, we can also use images as the
marquee content.
4.10.10 <DIV> - Formatting a block of text
The <DIV> tag is used for defining a section or a block in the document. With the
<DIV> tag, we can group large sections of HTML documents together and format
them. This section may contain paragraphs, tables, etc. Most browsers place a line
break before and after <DIV> elements. The attributes of <DIV> tag are:
Align : sets the horizontal alignment with values left, right, center, and
justify.
Id : assigns a unique identifier for the tag.
Style : indicates how to render the content in terms of colour, font, etc.
In Example 4.13, we use <DIV> tag to apply Align and Style. Figure 4.29 shows
the resultant web page.
Example 4.13: To illustrate <DIV> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> DIV Tag </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#ddffff">
<H2 Align= "center"> Success Story </H2>
<DIV Align= "Center" Style= "Color:#0000FF"> One day a
partially deaf four - year old child came home with a
note in his pocket from his teacher, "Your Tommy is too
stupid to learn, get him out of the school."
<P>His mother read the note and answered, "My Tommy is
not too stupid to learn, I will teach him myself." And
that Tommy grew up to be the great Thomas Alwa Edison.
</P> He had only three months of formal schooling.
</DIV>
All success stories are stories of great failures.
You learn from your failure and move forward.
</BODY>
</HTML>

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Fig. 4.29 : Application of <DIV> tag

4.10.11 <FONT> - Specifying font characteristics

The <FONT> tag allows us to change the size, style and colour of the text enclosed
within <FONT> and </FONT> tags. It is generally used for changing the appearance
of a short segment of the document. The attributes of <FONT> tag are:
Color : This attribute sets the text colour using either a ColorName or a colour
in the Hexadecimal format.
Face : This attribute specifies the font face. If no face attribute is mentioned, the
document text in the default style is used in the first font face that the
browser supports.
Size : This attribute specifies the font size whose value ranges from 1 to 7, with
default value 3.
The code given in Example 4.14 illustrates the usage of <FONT> tag and Figure
4.30 shows the corresponding web page.
Example 4.14: To illustrate <FONT> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Font tags </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#eee8aa">
Every success story is also a story of great failure.
The only difference is that every time they failed,
they bounced back. <BR><BR>

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<FONT Size="6" Face="Courier New" Color="#B22222">

Successful people don&apos;t do great things,
they only do small things in a great way.
</FONT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
In the above code, we marked a
portion &apos; in green colour.
What do you mean by this? From
the output, we can understand that
this is for getting the single quote
in the word don't. There are several
other characters like this. They are
discussed in the following section. Fig. 4.30: Illustration of <FONT> tag

4.11 HTML entities for reserved characters

In HTML, the symbols like <, >, &,
etc. have special meaning and cannot Character Entity Description
be used in the HTML documents as &nbsp; Non Breaking Space
part of the text content. The browser
treats these symbols as the punctuation " &quot; Double quotation mark
marks of HTML words like tags and &apos;
' Single quotation mark
entities. For example, the angle
brackets < and > are used to express & &amp; Ampersand
tags. So, when we want to display these &lt;
< Less than
symbols as part of the text in the web
page, we must use HTML entities. > &gt; Greater than
Table 4.6 shows a list of a few special &copy;
© Copyright Symbol
characters and their equivalent entities.
™ &trade; Trademark Symbol
In order to display the text A < B &
A > C in a web document, we have to ® &reg; Registered Symbol
specify it in the HTML document as: Table 4.6 : List of entities and their description
A &lt; B &amp; A &gt; C.

4.12 Adding comments in HTML document

It is a good practice to add comments in HTML documents, especially in complex
documents. Comments help us to understand the code and it increases the code
readability. HTML provides comment tag to insert comments in the source code.

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 4. Web Technology

Comments are not displayed in the browser window. HTML comments are placed
within <!-- --> tag. So any content placed within <!-- --> tag will be
treated as a comment and will be completely ignored by the browser. In Geany
editor the comments are displayed in red colour. The code in Example 4.15 illustrates
the use of comments and Figure 4.31 shows the resultant message.
Example 4.15: To illustrate the use of comment tag
<HTML>
<HEAD> <!-- Document Header Starts -->
<TITLE> Comment Tags </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#D8D8D8">
<!-- This is a comment -->
<p>The paragraph starts here. Comment statements are
not displayed in the browser window</p>
<!-- Comments are not displayed in the browser -->
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 4.31: Comments in HTML

Know your progress

1. How are special characters represented in HTML?
2. Face attribute is used with ______ tag.
3. List the attributes of <FONT> tag.
4. What is the use of <PRE> tag?
5. For scrolling a text, we use _______ tag.
6. What are the main attributes of <MARQUEE> tag?
7. What is the use of <ADDRESS> tag?
8. What is the normal font size in <FONT> tag?
9. Name the main attributes of <DIV> tag.

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4.13 Inserting images

Images always make content presentation more attractive and communicative. Now
a days, most of the websites are rich in visuals. New versions of HTML come with
many web development features, but the code required for adding images is simple.
HTML provides a tag <IMG> to insert images in HTML pages. The following is the
simple way of using this tag:
<IMG Src = "picture1.jpg">
The <IMG> tag is an empty tag and it has many attributes. Src is the main attribute
and it specifies the file name of the image to be inserted. We can use JPEG, PNG or
GIF image files based on our needs, but make sure that the correct filename with
the extension is specified using Src attribute. If the image file is not in the current
working directory, we have to specify the path of the file or the URL where the file
is available.
Setting space for the image
We can set the space in the web page for the image by specifying the values for the
Width and Height attributes. The values are given in terms of either pixels or
percentage of its actual size. If these attributes are not specified, the browser will
display the image in its actual size.
Now let us discuss how to set space between images. We know that there are two
types of space between the images when they are placed in a window - vertical
space and horizontal space. HTML offers two attributes Vspace and Hspace, for
providing vertical spacing and horizontal spacing between the images in the web
page.
The HTML code in Example 4.16 demonstrates the two types of spacing discussed
above and Figure 4.32 shows the web page obtained from the code.
Example 4.16: To provide different types of spacing for images
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Inserting Images </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor="#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align="center">Inserting vertical and horizontal
spacing between images</H2>
Here the images are placed with <B><I><U> Vspace and
Hspace </U></I></B> attributes <BR>

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<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70"

Vspace= "10" Hspace= "10">
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70"
Vspace= "10" Hspace= "10"> <BR>
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70"
Vspace= "10" Hspace= "10">
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70"
Vspace= "10" Hspace= "10"> <BR>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Figure 4.32 shows that the
images are placed within the
given width and height, and the
distance between the images is
according to the specified
horizontal and vertical spacing.
Now let us discuss another
important attribute, Align for
<IMG> tag, which aligns the
image with respect to the base Fig. 4.32: Images within the specified size and with
line of the text. The possible horizontal and vertical spaces between them.
values for this attribute are the following:
Bottom : Aligns the bottom of the image with the baseline of the text and this is
the default setting.
Middle : Aligns the middle of the image (vertically) with the baseline of the text.
Top : Aligns the image with the top of the text.
Let us see the effect of these values for the attribute Align. Example 4.17 and Figure
4.33 demonstrate this.
Example 4.17: To provide different alignments for an image
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Alignment of Images </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">Alignment of Images</H2>
This Image is <I><U>aligned at the bottom </U></I>

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<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "40" Width= "50"

Align= "Bottom"> <BR> <BR>
This Image is <I><U>aligned at the Middle </U></I>
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "40" Width= "50"
Align= "Middle"> <BR> <BR>
This Image is <I><U>aligned at the Top </U></I>
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "40" Width= "50" Align="Top">
</BODY>
</HTML>

There are some more values for the

Align attribute of <IMG> tag. They
are left and right, which align the
image the left and right sides of the
browser window respectively.

Fig. 4.33: Different alignment of images with the text

Observe Figure 4.34, in which

the left and right alignments of
images in the browser window
are shown. Write the HTML
document for this web page. Let us do
Fig. 4.34: Images aligned left and right of
browser window
Setting border around an image
Suppose we want to give a border to an image inserted in a web page. It is possible
with the Border attribute of <IMG> tag. The thickness of the border can be set by
giving appropriate value to this attribute. The HTML code in Example 4.18 and
the corresponding web page shown in Figure 4.35 give the effect of border attribute.
Example 4.18: To give a border to an image
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Inserting Images </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">Inserting Border to Images</H2>
Here is an image <B><I><U> with Border </U></I></B>
attribute

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 4. Web Technology

<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70" Border="5">

<BR>Here is an image<B><I><U> without Border</U></I></B>
attribute
<IMG Src= "book3.jpg" Height= "50" Width= "70">
</BODY>
</HTML>
We have learnt
various attributes of
<IMG> tag and their
effects on the image. If
the image file specified
with the Src attribute
is not found in the Fig. 4.35: Images with border and without border
given path, how will the web page look? The specified place in the web page for the
image will be left blank. Due to some other reason also, the web browser may not
be able to display the image. In such a situation, we can provide an alternative text
in the browser in the absence of image. HTML provides the attribute Alt to specify
an alternate text for an image, if the browser cannot display the image. The code in
Example 4.19 illustrates the effect of Alt attribute and Figure 4.36 shows the
resultant web page.
Example 4.19: To illustrate the effect of Alt attribute of <IMG> tag
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Inserting Images </TITLE> </HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">Inserting Images</H2>
If the browser cannot display the image, then the text
entered in the <B>Alt</B> attribute will be displayed.<BR>
<IMG Src= "book5.jpg" Height= "20%" Width= "20%"
Alt= "Image of an opened book"> <BR>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 4.36 : Effect of Alt attribute in <IMG> tag

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Know your progress

1. To insert images in an HTML document _______ tag is used.
2. _______ is the main attribute of <IMG> tag.
3. What is the use of Alt attribute of <IMG> tag?
4. Name the attributes that are used to display an image in a particular
size.
5. Which are the attributes that provides horizontal and vertical
spaces between two images?

Let us conclude

The security of communication over the Internet is a determining factor in the

success of the Internet. The security of transactions over the Internet is implemented
using HTTPS and digital certificates. Internet infrastructure consists of technologies
like web server, software ports and DNS servers used to store and communicate
data. Web servers consist of a single/several websites. Websites consists of web
pages. We can design web pages either by writing HTML code or using web designing
softwares. Webpages can be classified as static and dynamic. Dynamic web pages
can be developed using scripts. We can perform client side validations using client
side scripting languages like, JavaScript, VBScript, etc. Server side scripts like PHP,
ASP, etc. are used to create pages dynamically in the web server. Cascading Style
Sheet (CSS) can be used to provide a uniform style to the entire website. The basic
concepts of HTML language and web page designing are discussed here. We are
now familiar with different tags and their important attributes. We know that some
of the tags are container tags, but some others are empty tags. We can make a web
page with neatly formatted text using a variety of formatting tags. Different kinds
of listing are discussed to make the text more presentable. The beauty of the web
pages can be enhanced by including marquees, images, audio and video. We have
also discussed the importance of hyper linking and have been familiarised with
various kinds of hyperlinks. We should have a sound knowledge of the concepts
discussed in this chapter and an excellent practical experience in creating HTML
documents, so that we can easily internalise the concepts in the following chapters.
Also, we will be able to design beautiful web sites and develop web applications
ourselves.

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 4. Web Technology

Let us practice
1. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page of Kerala with the following details and
features:
• A heading followed by a paragraph of 5 sentences about Kerala using
text formatting tags and attributes.
• Background of the page needs an image of a scenary.
2. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page for your school with the following details
and features:
• A heading followed by a paragraph of 3 sentences about the district using
text formatting tags and attributes.
• Provide a colour to the background of the page.
• Include an image of the school.
3. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page for your school with the following details
and features:
• A heading followed by a paragraph of 3 sentences about the district using
text formatting tags and attributes.
• Give the postal address of the school.
• Include a marquee that "Admission for the new accademic year commences
on 10th May"
4. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page to show the lyrics of our National Anthem
with the following details and features:
• A heading with a different font characteristics.
• An image of our national flag
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Let us assess 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
1. What is the role of routers in transporting data over the Internet?
2. The social media websites developed their own protocol for communicating
over the Internet. How is this possible when Internet uses TCP/IP protocol?
3. The user name and password of an e-mail account has to be sent securely over
the Internet.
a. Name the technology used to send the data to the server.
b. How does this technology support secure data communication?
4. What is the role of payment gateway in online purchases?
5. ABC Engineering College has about 1000 computers connected to the Internet,
in its campus. What is the advantage of having a local DNS server in the college's
intranet?
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

6. Write an example of a web server operating system and a web server package.
7. What is the use of software ports in a web server?
8. The port used for HTTP is ________.
9. Suppose you are browsing the website www.prdkerala.org. Explain how the
DNS resolves the IP address.
10. What are scripts? Explain the different scripting languages.
11. Consider the home page of your school website and the web page that displays
the results of class XI examinations.
a. Compare the difference between the two web pages based on their creation.
b. Write the technologies that can be used for developing these web pages.
12. a. The file name extension for a JavaScript file is _________.
b. Write two popular uses of JavaScript in a web page.
13. What is Ajax? What is its use?
14. Your friend Ravi wishes to create a website that displays the marks of the
students in your class in each examination.
a. Suggest a technology to implement this.
b. Justify your suggestion.
15. Consider that Manoj is developing a website using PHP that uses a database in
MySQL. What are the requirements to implement this if he is using Linux web
hosting?
16. "Almost all websites today use CSS for its development." What are the
advantages of using CSS in web sites?
17. Who developed HTML?
18. In HTML, there are mainly two sections. Can you name them?
19. If you analyse web pages you can see different colours for links, visited links,
background etc. Expalin how this can be done in HTML, with examples.
20. Compare container and empty tags in HTML with examples.
21. The default colour of the attribute Alink is __________.
22. The default color of the attribute Vlink is __________.
23. Classify the following HTML related words:
BR, IMG, ALIGN, FONT, FACE
24. Name the tag which has Noshade attribute.
25. Write the main attribute of <IMG> tag to insert an image file in the webpage.
26. Mention the purpose of Alt atribute in <IMG> tag.
27. The default alignment of an image obtained by using <IMG> tag is ________.
28. List the main attributes of <FONT> tag.
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 Web Designing using
5 HTML

I
n the previous chapter, we studied the basic
Significant Learning Outcomes
tags of HTML. We have also learnt to create
After the completion of this chapter, the some simple web pages using those tags and
learner their attributes. But we are familiar with websites
• uses different list tags to present the that provide much more facilities and utilities.
content effectively in web pages.
There are websites that contain different types
• identifies the relevance of hyper
linking and uses <A> tag for different of lists. Linking between web pages is the
types of linking. backbone of World Wide Web. The different
• provides audio and video in web types of linking are discussed in this chapter.
pages with the help of <EMBED> tag. You might have come across certain information
• produces inline sounds and videos
in tabular form. Sometimes you see more web
in web pages.
• lists and explains the tag and pages in the same browser window. We are also
attributes for creating a table. familiar with websites through which we submit
• uses the tags associated with the register number to obtain the mark list of
<TABLE> tag to design tables with examinations, apply for admission and
different characteristics.
scholarships, pay the bills of electricity and
• constructs different tables using the
tags and attributes. water consumption etc. How can we create
• identifies the importance of frames tables in web pages to present information? Can
in the web page. we place more than one web page in a single
• creates frames using appropriate browser window? If yes, how? How are web
tags to display different web pages
in the same browser window.
pages created to accept data from the user to
• identifies the concept of Forms in the provide information? HTML provides all these
web page. facilities for web developers. In this chapter, we
• explains various components in a discuss the HTML tags required to answer all
Form and creates them using proper these questions.
tags and attributes.
• designs web pages with tables,
frames and forms.
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

5.1 Lists in HTML

While presenting information, the facility of listing can make it more communicative.
Lists are of different types. We are familiar with numbered lists and bulleted lists.
HTML offers several mechanisms for specifying lists of information. All lists must
contain one or more list elements. There are three kinds of lists in HTML - unordered
lists, ordered lists and definition lists.
5.1.1 Unordered lists
Unordered lists or bulleted lists display a bullet or other graphic in front of each
item in the list. We can create an unordered list with the tag pair <UL> and </UL>.
Each item in the list is presented by using the tag pair <LI> and </LI>. Unordered
lists are used when a set of items can be placed in any order.
The code in Example 5.1 presents some hardware components of a computer in
bulleted list. The corresponding web page is shown in Figure5.1.
Example 5.1: To create an unordered list
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Unordered Lists </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#DEB887">
<CENTER> <H2> Unordered List </H2> </CENTER>
While buying a computer, we have to consider many items.
Here are some important items to consider.
<UL>
<LI> RAM </LI>
<LI> Hard Disk </LI>
<LI> Mother Board </LI>
<LI> Processor </LI>
</UL>
</BODY>
</HTML>
We can customise unordered lists by setting the
Type attribute to three different values: Disc
(default value), Square and Circle, which set
the type of bullet that appears before each list
item. The following code creates a list as shown Fig.5.1: Web page containing
unordered list
in Figure 5.2.

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 5. Web Designing using HTML

<UL Type= "Square">

<LI> RAM </LI>
<LI> Hard Disk </LI>
<LI> Mother Board </LI>
<LI> Processor </LI>
</UL>

5.1.2 Ordered lists

Ordered lists present the items in some
numerical or alphabetical order. HTML Fig.5.2: Unordered list with square bullet
provides the tag pair <OL> and </OL> to create
an ordered list. The items in the ordered list are presented by <LI> tag in <OL>
element. The ordered list is also called numbered list. Ordered lists or numbered
lists are used to display a list of items that need to be placed in a specific order.
Example 5.2 is a code that presents an ordered list of items. The corresponding
web page is shown in Figure 5.3.
Example 5.2: To create an ordered list
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Ordered Lists </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#DDA0DD">
<H2 Align= "center"> Ordered List </H2>
Consider the memory devices of a computer.
Then according to the speed of data processing,
we can arrange the memory devices as follows.
<OL>
<LI> Registers </LI>
<LI> Cache </LI>
<LI> RAM </LI>
<LI> Hard Disk </LI>
</OL>
</BODY>
</HTML>
We can see that the list in Figure 5.3 is
numbered from one through four. There are
other numbering styles for presenting the list
Fig.5.3: Web page containing ordered list

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

items. We can customise the numbering system used in ordered list by using the
Type attribute, which can set with the values as detailed below:
1 Default numbering scheme (1, 2, 3, ...)
A Upper case letters (A, B, C, ...)
a Lower case letters (a, b, c, ...)
I Large roman numerals (I, II, III, ...)
i Small roman numerals (i, ii, iii, ...)
An ordered list, by default, starts with the first number in the series used in the list.
That is, the starting number will be any one from 1, A, a, I and i. If we want to start
with any other number in the series, then the Start attribute of <OL> tag enables
us to change the beginning value. To start numbering a list at 5, for example, we
may write: <OL Start= "5">. Thus, the numbering starts from 5 and then proceeds
with 6, 7, 8, ... and so on.
The Start attribute sets the starting value of the item (it must be an integer) and
the Type attribute sets the numbering style. For example, the following ordered
list starts numbering from V and continues with VI, VII, ... and so on. The output
of this code is shown in Figure 5.4.
<BODY Bgcolor ="#DDA0DD">
<H4 Align="center">Ordered List with Type attribute</H4>
<OL Type= "I" Start= "5">
<LI> Registers </LI>
<LI> Cache </LI>
<LI> RAM </LI>
<LI> Hard Disk </LI>
</OL>
</BODY>

5.1.3 Definition lists

A definition list is a list of terms and the
corresponding definitions. The definition Fig.5.4: Ordered list with different numbering
text is typically indented with respect to style and starting value
the term. No bullet symbol or number is provided for the list items. The tag pair
<DL> and </DL> enclose the definition lists. Each term in the list is created using
the <DT> tag and the <DD> tag supplies the definition of the term.
The code in Example 5.3 creates a web page to present the definitions of some
terms related to security aspects of Internet. Figure 5.5 shows the resultant web
page.
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 5. Web Designing using HTML

Example 5.3: To create a definition list

<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Definition List </TITLE> </HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#FFE4C4" Leftmargin= "100" Rightmargin= "150">
<H2 Align= "center"> Definition List </H2>
Today cyber security has an immense role in the
field of Internet. The following are some of
the threats that affect a computer network.
<DL>
<DT>Spam :</DT>
<DD> Spam is the unsolicited e-mail sent in the
hope of increasing the sales of some product, or
just for annoying people.</DD>
<DT>Phishing :</DT>
<DD> Phishing is an attempt to acquire information
such as usernames, passwords and credit card details
by posting as the original website, mostly that
of banks and other financial institutions. </DD>
</DL>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 5.5: Web page containing a definition list

In Figure 5.5, we can see that each annotation is indented under the corresponding
term. Also note the left and right margins in the window.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

5.1.4 Nested lists

A list of items can be given under each item of another list. It is known as nesting
of lists. This is possible in many ways. For example, we can insert an unordered list
into another unordered list, an unordered list into an ordered list, an ordered list
inside an unordered list, etc. The code given in Example 5.4 demonstrates the concept
of nested list and Figure 5.6 shows the resultant web page.
Example 5.4: To create a nested list
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Nested Lists </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center"> Nested List </H2>
Consider the devices of a computer.
We can list some of them as follows.
<OL>
<LI> Input Devices </LI>
<UL>
<LI>Keyboard</LI>
<LI>Mouse</LI>
<LI>Scanner</LI>
<LI>MICR</LI>
</UL>
<LI> Output Devices </LI>
<UL Type= "Square">
<LI>Printers</LI>
<LI>Monitors</LI>
<LI>Speakers</LI>
</UL>
<LI> Memory Devices </LI>
<UL Type= "Circle">
<LI>Hard Disc</LI>
<LI>CD Rom</LI>
<LI>Flash Drive</LI>
</UL>
</OL>
</BODY>
Fig.5.6: Classification of devices using nested
</HTML> list
In Example 5.4, three sets of unordered lists are nested into an ordered list.

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 5. Web Designing using HTML

Know your progress

1. What are the different types of lists in HTML?
2. Suppose your teacher asks you to display the list of students in
your class using HTML document. Which type of list will you
prefer? Why?
3. What are the common attributes of <UL> and <OL> tags?
4. What is the difference between <UL> tag and <OL> tag?
5. Name the tags used in the definition list.

5.2 Creating links

A hyperlink is an element, a text, or an image in a web page that we can click on, and
move to another document or another section of the same document. Hyperlinks
allow visitors to navigate between websites by clicking on words, phrases and images.
HTML provides the ability to hyperlink text, image etc. to another document or
section of a document. Hyperlink is often referred to as links. In HTML, the <A>
tag provides the facility to give hyperlinks. This tag is called anchor tag and anything
given between the tag pair <A> and </A> becomes part of the link and a user can
click that part to reach the linked document. Href is the main attribute of <A> tag
and it means hyper reference. The value of this attribute is the URL of the document
(address of the web page/site) to which hyperlink is provided.
For example, consider the following code segment:
<A Href= "http://www.dhsekerala.gov.in">Higher Secondary</A>
This creates the target of the hyperlink to the website http:// www.dhsekerala.gov.in.
At the time the user clicks the link, the browser opens the home page of this URL.
The text inside the tag pair <A> and </A> will appear underlined and in different
colour.
The HTML code in Example 5.5 and Figure 5.7 show how hyperlinks are created
in web pages.
Example 5.5: To create a hyperlink in a web page
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Anchor Tag </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#FFFFFF">
<H2 Align= "center"> Hyperlinks </H2>

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

<P>Now this will create a hyperlink to the website of

Higher Secondary Department.<BR>
Kindly click on the words
<A Href= "http://www.dhsekerala.gov.in">Higher Secondary
Education</A>.
</BODY>
</HTML>

As shown in Figure 5.7, the

hyperlinked text is in underlined
format (Higher Secondary Education)
and in a different colour.
Hyperlinks are considered either
"internal" or "external" depending on
their target. Fig.5.7: Web page containing hyperlink

5.2.1 Internal linking

A link to a particular section of the same document is known as internal linking.
The attribute Name of <A> tag is required for this. We have to give a name to
identify the section to be opened by the browser. This name is used with the Name
attribute to establish the link.
For example, suppose we have three paragraphs on the subject "Environment
Pollution". Let it be the Introduction section, Air pollution section, and Water
pollution section. We refer to these sections by giving different values to the Name
attribute of <A> tag.
<A Name= "Introduction"> INTRODUCTION </A>
<A Name= "Air"> Air Pollution </A>
Now, we can refer to these sections by giving the values of Href attribute as
#Introduction, #Air (the # symbol is essential) from another section of the
document as follows:
<A Href = "#Introduction"> Go to Introduction </A>
<A Href = "#Air"> Air pollution </A>
Let us create a web page incorporating the concepts of internal linking. Example
5.6 is an HTML code that has two internal links. Figure 5.8 shows the resultant page
of this code.

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Example 5.6: To create a web page containing internal links

<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Internal Linking </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "f8f8f8">
<H2 Align= "center">ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION</H2>
<A Name= "Introduction"><B>INTRODUCTION</B></A>
<P><FONT Size= "15">E</FONT>nvironment pollution is a
wide-reaching problem and it is likely to affect the
health of human population.Here we discuss the environment
pollution in the perspective of <A HREF= "#Air">air
pollution </A>,
<A Href= "#Water"> water pollution </A>and land/soil
waste pollution. Studies find that these kinds of
pollutions are not only seriously affecting humans
but also animals and plants.
</P>
<A Name= "Air"><B> Air Pollution</B></A>
<P>The air we breathe is an essential ingredient for our
health and wellbeing. Unfortunately polluted air is common
throughout the world, especially in developed countries.
</P>
<A Name= "Water"><B> Water pollution</B></A>
<P>The water we drink is an essential ingredient for our
health and wellbeing. Unfortunately polluted water and
air are common throughout the world.Water pollution is
caused by the discharge of industrial effluents, sewage
water and agricultural or household waste.
</P>
<A Href= "#Introduction">Go to Introduction </A>
</BODY>
</HTML>
On clicking the hyperlink
air pollution and
water pollution on
the web page shown in
Figure 5.8, we get that
particular section of the
document as shown in
Figure 5.9. Fig. 5.8: Web page containing internal hyperlinks

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Similarly, when we click on the

link Go to Introduction
at the bottom of the page
shown in Figure 5.9, the
introduction section will be
displayed on the window.
5.2.2 External linking
The link from one web page
to another web page is known
as external linking. It is made Fig. 5.9: Hyperlinked section of a page in the browser
possible by providing the
URL of the external file in the Href attribute of <A> tag of the current page. The
procedure for external linking is illustrated in the beginning of Section 5.2.
5.2.3 Concept of URL
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, and it means the web address. In fact,
there are two types of URLs - relative URL and absolute URL.
The referencing <A Href= "http://www.scertkerala.gov.in"> is an
absolute URL, because it is referring to a specific URL. On the other hand, <A
Href = "image.html"> is relative reference. Here we give the file name, 'image.html'
as the URL, and it is a relative URL, relative to the current document. If the URL
of the current web page document is D:\HTML\hyperlink.html, the web browser
knows that the hyperlink <A Href = "image.html"> points to the file image.html
in the directory D:\HTML itself.
5.2.4 Creating graphical hyperlinks
In the previous sections, we gave hyperlinks to texts. We can make hyperlinks to
images also using <IMG> tag inside the <A> tag. The HTML code given in Example
5.7 and Figure 5.10 show a web page containing graphical hyperlink.
Example 5.7: To create a web page containing graphical hyperlink
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Graphical Hyperlink </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor = "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">Graphical Hyperlink</H2>
Here is the image with <I>Graphical hyperlink </I>
<A Href= "https://www.wikipedia.org">

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<IMG Src= "wiki.jpg" Alt= "Image of Wiki"

Height= "30" Width= "40" Border= "1"> </A>.
We can click over this image and the home page of
linked site, wikipedia.org will open.
</BODY>
</HTML>
Suppose you move the mouse
pointer upon the image of the
wikipedia logo in the web page,
the mouse pointer will change
to the hand symbol. This
indicates that, this image is a
hyperlink. When we click on
this image, then the
corresponding web page
www.wikipedia.org will be Fig. 5.10: Web page containing graphical hyperlink
opened.
5.2.5 Creating e-mail linking
We can create an e-mail hyperlink to a web page using the hyperlink protocol mailto:.
Let us see the code in Example 5.8 and the web page shown in Figure 5.11 to
understand the concept of e-mail hyper linking.
Example 5.8: To create a web page containing e-mail hyperlink
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> e-mail Linking </TITLE> </HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E0FFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">e-mail linking</H2>
Now we can create an <B><I>e-mail hyperlink </I></B> to
SCERT in the following way. Kindly click on the word
<A Href= mailto: "[email protected]"> SCERT</A> Kerala.
</BODY>
</HTML>
As shown in Figure 5.11, the web contains
a link SCERT. If we click on it, e-mail
program will be opened with an empty
message box addressed to the mail address
[email protected]. Fig. 5.11: Web page containing e-mail
hyperlink

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5.3 Inserting music and videos

Nowadays, web pages are enriched not only with text and images, but also with
plenty of music, video and other multimedia resources. Let us have a basic idea
about the inclusion of such resources in web pages. There are two ways of handling
multimedia in a web browser. One is as inline and the other is as external data. The
inline refers to files and data that are handled as part of the page. These files play
the music or video when the page is visible in the browser window. We can also link
a web page to external multimedia files with extensions .jpg, .gif, .avi, .png, .tiff,
.mp3, .mp4, etc.
The easiest way to add music or video to the web page is with a special HTML tag,
called <EMBED>. This tag includes the controls of the multimedia automatically in
the browser window. In case, the browser does not support the <EMBED> tag, then
we can use <NOEMBED> tag. The content within this tag pair will be displayed, if the
<EMBED> tag is not supported by the browser.
The main attribute of the <EMBED> tag is Src, which specifies the URL of the
music or video files to be included. The other attributes are Height, Width, Align,
Alt, etc. The values of these attributes are familiar to us. One more important
attribute of <EMBED> tag is Hidden which indicates whether the embedded
component should be made visible or not. It is done by setting the value to True
(by default) or False.
The code in Example 5.9 creates a web page that includes an audio link. Figure 5.12
shows the corresponding web page.
Example 5.9: To create a web page containing audio link
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Embed Tag </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor = "#DDFFFF">
<H2 Align= "center"> Adding Music and Videos </H2>
Here is a tag <B><I>EMBED </I></B> with the Multimedia
features.<BR>
<EMBED Src= "song1.mp3" Width= "300" Height= "60">
</EMBED>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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When the HTML document in Example 5.9

is opened, the webpage will play the music
that we embedded along with the
document. The audio controls like play/
pause, volume, etc. will also be displayed
on the web page. Similarly we can add
movies in a webpage by using the tag
<EMBED> and its attribute Src.
The code in Example 5.10 and the resultant
web page shown in Figure 5.13 illustrate this Fig. 5.12: Web page containing audio link
linking.
Example 5.10: To create a web page containing video link
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Embed Tag </TITLE>
</HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor = "#DDFFFF">
<H2 Align="center">Adding Music and Videos</H2>
Here is a tag <B><I>EMBED </I></B>with the Multimedia
features.
<EMBED Src= "alan.mp4" Width= "300" Height= "150">
</EMBED>
<NOEMBED><IMG Src= "book2.jpg"
Alt= "Alternative Media">
</NOEMBED>
</BODY>
</HTML>
When we open this page, the video starts to play.
Here again, we can control the different
properties of the audio and video, such as
volume, pause, full screen mode, etc. We can
also include audios and videos from other web
pages or sites by linking them to our pages.
As mentioned earlier, music can be played in
the background while the page is viewed. This
kind of audio inline is achieved by the tag
<BGSOUND>. The code in Example 5.11 illustrate Fig. 5.13: Web page with video
the use of this tag.
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Example 5.11: To illustrate the use of <BGSOUND> tag

<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Background Music </TITLE> </HEAD >
<BODY Bgcolor = "#DDFFFF">
<H2 Align= "center">Adding Background Music </H2>
Here is a tag <B><I> BGSOUND </I></B> which helps
us to play background music in our web page.
<BGSOUND Src= "Song2.mp3" Loop= "Infinite">
</BODY>
</HTML>
We can adjust the volume control by using the Volume attribute of <BGSOUND> to
make the music softer or harder. Note that while creating HTML documents that
include external files in Src and Href attributes, the correct path should be
provided. If you try out the codes given in the examples, you have to make necessary
modifications in these attributes. The attribute Loop determines the duration of
play. The value Infinite causes the music play as long as the page is in view.

5.4 Creating tables in a web page

Sometimes, presenting a lot of information in a structured way is essential, especially
in websites. Suppose we need to compare the data collected from a hospital for the
period from 2012 to 2014, which states the number of newly diagnosed cancer
patients among regular smokers, pan users and alcohol consumers. It can be
presented in a tabular form as shown in Table 5.1.
NEWLY DIAGNOSED CANCER PATIENTS IN THE HOSPITAL FOR THE LAST 3 YEARS
Year 2012 2013 2014
Smokers 129 140 143
Pan users 54 56 49
Alcohol users 74 68 77
Other cases 95 93 92
Table 5.1: Cancer patients diagnosed in a hospital

As we know, a table is a structured element that consists of rows and columns of

cells. We can place any kind of content like text, image, and even other tables within
these cells.In HTML, <TABLE> tag is used to create tables. This tag needs the support
of some other tags like <TH>, <TR> and <TD> for constructing tables. Let us discuss
these tags in the following sections.

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5.4.1 <TABLE> tag

<TABLE> tag is a container tag. The whole content of the table should be enclosed
within the tag pair <TABLE> and </TABLE>. This tag has many attributes to improve
the general layout of the table. Some of the main attributes are listed below:
1. Border: This attribute specifies the thickness of the border line around the
table. To draw the border of the table we have to specify a non-zero value to
Border attribute in pixels. A border value of zero produces a table without
border.
2. Bordercolor: It is used to assign colour to the table border.
3. Align: The position of the table inside the browser window is determined by
Align attribute. The possible values are left (by default), right or center.
4. Bgcolor: We can change the background colour of the table using this
attribute.
5. Background: It is used to assign a background image for a table. To set the
background, specify the pathname of the image as value of this attribute. For
example, <TABLE Background = "images/flower.gif"> sets the
background of a table with the image in the file flower.jpg stored in the folder
images in the current drive. When both Bgcolor and Background are specified,
the Background will override Bgcolor.
6. Cellspacing: Table cells have space in between them. We can either increase
or decrease the space between cells. The Cellspacing attribute determines
the space to be left between cells. The value is given in number of pixels.
7. Cellpadding: There is a space between the content and cell border. We can
increase or decrease the space between cell border and content. The
Cellpadding attribute specifies the space in between the cell border and cell
content. The value is given in number of pixels.
8. Width and Height: We can set a table width and height using Width and
Height attributes. We can specify table width or height in terms of pixels or
in terms of percentage of browser window.
9. Frame: This attribute with one of the values given in Table 5.2 indicates how
table borders are displayed.
Value Description
Void Display no borders
Above Display a border on the top of the table only
Below Display a border on the bottom of the table only

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Value Description
Hsides Display borders on the horizontal sides (top and bottom) only
lhs or rhs Display the border only the left side or the right side
Vsides Display borders on the vertical sides (right and left) only
box or border Display borders on all sides of the table (It is the default value)
Table 5.2: Values of Frame attribute

10. Rules: We can use the Rules attribute to control what rules (borders between
cells) are displayed in a table. Table 5.3 shows the values of Rules attribute.

Value Description
none Display no rules
cols Display rules between columns only
rows Display rules between rows only
groups Display rules between row groups and column groups only
all Rules will appear between all rows and columns
Table 5.3:Values of Rules attribute
Now let us discuss some other tags associated with <TABLE> tag.
5.4.2 <TR> tag
The rows in a table are created using <TR> tag. It is a container tag. The whole row
is enclosed within the tag pair <TR> and </TR>. A <TR> tag always comes inside
the <TABLE> tag. A row itself is a collection of cells. A cell is the smallest component
of a table. There are two types of cells - heading cells and data cells. As seen in
Table 5.1, the values given in red colour are of heading type. The values given in
blue are just data cells.
5.4.3 <TH> tag
<TH> tag is used to define heading cells. It is also a container tag. The heading data
should be enclosed between <TH> and </TH> tags. The heading cells are displayed
in bold face and in centred form. <TH> tag always comes inside the <TR> tag.
5.4.4 <TD> tag
<TD> tag is similar to <TH> tag and is used to display data cells. It is also a container
tag. The data is given in between <TD> and </TD> tags. Similar to <TH> tag,<TD>
tag is also placed within the <TR> tag.
The code given in Example 5.12 creates a simple table and Figure 5.14 shows the
resultant web page.
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Example 5.12: To create a web page containing a simple table

<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Html Tables </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<TABLE Border="1">
<TR>
<TH>Roll No</TH>
<TH>Name</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>1</TD>
<TD>Aliya</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2</TD>
<TD>Arun</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY> Fig. 5.14: Web page containing a simple
</HTML> table with two columns

Now, let us create the following table with Year 2012 - 14

some of the attributes discussed above. Smokers 412
Pan users 159
The code given in Example 5.13 can create a
Alcohol users 219
web page as shown in Figure 5.15.
Other cases 280
Example 5.13: To create a web page containing a table with border and colour
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Hospital Table </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<TABLE Border= "3" Bordercolor= "RED" Bgcolor= "#4EB0AF"
Align= "left" Cellspacing= "16" Cellpadding= "5"
Width= "50%">
<TR>
<TH> Year </TH>
<TH> 2012-14 </TH>
</TR>
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<TR>
<TH> Smokers </TH>
<TD> 412 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH> Pan users </TH>
<TD> 159 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH> Alcohol users </TH>
<TD> 219 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH> Other cases </TH>
<TD> 280 </TD>
</TR>
<TABLE>
<BODY>
<HTML>
In Example 5.13, we used <TH> tags within
all <TR> tag pairs, which make the first
column of the table similar to header column
as shown in Figure 5.15.
Fig. 5.15: Table using Cellspacing and
Attributes of <TR> tag Cellpadding

The characteristics of a row can be changed using the attributes of <TR> tag.
1. Align: This attribute specifies the horizontal alignment of the text in a cell in
that particular row. This can take the values left, right or center. The
default is left for data and center for headings (see Figure 5.15).
2. Valign: We can specify the vertical alignment of the content in a cell of any
row using Valign. The possible values are top, middle, bottom or baseline.
Baseline vertical alignment aligns the baseline of the text across the cells in the
row.
3. Bgcolor: This attribute gives background colour to a particular row. Usually
this helps in highlighting a row.
The following code segment is the modified part of the code given in Example
5.13. It modifies the third row of the table shown in Figure 5.15 with a background
colour, and horizontal and vertical alignments.

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<TR Bgcolor= "yellow" Align= "right" Valign= "middle">

<TH> Pan users </TH>
<TD> 159 </TD>
</TR>
The modified web page is shown in Figure 5.16.
Attributes of <TH> and <TD> tags
Most of the attributes of <TH> and <TD> tags are
common, as both these tags are used for creating
table cells. Let us discuss some of the main
attributes.
1. Align: It specifies the horizontal alignment of
the content within a cell. It can take the values Fig. 5.16: Table with modified row
left, right or center. The default value is using Bgcolor, Align and Valign
center for <TH> and left for <TD>.
2. Valign: It specifies the vertical alignment of the content within a cell. It can
take a value top, bottom, middle or baseline.
3. Bgcolor: We can set background colour for any cell using this attribute. The
tags <TABLE>, <TR>, <TD>/<TH> all have Bgcolor attribute. If Bgcolor
attribute is set for all these tags, the cell will take the colour assigned to this
attribute in <TH>/<TD> tag.
4. Colspan: Usually a cell spans over a single column, but sometimes we may
need columns occupying more than one cell. Colspan value defines the number
of columns occupied by that particular cell. For example, <TH Colspan="3">
makes the cell span over three columns.
5. Rowspan: Similar to Colspan, Rowspan attribute specifies the number of
rows to be spanned by the cell. The default cell span is single row, but we can
make it span multiple rows by setting Rowspan attribute a numeric value greater
than one. For example, <TD Rowspan="4"> makes the cell span over four
rows.
Let us create a web page with a simple table to illustrate the effect of the attributes
discussed above. The code given in Example 5.14 shows the use of these attributes
and Figure 5.17 shows the corresponding web page.
Example 5.14: To create a table to demonstrate Colspan and Rowspan
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Students Registration </TITLE>
</HEAD>
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<BODY>
<TABLE Border= "1" Cellspacing= "3" Cellpadding= "5">
<TR>
<TH Colspan= "3"> No. of Registered Students </TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH Rowspan= "2"> Year </TH>
<TD> 2014 </TD> <TD> 75 </TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD> 2015 </TD> <TD> 88 </TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
<BODY>
<HTML>

Now, let us create a web page to display the

details of cancer patients as shown in Table 5.1.
The code given in Example 5.15 can design a
table as shown in Figure 5.18. Fig. 5.17: Table with row span and
column span
Example 5.15: To create a table to show the data of cancer patients
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> CompleteTable </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "silver">
<TABLE Border= "3" Bordercolor= "red" Bgcolor= "#4EB0AF"
Align= "left" Cellspacing= "2" Cellpadding= "2"
Width= "50%">
<TR>
<TH Colspan= "5"> Number of cancer patients reported
at the hospital </TH>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH Colspan= "2"> Year </TH>
<TH> 2012 </TH>
<TH> 2013 </TH>
<TH> 2014 </TH>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH Rowspan= "4"> Cancer Origin </TH>
<TH> Smokers </TH>
<TD> 129 </TD>
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<TD> 140 </TD>

<TD> 143 </TD>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH> Pan users </TH>
<TD> 54 </TD>
<TD> 56 </TD>
<TD> 59 </TD>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH> Alcohol users </TH>
<TD> 74 </TD>
<TD> 68 </TD>
<TD> 77 </TD>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH> Other cases </TH>
<TD> 95 </TD>
<TD> 93 </TD>
<TD> 92 </TD>
</TR>
<TR Align= "center">
<TH Colspan= "2"> TOTAL Patients </TH>
<TD> 352 </TD>
<TD> 357 </TD>
<TD> 371 </TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig. 5.18: Web page containing a table of cancer patients Bgcolor,

Rowspan, Colspan, Align and Valign

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Try to create a table containing the number of students studying

different second languages available in your school. The table should
provide details of each class of your higher secondary section.
Let us do

5.4.5 Table caption with <CAPTION> tag

We can provide a heading to a table using the <CAPTION> tag. It provides an easy
method to add descriptive text to a table as its caption. Suppose we want to modify
the table shown in Figure 5.19 with a caption. We can modify the code section
before the first <TR> tag in Example 5.15 with following code segment:
<TABLE Border= "3" Bordercolor= "red" Bgcolor= "skyblue"
Align= "left" Cellspacing= "2" Cellpadding= "2"
Width= "50%">
<CAPTION> Number of new cancer patients reported at the
hospital during 2012-14
</CAPTION>

The modified HTML code

will produce a table as
shown in Figure 5.19.

Fig. 5.19: Modified table with a caption

Know your progress

1. Name any two associated tags of <TABLE> tag.
2. Choose the odd one out:
a. TABLE b. TR c. TH d. COLSPAN
3. Differentiate between <TD> and <TH>.
4. <TABLE> tag is an empty tag. State whether this statement is true
or false.
5. Give any two attributes of <TR> tag.

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5.5 Dividing the browser window

Sometimes we need to include more than one webpage inside a single browser
window. The browser window can be divided into two or more panes to
accommodate different pages
simultaneously. HTML provides a
facility called frameset to partition the
browser window into different sections.
Each section accommodates different
HTML pages. Each individual section
created by a frameset is called a frame.
Figure 5.20 shows a simple frameset
consisting of three frames. To create a
frameset, we need <FRAMESET> and
<FRAME> tags. Fig. 5.20: A simple frameset with three frames
5.5.1 <FRAMESET> tag
<FRAMESET> is a container tag for partitioning the browser window into different
frame sections. The frames are defined within the tag pair <FRAMESET> and
</FRAMESET>. The main attributes are:
1. Cols: This attribute determines the number of vertical frames in the frameset
page and its dimensions. The column width can be given either in percentage
of total width or in number of pixels. For example, <FRAMESET Cols =
"30%,500,*"> will create three vertical frames. The first frame will occupy
30% of the total window width, the next will take 500 pixels space, and the
asterisk(*) symbol given at the end denotes the remaining space which is given
to the third frame.
2. Rows: Similar to Cols, Rows attribute defines the number and dimension of
horizontal frames.
3. Border: We can specify the thickness of border for the frames by using Border
attribute. Here the value is given in pixels.
4. Bordercolor: We can specify border colour by assigning a colour to this
attribute.
5.5.2 <FRAME> tag
<FRAME> tag is an empty tag and it defines the frames inside the <FRAMESET>. For
each division inside the <FRAMESET> tag, we should have a corresponding <FRAME>
tag. <FRAME> tag always comes with Src attribute which specifies the HTML page
to be loaded in the frame. The main attributes related to <FRAME> tag are:
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1. Src: As we have already discussed, Src specifies the URL of the document to
be loaded in the frame. For example, <FRAME Src = "school.html">
loads the page school.html in a particular frame.
2. Scrolling: When the content inside a frame exceeds the frame size, a scrollbar
appears depending upon the value of the Scrolling attribute. It can take
values Yes, No or Auto. Auto is the default value and it displays scroll bars if
the frame content exceeds the normal display area.
3. Noresize: It is used to prevent users from resizing the border of a specific
frame by dragging on it. Just giving Noresize prohibits resizing the frame
window. For example, <FRAME Src= "school.html" Noresize>.
4. Marginwidth and Marginheight: We can set horizontal and vertical margins
to the frame by using Marginwidth and Marginheight, respectively. The
values are given in pixels.
5. Name: It gives a name to a frame. This particular frame can be referenced
using this name later in the code.
The following code can create the frameset shown in Figure 5.20. It is assumed that
the three HTML pages sampleframe1.html, sampleframe2.html and sampleframe3.html
are already created as in Figure 5.20.
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> A simple Frameset </TITLE> </HEAD>
<FRAMESET Rows= "20%, 30%, 50%">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe1.html">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe2.html">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe3.html">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>

5.5.3 Targeting frames

In a frameset page, we can provide hyperlink in any frame and the linked page can
be targeted to any other frame. When we click on the link in a frame, the
corresponding page is opened within another frame in the frameset. For this, first
we have to allot a name for the destination frame using its Name attribute. Then we
can refer the named frame using Target attribute of the link to be displayed.

Create three HTML files bio.html, poem.html and fiction.html to show a

list of books belonging to biography, poetry and fiction, respectively.
Let us do

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Now let us create a web page with two frames - one for showing the links for these
files and the other for opening the respective web pages. When a user clicks on any
one of the three links available in one frame, the associated file will open in the
other frame.
Once you have created the three files mentioned above, the two HTML codes
given in Example 5.16 can satisfy our need.
Example 5.16: To illustrate the concept of targeting frames
Save the following code in a file main.html
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Left Frame </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#00AFFF" Text= "#282D2F">
<H2> Select the option </H2>
<FONT Size= "5">
<A Href= "bio.html" Target="right_frame">Biography</A><BR>
<A Href= "poem.html" Target="right_frame">Poetry</A><BR>
<A Href= "fiction.html" Target="right_frame">Fiction</A>
</FONT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Now create a file to store the following code:
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Targeting Frames </TITLE> </HEAD>
<FRAMESET Cols= "200, *">
<FRAME Src= "main.html" Name= "left_frame">
<FRAME Name= "right_frame">
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>
When the above document is executed,
a web page with two frames will be
opened. The first column of the
browser window will show the
main.html and the second column will
be blank. Note that Src attribute is not
specified for that frame, but a name
right_frame is assigned. If the first
link (biography) is selected, the file
bio.html will be opened in the second
Fig. 5.21 : Web page with target frame
frame as shown in Figure 5.21. It is
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2. The second row is left free. Now we will divide it into two frames vertically.
So, instead of a second <FRAME> tag, insert another opening <FRAMESET>
tag as shown below:
<FRAMESET Rows= "85, *">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe1.html">
<FRAMESET Cols= "220, *">
</FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>
This code will divide the second row into two columns. Now, we can add two
<FRAME> tags within the inner frameset and complete the HTML code as
given in Example 5.17. The resultant web page is shown in Figure 5.23. It is
assumed that the three HTML pages are already created as in Figure 5.23.
Example 5.17: To implement the concept of nested frameset
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> nesting frames </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<FRAMESET Rows= "85, *">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe1.html">
<FRAMESET Cols= "200, *">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe2.html">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe3.html">
</FRAMESET>
</FRAMESET>
</HTML>
5.5.5 <NOFRAMES> tag
Earlier browsers did not support frames. In
such a situation, the browser is expected to
respond to the user in some way or the other.
The tag pair <NOFRAMES> and </NOFRAMES>
is used to display some text content in the
window if the browser is unable to support
frames. The following code illustrates the use
of <NOFRAMES> tag.
Fig. 5.23: Nested framesets
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> A simple Frameset </TITLE>
</HEAD>
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<FRAMESET Rows= "20%, 30%, 50%">

<FRAME Src= "sampleframe1.html">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe2.html">
<FRAME Src= "sampleframe3.html">
</FRAMESET>
<NOFRAMES>
<P> Your browser doesnot support frames.<BR>
Click <A Href="index.htm">here... </A></P>
</NOFRAMES>
</HTML>
Here, if the browser does not support <FRAMESET> then a message "Click here…"
will be displayed with an alternate link to the file index.html.

Know your progress

1. <FRAMESET Rows="100,*"> divides the frame into ____
sections.
2. List any three attributes of <FRAME> tag.
3. What is nested frameset?
4. What is the use of <NOFRAME> tag?
5. No <BODY> section is needed for frameset page. Say TRUE or
FALSE.

5.6 Forms in web pages

HTML Forms are required when we have to collect some data from the webpage
viewer for processing. For example, we use www.hscap.kerala.gov.in for the
admission to Class XI in Kerala. We enter information such as name, SSLC Register
Number, grades, choice of course and school, etc. in this web page. It is an
implementation of HTML Form.
A Form will take input from the web page viewer and then it will post the data to a
back-end application such as Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Active Server
Pages (ASP), PHP, etc. for processing. We will study about these technologies in
the next chapter. A form consists of two elements: a <FORM> container and any
number of Form controls within that container. There are various Form controls
like text fields, textarea fields, drop-down menus, radio buttons, checkboxes, etc.

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5.6.1 <FORM> tag

A <FORM> tag provides a container for creating a Form. An HTML Form starts
with <FORM> and ends with </FORM> tag. A web browser can only gather information
through Forms. We must provide some back-end application to handle (save,
modify, etc.) the data collected. We use Form handlers like CGI, JavaScript or PHP
script for that purpose. All of the input elements associated with a single Form are
processed by the same Form handler. A Form handler is a program on the web
server that manages the data sent through the Form. The form handler is specified
as the value for the Action attribute of <FORM> tag. The concept of server and
other associated technologies will be discussed in the next chapter.
Most frequently used attributes of <FORM> are:
1. Action: It specifies the URL of the Form handler, which is ready to process
the received data.
2. Method: It mentions the method used to upload data. The most frequently
used Methods are Get and Post.
3. Target: It specifies the target window or frame where the result of the script
will be displayed. It takes values like _blank, _self, _parent, etc. The main
values of Target attribute are given in Table 5.4.
Value Description
_blank Opens the linked document in a new browser window
_self Opens the linked document in the same frame as the link
_parent Opens the linked document in the parent frameset
_top Opens the linked document in the main browser window,
replacing any frame present
name Opens the linked document in the window with the specified name
Table 5.4: Values for Target attribute

A common use for JavaScript (or any client side scripting language) is
to verify that users have filled in all the required fields in a Form and/
or to check whether the input data is valid or not, before the browser
actually submits the Form to the form handler on the web server.

Form controls
There are different types of Form controls that we can use to collect data using
HTML Form. These controls include Text box, Password, Check Box, Radio Button,

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Text Area, Select Box, Submit and Reset Button.We can create most of these controls
in any HTML Form using <INPUT> tag.
5.6.2 <INPUT> tag
The visible part of a Form is a set of controls to accept the input from the viewers.
Different types of input can be selected based on the nature of input. The <INPUT>
tag is an empty tag that can be used to make different types of controls such as Text
Box, Radio Button, Submit Button etc. The Type attribute determines the type of
control created by this tag.
Attributes of <INPUT> tag
1. Type: This attribute determines the control type created by the <INPUT> tag.
The main values of Type are given in Table 5.5.
Value Description
text creates a text box
password same as text box. But here characters are represented by coded
symbols such as asterisk.
checkbox creates a checkbox where user can enter Yes or No values (check
or uncheck).
radio similar to checkbox but is used to select a single value from a
group of values. When multiple radio buttons are assigned with
the same value for Name attribute, users can select only one button
at a time. When the user changes the selection, the one that is
already selected becomes deselected.
reset a special button used to clear all the entries made in the form and
to bring it to the initial state.
submit another special button used to submit all the entries made in the
form to the server.
button creates a standard graphical button on the form. We can call
functions on clicking this button.
Table 5.5: Values of Type attribute
2. Name: It is used to give a name to the input control. When the Form is submitted,
the data values are passed to the server along with the corresponding name of
the control.
3. Value: It can be used to provide an initial (default) value inside the control.
4. Size: This attribute sets the width of the input text in terms of characters. It is
applicable only to the input types text and password.
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5. Maxlength: It limits the number of characters that the user can type into the
field. It is also applicable only to the text and the password.

A password field helps in hiding the content visually. It doesn't encrypt

or scramble the information in any way.

The HTML code given in Example 5.18 creates an HTML Form to input a name
and password. Figure 5.24 shows the resultant web page.
Example 5.18: To create an HTML Form
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Login </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "Pink">
<FORM Action= "login.php" Method= "post">
<P> Name:&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "firstname" Size= "30"
Maxlength= "25"> </P>
<P>Password:
<INPUT Type= "password" Name= "Psswd" Size= "30"
Maxlength= "25"> </P> <BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
&nbsp;
<INPUT Type= "reset" Value= "Clear">
<INPUT Type= "submit" Value= "Send">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

In Example 5.18, a file login.php is assigned

to the Action attribute of the <FORM>
tag. It means that the data entered
through this Form will be captured and
processed by the application stored in the
file login.php. Also observe the use of
HTML entity &nbsp; to provide non
break spaces by referring to the code and
Figure 5.24. Fig. 5.24: HTML Form with text and password

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Let us design an HTML Form to input data with the help of radio button (or
option button) and check boxes. You might have heard that radio buttons are used
to specify only one option from a set of alternatives, and that check boxes are used
to mark one or more items in a given list.
The code given in Example 5.19 creates a Form to specify the gender and hobbies
of a person with the help of radio buttons and check boxes. Figure 5.25 shows the
corresponding web page.
Example 5.19: To create an HTML Form with radio buttons and check boxes
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Checkbox Radio Button Control</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E9BEE5">
<FORM> <BR>Sex: &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<INPUT Type= "radio" Name= "sex" Value= "male"> Male
<INPUT Type= "radio" Name= "sex" Value= "female"> Female
<BR> <BR>Hobbies:
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby" Value= "Games">
Playing Games
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby"
Value="WatchingTV"> Watching TV
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby" Value= "Reading">
Reading
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig 5.25:Form with checkbox and radio button

5.6.3 <TEXTAREA> tag

We have seen single line text entry facility in a Form with the statement <INPUT
Type = "text"> (refer Example 5.18 and Figure 5.24). But in practice, there are
occasions where we need to enter multiple lines of text in a Form. Postal address is
an example. The container tag <TEXTAREA> can be used for this purpose. The area

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between the tag pair gives space for multi line text depending on the values given to
the attributes. The main attributes of <TEXTAREA> tag are:
1. Name: It is used to give a name to the control.
2. Rows: It specifies the number of rows in a text area control.
3. Cols: It indicates the number of columns in a text area, i.e., number of characters
in a line.
Consider the following code segment and observe the usage of <TEXTAREA> tag:
<FORM Action= "guestbook.php" Method= "post">
<TEXTAREA Rows= "10" Cols= "30" Name= "address">
Enter your address.
</TEXTAREA>
</FORM>
On completing the code and opening it, we can
see a page as shown in Figure 5.26. Any text we
include between tag pair <TEXTAREA> and
</TEXTAREA> appears in a text box. When the
user enters any data in the text box, it overrides
default text.
5.6.4 <SELECT> tag Fig. 5.26: HTML Form with text area

A select box, also called dropdown box, provides a list of various options in the
form of a dropdown list, from where a user can select one or more options. Select
box is helpful when a number of options are to be displayed in a limited space. The
options in the list are specified using <OPTION> tag, which will be contained in the
<SELECT> tag pair.
The container tag pair <SELECT> and </SELECT> encloses a select box. The main
attributes of <SELECT> tag are:
1. Name: It gives a name to the control, which is sent to the server to be recognized
and to get the value.
2. Size: This can be used to present a scrolling list box. Its value will decide
whether the select box should be a drop down list or a list box. If the value is
1, we get a dropdown list (or combo box).
3. Multiple: It allows users to select multiple items from the menu.
Now let us discuss the role of <OPTION> tag in select boxes. It is an empty tag
placed inside the container tag <SELECT> and </SELECT>. It lists out the options
provided in the select box. The main attributes of <OPTION> tag are:

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1. Selected: This attribute is used to indicate default selection.

2. Value: It is used here to allow the submission of a value that differs from the
content of the <OPTION> tag. If it is not present, the content is used as the
value.
The HTML code given in Example 5.20 creates a web page that contains a drop
down list. Note that the value of the Size attribute of <SELECT> tag is 1 and
there are four options inside the select box.
Example 5.20: To create an HTML Form with a drop down list
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> Drop down list </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E9BEE5">
<FORM Action= "guestbook.php" Method= "post">
<P> Nationality:
<SELECT Name= "Nationality" Size= "1">
<OPTION Value= "Indian" selected> Indian
<OPTION Value= "British"> British
<OPTION Value= "German"> German
<OPTION Value= "Srilankan"> Srilankan
</SELECT>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Figure 5.27 shows the dropdown list obtained on
clicking the combo button.

Fig. 5.27: Select box in a Form

Modify the code given in Example 5.20 with different values for the
Size attribute and predict the changes in the select box.
Let us do
5.6.5 Grouping Form data with <FIELDSET> tag
Sometimes grouping related controls in a Form become a necessity. The
<FIELDSET> element helps in grouping related data in a Form. By using
<FIELDSET> we can divide a Form into different subsections, each subsection
containing related elements. To identify each <FIELDSET>, we can use the <LEGEND>
tag. The <LEGEND> tag defines a caption for the <FIELDSET> element. It is a
container tag.
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Now let us create a Form with all the elements discussed so far, to submit the
details such as name, age, sex, address, hobbies etc. of a student. The code given in
Example 5.21 can be used for this so that an HTML Form as shown in Figure 5.28
will be obtained.
Example 5.21: To create an HTML Form to submit the details of a student
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE> FormResume </TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY Bgcolor= "#E9BEE5">
<CENTER ><H3>Enter your details</H3></CENTER>
<FORM Action= "guestbook.php" Method= "get">
Name:&nbsp;
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "first_name" Size= "20"
Maxlength= "20" Value= "First Name Here"><BR><BR>
Age:
<INPUT Type="text" Name="age" Size="3" Maxlength="3"><BR>
Sex: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
<INPUT Type="radio" Name="sex" Value="male"> Male
<INPUT Type="radio" Name="sex" Value="female"> Female
<FIELDSET>
<LEGEND>Nationality</LEGEND>
<SELECT Name= "Nationality" Size= "4">
<OPTION Value= "Indian" Selected> Indian
<OPTION Value= "British"> British
<OPTION Value= "German"> German
<OPTION Value= "Srilankan"> Srilankan
</SELECT><BR><BR>
Nativity:
<INPUT Type= "text" Name="State" Size="15"><BR><BR>
District:&nbsp;
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "District" Size= "15">
</FIELDSET><BR>
Hobbies:
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby" Value= "games">
Playing Games
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby"
Value= "WatchingTV"> Watching TV
<INPUT Type= "checkbox" Name= "Hobby" Value= "Reading">
Reading<BR><BR>

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<TEXTAREA Rows= "5" Cols= "25" Name= "address">Address

</TEXTAREA><BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "submit" Value= "submit">
<INPUT Type= "Reset" Value= "reset">
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Fig 5.28:An HTML Form to submit the details of a student

5.6.6 Form submission
When we click the submit button on the Form, it will send the collected input data
to the server, a computer capable of processing the received data. In a web server,
there are special server side programs for processing Form data coming from the
browser of a client (a computer, a tab or a mobile phone through which we submit
the data).
As mentioned earlier, the Action attribute defines the action to be performed
when the Form is submitted. Normally it assigns the URL of the server side program
to process the Form data. The common way to submit a Form to a server is by
using a submit button. In Example 5.21, a server-side script guestbook.php is specified
to handle the submitted form in the <FORM> tag.
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The Method attribute of the <FORM> tag specifies the HTTP method (get or
post) to be used when submitting the forms.
Know your progress
1. HTML provides _______ to input data through web pages.
2. Name the two tags used within <FORM> to enter text data.
3. How do radio button control and check box control differ?
4. Which tag is used to group data within the Form?
5. Name the tag used within <FORM> to input data.

5.7 Overview of HTML 5

HTML 5 is the major revision of the HTML standard after HTML 4.01. HTML5
was developed jointly by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and the Web
Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG). The new
standard incorporates features like video playback, drag-and-drop etc.
The latest versions of all leading browsers including Google
Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari, Opera and Internet
Explorer support HTML5. Mobile web browsers that are pre-
installed in iPhones, iPads, Android phones, etc. also support
HTML5. HTML5 is designed, as much as possible, to be
backward compatible with existing web browsers. The logo of
HTML5 is given in Figure 5.29. Fig. 5.29: HTML5 logo

Some new tags introduced in HTML5 are given below:

1. <VIDEO> and <AUDIO>: These tags offer the facility to easily embed
media into HTML documents.
2. <CANVAS>: This tag gives us an easy and powerful way to draw
graphics, build charts and graphs and customise graphics.
3. <HEADER> and <FOOTER>: The <HEADER> element specifies a header for a
document or section. The <FOOTER> element specifies footer for a document or
section. A footer typically contains the author of the document, copyright
information, contact information, etc. We can have several <HEADER>, <FOOTER>
elements in one document.
4. <ARTICLE> and <SECTION>: These tags are used to create articles and sections
within a webpage. An article is an independent, stand-alone piece of discrete
content like a blog post, or a news item. Article represents a full block of content.
Section is used as a way of sectioning a page into different subject areas, or
sectioning an article. <ARTICLE> and <SECTION> tags, if properly used will
increase search engine visibility of the webpage.

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5. <OUTPUT>: This tag represents the result of a calculation usually performed by a

script.
6. <DETAILS>: Sometimes website needs to have an expanding/collapsing block of
text. With <DETAILS> tag it is easier to make a simple block that expands and
collapses the content when the header is clicked.
7. <FIGURE> and <FIGCAPTION>: <FIGURE> is a container for content like images,
and <FIGCAPTION> element represents a caption or legend for a figure. It comes
inside the <FIGURE> tag.
8. <PROGRESS> and <METER>: <PROGRESS> and <METER> are similar. The
<PROGRESS> tag represents the progress of a task. It is useful for things like
displaying the progress of a file upload. <METER> tag is used to display a scalar
measurement within a known range, like showing hard drive usage.

Let us conclude
In this chapter, we have gone through some of the advanced features of HTML.
Different kinds of lists are discussed to make the text more presentable. The beauty
of the web pages can be enhanced by including marquees, images, audio and video.
We have also discussed the importance of hyper linking and familiarised with various
kinds of hyperlinks. Creating a table with the tags <TABLE>, <TR>, <TH>, and
<TD>, and their attributes were discussed. The importance of Rowspan and
Colspan attributes are identified. We can divide the browser window into different
frames using framesets so that different pages can be opened and viewed at the
same time. We have also seen that division of browser window can be done in
different ways with the concept of nested framesets. We have discussed how Target
attribute is used to create link between different frames of the browser window. We
have also identified the utility of Form in the web page to submit data to the server
using online facility. We have seen various elements such as text box, password,
radio button, text area, select box, etc. that facilitate the input of data in different
ways. We have just mentioned the concept of client side programs and server side
programs. So, this chapter is a stepping stone to the next chapters in which we will
discuss how the input data in the Form is verified and how the data is stored or
processed in the server.

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Let us practice
1. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page of a district in Kerala with the following
details and features:
• A heading followed by a paragraph of 3 sentences about the district using
text formatting tags and attributes.
• A list of the tourist places in the district.
2. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page for your school with the following details
and features:
• A heading followed by a paragraph of 3 sentences about the district using
text formatting tags and attributes.
• Include a list of five co-curricular activites like NCC, NSS, Clubs, etc.
3. Wrtie an HTML code for a web page to show the following details:
Components of a Computer
• Hardware
1. I/O Devices
2. RAM
3. Hard Disk & DVD Drive
• Software
1. Operating System
2. Application Programs
4. Write an HTML code to present some details about Onam - the festival of
Kerala, in a web page with the following features:
• A heading with attractive font characteristics.
• An image of "Vallam Kali" (boat race) in the background of the page.
• Internal links to any two of the traditional events like "Pookkalam",
"Thumpi Thullal", "Thiruvathira", "Onavillu", "Vallam kali", "Kummatti",
"Pulikali", etc.
5. Write HTML codes to create two web pages to show some information about
the higher secondary and high school sections of your school. Create another
web page to divide the browser window horizontally into two. In the first
frame, a brief introduction of the school and two links are to be provided -
one for HSS and the other for HS. On clicking these links the respective web
page is to be opened in the second frame.

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6. Write an HTML code to show the following table in a web page and also
provide an external link to the website of Kerala Police given below the table:
Road Accidents in Kerala during 2012 - 2014
Total Number of
Year
Cases Persons Killed Persons Injured
2012 36174 4286 41915
2013 35215 4258 40346
2014 36282 4049 41096
Data Source: www.keralapolice.org
7. Write an HTML code to display an application form as shown below:
APPLICATION FOR THE BEST STUDENT AWARD
Name: Sex: Male Female
Class & Division: Select
Total Grade Point in Class XI:
Average Grade Point in Termly Exams in Class XII:
Cocurricular Activities:
NCC NSS Sports Arts Literary
Other Achievements:

12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Let us assess 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567

1. Find the errors in the following and correct it.

a. <UL Type = "i" Start = 3>
b. <IMG Src = "Myschool.jpg" Size = "50" >
c. <HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE><HEAD></TITLE>
<BODY> this is the body of the HTML
document</BODY>
</HTML>

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2. Rohit created a table in HTML but a border was not visible. What could be
the reason?
3. ________ attribute is used with <A> tag to display the linked page in a specified
frame.
4. Your computer teacher asked you to prepare a list of your best friends in a
webpage. Which tag will you prefer? Write HTML code segment for this list.
5. Name the possible values of type attribute of <OL> tag.
6. Write the attributes of <UL> tag.
7. How do you create a list using upper case letters for numbering?
8. Suppose you want to create a list using lower case letters for numbering. How
can this be made possible?
9. How can we create a list starting from 6 onwards?
10. Write the HTML code for creating the following webpage:
ABC Pvt. Ltd.
Kerala
1. Health Care
2. Baby Products
• Toys
• Dress
3. Ladies Wear
• Kurthas
• Jeans
11. Varun is creating a web page. He wants to create a link on the word 'sample' to
a file named sample.html that is stored in a subdirectory Exam in D drive. Write
the HTML command for this purpose.
12. Name the tag which has Noshade attribute.
13. Sunil developed a personal website, in which he has to create an e-mail link.
Can you suggest the protocol used to achieve this link.
14. Shahir wants to connect his webpage to www.gmail.com. Write the tag and
attribute required for this.
15. Mention the characteristics of two types of hyperlinks available in HTML.
16. Differentiate between Cellspacing and Cellpadding.
17. Differentiate between Text control and Textarea control used in Form.
18. Action and ________ are the main attributes of the <FORM> tag.

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19. Say true or false:

a. The default value of Align attribute of <TABLE> tag is center.
b. <FRAME> is a container tag.
c. Scrolling prevents users from resizing the border of a specific frame.
20. Which tag does allow partitioning of the browser window into different
sections?
21. List down the main attributes of <FRAME> tag.
22. Create a frameset dividing the page into two sections vertically. Give names of
your favorite football players in left frame. The profile of selected players
should appear in the right Frame.
23. Predict the output of the following code:
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>A simple table</TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY>
<TABLE border="1" Cellspacing= "1" Cellpadding= "10">
<TR><TD> 1 </TD><TD> 2 </TD><TD> 3 </TD></TR>
<TR><TD> 4 </TD><TD> 5 </TD><TD> 6 </TD></TR>
<TR><TD> 7 </TD><TD> 8 </TD><TD> 9 </TD></TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY>
</HTML>
24. Write an HTML code to create the given table:
25. Write an HTML code to accept your e-mail, address, phone
number and password.
26. Write an HTML code to create a list of 3 bikes of your choice in a frame. Link
each one to display the description with a picture in another frame.
27. Raju created a web page as follows. But he is unable to view any tabular format
in the web page, when it is displayed in the browser. Find out the reason for it
and correct it.
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE> My Page </TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY>
<TABLE><TR><TH>Roll No. </TH><TH> Name </TH></TR>
<TR><TD>1 </TD><TD> Huda </TD></TR>
<TR><TD>2 </TD><TD>Bincy</TD></TR>
</TABLE>
</BODY>
</HTML>
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 Client Side Scripting Using
6 JavaScript

I
Significant Learning Outcomes n the previous chapters we learned to
create different types of web pages
After the completion of this chapter, the containing texts and graphics. Since this is
learner the world of the Internet, most of us might
• distinguishes the use of client side have visited various websites in the Internet
and server side scripting language. for different purposes. These web pages
• explains the need of client side contain features that we have not learned.
scripting language. Creating such types of web pages requires the
• identifies the importance of knowledge of scripting languages. Different
JavaScript as the client side scripting scripting languages are used at the client side
language. and server side. Even though JavaScript and
• uses JavaScript functions in a web VB Script are the two client side scripting
page.
languages, JavaScript is the most commonly
• explains different data types in
used scripting language at the client side. The
JavaScript.
main reason for this is that the JavaScript is
• uses correct variables in JavaScript.
• uses appropriate control structures
supported by all browsers, but VB Script is
in program codes. not. Since web pages are to be viewed by a
• uses appropriate built-in functions large number of people over the Internet, we
in JavaScript. cannot expect that the user will use a specific
• explains the method to access browser itself. Hence, a web page should be
Document Elements using made browser independent as much as
javaScript. possible. In this chapter, we will learn how
• creates JavaScript functions that JavaScript is used in a web page. Since all of
handle values in text boxes and us are familiar with C++, it is easy to
combo boxes. understand JavaScript because the JavaScript
follows the same syntax of C++.
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

JavaScript was developed by Brendan Eich for the

Netscape Browser. The original name of JavaScript
was Mocha. In 1995, when it was deployed in the
Netscape browser version 2.0, the name was changed
to JavaScript. In early days, only Netscape browser supported
JavaScript. But due to the wide popularity of JavaScript, Internet
Explorer provided support to JavaScript in 1996. Now, almost all
browsers in the world support JavaScript.
Brendan Eich

6.1 Getting started with JavaScript

In Chapter 4 Web Technology, we discussed the use of client side and server side
scripting languages. Client side scripting languages are used for validations of data
at the client side itself. This reduces network traffic and workload on the server.
Server side scripting languages are executed at the server and the web page
produced is returned to the client browser. A server may store a large volume of
data in the form of a database. So a server side scripting language may have to
interact with this large volume of data for different purposes, but a client need not.
So, the languages and commands used at the client side and server side are different.
Let us learn the basics of JavaScript as a client side scripting language in this chapter.
Using JavaScript, we can embed program segments in different places in an HTML
page. <SCRIPT> tag is used to include scripts in HTML page.
<SCRIPT> Tag
<SCRIPT> tag is used to include scripting code in an HTML page. The Language
attribute of <SCRIPT> tag is used to specify the name of the scripting language
used. Here we use JavaScript as the client side scripting language. Therefore, we
will give JavaScript as the value for Language attribute.
The <SCRIPT> tag can be used in an HTML page as follows.
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
....................
....................
</SCRIPT>

The identifiers in JavaScript are case sensitive. It is common in

JavaScript, to use camelCase names for identifiers. Examples are
firstName, checkData, etc. CamelCase is a naming convention which is
used when a single word is formed using multiple words. When the first
letter of each word is capitalised, it is called UpperCamelCase and when the first
letter of each word except the first word is capitalised, it is called lowerCamelCase.
CamelCase improves readability of the word.

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

Now let us consider the following HTML code given in Example 6.1.
Example 6.1: To create a web page using JavaScript
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Welcome</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
document.write("Welcome to JavaScript.");
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The above code can be typed in any
text editor. We use Geany editor
Fig. 6.1: A web page using JavaScript
that we used for creating HTML
pages in the previous chapters. Save the file as ‘Code 6.1.html’. Note that even if we
use JavaScript in an HTML page, it is saved with .html extension. Then, open the
file in any browser. We will get the web page as shown in Figure 6.1. Note that the
statement document.write is written in lowercase letters. This is because JavaScript
is a case sensitive scripting language. The keywords in JavaScript are all in the
lowercase.
In the above HTML file, document.write() is a JavaScript command that includes
a text in the body section of the HTML page. That is, the above HTML file has the
same effect of the following HTML code.
Example 6.2: To create a web page using HTML
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Welcome</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
Welcome to JavaScript.
</BODY>
</HTML>
Compare the above two examples (Example 6.1 and Example 6.2). In the second
HTML code, the text Welcome to JavaScript is directly placed inside the
body section, whereas in the first one, “Welcome to JavaScript” is included
in the body section using the JavaScript method document.write(). Actually,
d o c u m e n t represents the body section of the web page. Therefore,
document.write() is a JavaScript function that will include a text in the body

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section of the web page. It is very important to note that like C++, every statement
in JavaScript also ends in a semicolon.
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript"> tells the browser that the code that
follows is a JavaScript code. Now let us see how a browser handles the JavaScript
code. The script code is interpreted at runtime by the JavaScript engine. Every
browser has a JavaScript engine. JavaScript engine is a virtual machine for executing
JavaScript code. When the browser sees a JavaScript code, it is passed to the script
engine for processing. The script engine executes the code. If an HTML page does
not contain any JavaScript code, the browser alone is able to render the HTML
page. But if there is a JavaScript code, the browser takes the help of script engine
also to render the HTML page. Hence, an HTML file without JavaScript is always
rendered faster than that with JavaScript code.
Let us consider the code given in Example 6.3, that mixes JavaScript codes with
HTML tags. The output of the HTML page is given in Figure 6.2.
Example 6.3: To create a web page containing heading tags
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Welcome</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
document.write("This is in H1 Head");
</SCRIPT>
</H1>
<BR>
<H2>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
document.write("This is in H2 Head");
</SCRIPT>
</H2>
</BODY>
</HTML>
In the above code, we used scripting codes
in between the HTML tags more than once.
Fig. 6.2: Web page containing heading tags
Thus you can use the script codes any number
of times in between the HTML tags. Wherever we use script codes, do remember
to place them in between <SCRIPT> and </SCRIPT> tags.
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

All web browsers allow users to enable or disable the execution of

JavaScript in a web page. By disabling the JavaScript, we are actually
disabling the JavaScript engine in that browser. In Mozilla, the
JavaScript can be enabled or disabled by choosing Tools -> Options ->
Content -> Enabled JavaScript. In Google Chrome, it can be done by selecting the option
‘Do not allow any site to run JavaScript’ which is available in the Content Settings
window. This window can be accessed from the menu Tools -> Settings -> Show Advanced
Settings -> Content Settings.
If JavaScript is disabled in a web browser, the browser will not execute the script
code at all. So, the browser will simply ignore the content written inside <SCRIPT>
.... </SCRIPT> tags.
Performance of a browser mainly depends on the performance of its script engine.
One can hardly see a dynamic web page that does not use any JavaScript. All broswers
are competing with each other for the development of better, fast and powerful
JavaScript engines.

Know your progress

1. Name an attribute of <SCRIPT> tag.
2. In JavaScript ________ function is used to print a text in the
body section of an HTML page.
3. ________ is the value given to the language attribute of
<SCRIPT> tag to specify that the code follows is JavaScript code.
4. What is the use of JavaScript engine?
5. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a. Java Script is the only client side scripting language.
b. <SCRIPT> tag is used to include client side scripting language
in an HTML page.
c. An HTML file can contain only one <SCRIPT> tag in it.
d. We can mix JavaScript code with HTML code.
e. The JavaScript code must be placed within <SCRIPT> and
</SCRIPT> tags.
f. Every JavaScript statement ends in a semicolon.

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Write an HTML code to create the following web page by using

JavaScript inside the body section of the page. That is, the body
section should be as shown below.
<BODY>
Let us do <SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
................
................
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>

6.2 Creating functions in JavaScript

We have already learned about functions in C++. In JavaScript also functions are
defined and called almost in the same way as in C++. A function is a group of
instructions with a name. JavaScript has a lot of built-in functions that can be used
for different purposes. We will cover some of these functions later in this chapter.
Besides, these built-in functions, we can define our own functions also. The biggest
advantage of using a function is that if we need to execute a piece of program code
more than once in a web page, the code has to be written only once within the
function. We can call the function any number of times to execute it. Look at the
following code:
function print()
{
document.write(“Welcome to JavaScript.”);
}
Here, the keyword function is used to define a function. The word print that
follows, is the name of the function. The function name can be any valid identifier.
JavaScript uses the same rules for naming identifiers as in C++. Here the print()
function contains only one statement. We can include any number of statements
inside a function.
Defining a function does not execute the function automatically. It must be called
for its execution. This means that even if we define a function in a web page and do
not call the function, the function will not be executed at all. The function can be
called by using the function name as follows:
print();

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

Note the semicolon after the function name. Now let us make use of the above
print()function in an HTML page.

Example 6.4: To create a web page containing print() function

<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Functions</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function print()
{
document.write("Welcome to JavaScript.");
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Note that nothing is written inside the body section of the HTML page. This code
will not display ‘Welcome to JavaScript’ in the browser window. This is because
even though the function is defined, it is not at all called from any place in the page.
Therefore, the function will not be executed at all. Hence nothing will be displayed
on the screen. The body
section of the HTML page in
Example 6.4 should be
modified as follows to get the
output as shown in Figure
6.3.
Fig. 6.3: Web page using functions
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
print();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
Now let us see the syntax of a JavaScript function.
function function_name()
{
statements;
}

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Here the line function function_name()is called the function header and
the code within the braces { and } is called function body. The main difference
from C++ is that, in JavaScript there is no return type, whereas in C++ the function
has a return type. In JavaScript also, we can return some value from a function as in
C++. Since this chapter is meant to give only a basic idea about the use of JavaScript,
we do not discuss them for the time being. Another difference is that, C++ does
not use the keyword function to define a function, but JavaScript does.
We might have noted that the function is defined within the head section of the
HTML page. It is not necessary to define the function within the head section itself.
We can define a function in the body section also as given below:
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function print()
{
document.write(“Welcome to JavaScript.”);
}
print();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
The above code also produces the same output as in Figure 6.3. Note that even if
the function is defined within the body section, it must be called for its execution.
For example, the following code does not display anything on the screen:
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function print()
{
document.write(“Welcome to JavaScript.”);
}
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
Even though a function can be defined
anywhere in an HTML page, it is always
better to include the function definition
within the head section. Now consider the
following code in which the print()
function is called twice. It will give the Fig. 6.4: Web page using two print functions
output as shown in Figure 6.4. without break

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
print();
print();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
When we call the function twice, it just places the content ‘Welcome to
JavaScript’ twice in the body section, where the function is called. Hence, the
body section in the above code has the same effect as the following code.
<BODY>
Welcome to JavaScript.Welcome to JavaScript.
</BODY>
If the message should be displayed in the two different lines, we must use <BR> tag.
<BODY>
Welcome to JavaScript.<BR>Welcome to JavaScript.
</BODY>
In order to create the same effect using JavaScript, the function can be modified as
shown below.
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function print()
{
document.write("Welcome to JavaScript.<BR>");
}
</SCRIPT>
This HTML code will give the output as
shown in Figure 6.5.
Know your progress
1. Say whether the following Fig. 6.5: Web page using two print functions
statements are true or
false:
a. A function is automatically executed when the browser opens
the web page.
b. A function is usually placed in the head section of a web page.
d. A function can be called any number of times.
e. Even though a function is defined within the body section, it
will not be executed, if it is not called.
2. List the advantages of using functions in JavaScript.
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1. Consider the following two HTML codes (Code A and Code B)

and try to predict the output.
Code A
<HTML>
Let us do
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
function print()
{
document.write(“Welcome to JavaScript”);
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
print();
document.write(“<BR>”);
print();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Code B
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
function print()
{
document.write(“Welcome to JavaScript”);
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
print();
</SCRIPT>
<BR>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
document.write(“<BR>”);
print();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

186
 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

2. Given below is an HTML code to get the output as shown in the figure
below. The code contains four functions namely startGreen() ,
stopGreen(), startRed() and stopRed(). These functions are called
from different places from the body section of the HTML page. You can
see that the body part in each function definition is blank except for the
function stopGreen(). You have to complete the definition of all other
functions so as to get the output as shown in figure.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
function startGreen()
{
.............
.............
}
function stopGreen()
{
document.write(“</FONT>”);
}
function startRed()
{
.............
.............
}
function stopRed()
{
.............
.............
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
startGreen();
</SCRIPT>
This is in Green colour with size 5
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
stopGreen();
</SCRIPT>

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>

startRed();
</SCRIPT>
This is in Red colour with size 3
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
stopRed();
</SCRIPT>
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
startGreen();
</SCRIPT>
This is in Green colour with size 5
<SCRIPT Language= “JavaScript”>
stopGreen();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

6.3 Data types in JavaScript

All programing languages classify data items into different categories for the effective
utilisation of memory. We have learned that the basic data types in C++ are int,
char, float, double and void. Besides these data types, there are type modifiers
also in C++. JavaScript reduces this complexity by limiting the number of basic
data types into 3. The following are the three basic data types in JavaScript.
Number
All numbers fall into this category. All positive and negative numbers, all integer
and float values (fractional numbers) are treated as the data type number. Thus, 27,
-300, 1.89 and -0.0082 are examples of number type data in JavaScript.
String
Any combination of characters, numbers or any other symbols, enclosed within
double quotes, are treated as a string in JavaScript. That is, “Kerala”, “Welcome”,
“SCHOOL”, “1234”, “Mark20”, “abc$” and “sanil@123” are examples of string
type data.
Boolean
Only two values fall in boolean data type. They are the values true and false.
Note that the values are not in double quotes. If they are put inside double quotes,
they will be considered as of string type. Not only that, like C++, JavaScript is also
case sensitive. So we cannot use TRUE and FALSE to represent boolean values.
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

6.4 Variables in JavaScript

As we know, variables are used for storing values. In JavaScript, variables can be
declared by using the keyword var as given below:
var x;
Here x is the name of the variable. Like C++, a variable can be given any name, as
you like, with only one restriction, that it must be a valid identifier. We have used
the keywords int, float, char, etc. to declare different types of variables in
C++. But, in JavaScript, the same keyword, var is used to declare all type of variables.
In JavaScript, merely declaring a variable does not define the variable. The variable
definition is complete only when it is assigned a value. JavaScript understands the
type of variable only when a value is assigned to that variable. Consider the following
declaration.
var x, y;
x = 25;
y = “INDIA”;
In the above example, the variable x is of number type and y is of string type. Even
though we say that x is of number type and y is of string type, note that we do not
specify them in code segments. The following example explains how JavaScript
defines variables.
Example 6.5: To illustrate the use of variables
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Variables</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var a, b, c, d, e, f;
a = 25;
b = 18.5;
c = "INDIA";
d = true;
e = "true";
document.write("a is of type : ");
document.write(typeof(a));
document.write("<BR>b is of type : ");
document.write(typeof(b));
document.write("<BR>c is of type : ");
document.write(typeof(c));

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

document.write("<BR>d is of type : ");

document.write(typeof(d));
document.write("<BR>e is of type : ");
document.write(typeof(e));
document.write("<BR>f is of type : ");
document.write(typeof(f));
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Here, the code uses the function
typeof(), which is not familiar
to you. As the name indicates, this
function is used to find the type
of a variable. We will study this
function in detail later. The output
of the above example is given in
Figure 6.6. Fig. 6.6: Web page displaying the use of variables
Note that the variable f is declared, but it is not given a value. Therefore, the script
engine is unable to understand its type and so it is declared as undefined. In
JavasScript, undefined is a special datatype to represent variables that are not
defined using var.
Any number of variables can be declared by using a single var keyword. The
variables should be separated by comma (,). Let us consider a Javascript function
that makes use of variables.
Example 6.6: To create a web page to find the sum of two numbers
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>Javascript - Variables</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function add()
{
var m, n, sum;
m = 20;
n = 10;
sum = m + n;
document.write("Sum = ");
document.write(sum);
}

190
 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
add();
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
In the above example, the
body section contains only
one JavaScript statement - a
call to the add() function.
After executing the
function, it will display the Fig. 6.7: Web page to find the sum of two numbers
output as shown in Figure
6.7.
6.5 Operators in JavaScript
Almost all operators in JavaScript are exactly similar to those in C++. Let us have
a quick look at all of these operators.
6.5.1 Arithmetic operators
Table 6.1 shows the arithmetic operators used in JavaScript along with examples.
Operator Description Example Value of y Result (x)
+ Addition x = y + 10 15 25
- Subtraction x = y - 10 15 5
* Multiplication x = y * 3 15 45
/ Division x = y / 2 15 7.5
% Modulus x = y % 2 15 1
(division remainder)
x = ++y 15 16
++ Increment
x = y++ 15 15
x = --y 15 14
-- Decrement
x = y-- 15 15
Table 6.1: Arithmetic operators

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From the above table, we can see that all arithmetic operators work exactly as in
C++.
6.5.2 Assignment operators
Table 6.2 displays the usage of various assignment operators in JavaScript.
Operator Description Example Value of a Value of b Result (a)
= Assignment a = b 10 3 3
+= Add and assignment a+=b 10 3 13
-= Minus and assignment a-=b 10 3 7
*= Multiply and assignment a*=b 10 3 30
/= Divide and assignment a/=b 10 3 3.33
%= Modulus and assignment a%=b 10 3 1
Table 6.2: Assignment operators

It is very easy to understand the working of each operator from the above table.
The ‘Result’ column gives the result after executing the statement in the ‘Example’
column with the given values of a and b.
6.5.3 Relational operators (Comparison operators)
Table 6.3 shows the various relational operators used in JavaScript, along with examples.

Operator Description Example Value of a Value of b Result

== Equal to a==b 10 3 false

!= Not equal to a!=b 10 3 true

< Less than a<b 10 3 false

<= Less than or equal to a<=b 10 3 false

> Greater than a>b 10 3 true

>= Greater than or equal to a>=b 10 3 true

Table 6.3: Relational operators

From the table, it is clear that the result of a relational operation is either true or
false. These operators compare the values on the two sides of the operator and
give the result accordingly.

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

6.5.4 Logical operators

Table 6.4 shows the different logical operators in JavaScript along with examples.
Operator Description Example Value of a Value of b Result
&& AND a && b true false false

|| OR a || b true false true

! NOT !a true false

Table 6.4: Logical operators

From the above tables, it is clear that all these operators are exactly similar to C++.
JavaScript provides a number of other operators also for different purposes. Since
our discussion of JavaScript is limited only to this chapter, the discussion of those
operators are beyond the scope of this book. Besides, the operators discussed
above are enough to perform almost all the operations for a beginner. However,
the following string operator will be of use to us in various situations. This operator
is not available in C++.
6.5.5 String addition operator (+)
We have already seen that the operator + is used to add two numbers. The same
operator + is used to add two strings also. Adding two strings means concatenating
two strings.
Look at the following example code.
var x, y;
x = “A good beginning ”;
y = “makes a good ending.”;
z = x + y;
The + operator will add the two strings. Therefore the variable z will have the value
A good beginning makes a good ending. The same + operator behaves
differently based on the type of operands. If the operands are numbers, it will add
the numbers. If the operands are strings it will concatenate the strings. Now, predict
the value of z in the following code:
var x, y;
x = “23”;
y = 5;
z = x + y;
The answer is 235. If + operator sees any one operand as string, it will treat both the
operands as string type and concatenate the strings to get the result 235. Suppose,

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we want to add x and y in the form of numbers, we can rewrite the last statement as
follows:
z = Number(x) + y;
After executing the above statement, the variable z will have the value 28. Number()
is a function in JavaScript, that converts a string type data containing numbers to
number type. We will make use of this function in some examples later in this chapter.

Know your progress

1. number, string and ______ are the basic data types in JavaScript.
2. true is a ______ type data.
3. false is a ______ type data.
4. The keyword used to declare a variable in JavaScript is ______.
5. The function used to know the type of data in JavaScript is _____.
6. What is the use of % operator?
7. List the logical operators.

6.6 Control structures in JavaScript

Control structures are used to change the sequential flow of execution in a program.
All the control structures that we have learned in C++ can also be used in JavaScript
without any difference. Let us discuss some of the frequently used control structures
with an example each.
6.6.1 if
This is the most frequently used control structure in every programming language.
It is used to execute a statement or a group of statements based on some condition.
It can be used in two ways as given in Table 6.5.

Syntax of simple if Syntax of if with else part

if (test_expression) if (test_expression)
{ {
statements; statements;
}
}
else
{
statements;
}
Table 6.5: Syntax of if and if with else statement
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

The syntax in the left column of Table 6.5 is simple if statement and that in the
right column is of if - else statement. Now, let us consider an example that
makes use of the if statement.
Example 6.7: To create a web page that checks whether a student has passed
or not
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - if</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var score;
score = 35;
if (score < 30)
{
document.write("The student is failed.");
}
else
{
document.write("The student is passed.");
}
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The above program code
makes use of the if statement
Fig. 6.8: Web page to illustrate if withe else statement
with else part. The output of
the program is given in Figure 6.8. We can change the value of the score as a number
below 30 and view the output to see the changes.
6.6.2 switch
switch is a multi-branching statement. Using this, different program codes can be
selected for execution based on the value of an expression. Its syntax is:
switch (expression)
{
case value1:
statements;
break;
case value2:
statements;
break;
.................
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

.................
default:
statements;
}
The appropriate case is executed based on the value of the expression. Here the
expression can be the name of a variable also. The following is a web page that
prints the day corresponding to a given number.
Example 6.8: To create a web page to print the day of a week
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - switch</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var d;
d = 3;
switch(d)
{
case 1:
document.write("Sunday");
break;
case 2:
document.write("Monday");
break;
case 3:
document.write("Tuesday");
break;
case 4:
document.write("Wednesday");
break;
case 5:
document.write("Thursday");
break;
case 6:
document.write("Friday");
break;
case 7:
document.write("Saturday");
break;
default:
document.write("Invalid Day");
}
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

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The output of the above page is given

in Figure 6.9.

6.6.3 for loop

for loop is used to execute a group of Fig. 6.9: Web page that illustrates the use of
instructions repeatedly. for loop uses switch statement
a loop variable to control the number of iterations. The syntax of for loop is:
for(initialisation; test_expression; update_statement)
{
statements;
}
Here initialisation is used to initialise loop variables. test_expression checks
the condition and update statement is used to increment or decrement loop variables.
The following example explains the use of for loop.
Example 6.9: To create a web page to display the squares of first 10 numbers
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - for</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var i, s;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
s = i*i;
document.write(s);
document.write("<BR>");
}
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The output of the code is given in Figure Fig. 6.10 : Web page to illustrate the use of
6.10. for loop
Now let us modify the above code to get the output as ‘Square of 1 is 1’ and so on.
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
s = i*i;
document.write("Square of " + i + " is " + s);
document.write("<BR>");
}
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The code uses the string addition operator

+ to generate the output.

6.6.4 while loop

while loop is a simple loop that repeatedly
execute a group of statements based on a
condition. The syntax is
while (test_expression)
Fig. 6.11: Web page to display the square of
{ numbers
statements;
}
Here the test_expression is a condition. The statements inside the loop will be
executed as long as the condition remains true. The following example displays all
even numbers up to 10.
Example 6.10: To create a web page that displays even numbers upto 10
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - while</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var i;
i = 2;
while (i<=10)
{
document.write(i);
document.write("<BR>");
i += 2;
}
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The output of the above code is
given in Figure 6.12.
In JavaScript, we can use do while
loop also exactly as we do in C++. Fig. 6.12: Web page that illustrates the use of while
But since almost all the tasks can be statement
done with for loops and while loops, we do not discuss the other loops here in
this chapter.

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

Write the output, if the statement document.write("<BR>");

is omitted from the Example 6.10?
Let us do

Know your progress

1. To select a group of statements in the program code for execution
______ or ______ control structures are used .
2. Give examples of looping statements in JavaScript.
3. ______ is a multi branching statement.
4. State whether the following statements are true or false
a. break statement is used within the switch block.
b. If we use switch, we will be using break within it, at least once.
c. All the program codes written in if-else can be replaced by
using switch.
d. All the program codes written in switch can be replaced by
using if-else.
5. What is the difference between for loop and while loop?

6.7 Built-in functions

JavaScript provides a large number of built-in functions. The functions are also
called methods. Here we will discuss only the most commonly used functions.
a. alert() function
This function is used to display a message
on the screen. For example, the statement
alert(“Welcome to JavaScript”);
will display the following message window
on the browser window as shown in Figure
6.13. This function is used to display a
message to the user at the time of data
validation. Fig. 6.13: alert() window

b. isNaN() function
This function is used to check whether a value is a number or not. In this function,
NaN stands for Not a Number. The function returns true if the given value is not
a number. For example, the following statements return the value true.
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1. isNaN(“welcome”);
2. isNaN(“A123”);
3. isNaN(“Score50”);
4. isNaN(“A”);

The following statements return the value false.

1. isNaN(“13”);
2. isNaN(13);
3. isNaN(“13.5”);
4. isNaN(“0.123”);
The following statement gives the message as shown in Figure 6.14 on the browser
window:
alert(isNaN(“A”));
This function is very useful for data
validation. For example, suppose the web
page contains a text box to enter the age
of a student. By mistake, the user may enter
a character in the age box, instead of a
number. The above function can check
whether the entered value is a number or
not. If it is not a number, a message will be
displayed by using the alert() function. Fig. 6.14: Result of isNaN()

c. toUpperCase() function
This function returns the upper case form of the given string. Look at the following
example code:
var x, y;
x = “JavaScript”;
y = x.toUpperCase();
alert(y);
The output of the above code segment is
shown in Figure 6.15. Here you can see how
the toUpperCase() function is called. It
is called along with the name of the string
variable x . That is, x.toUpperCase()
returns the upper case form of the string in
the variable x. JavaScript is a case sensitive Fig. 6.15 : Result of toUpperCase()

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

language. Hence you have to use the function exactly in the same case form as given
in the code.
d. toLowerCase() function
It returns the lower case form of the given string.
Look at the following example code.
var x, y;
x = “JavaScript”;
y = x.toLowerCase();
alert(y);
The output of the above code segment is
shown in Figure 6.16. If all the characters
in the string are already in the lower case,
the toLowerCase() returns the same string. Fig. 6.16: Result of toLowerCase()
e. charAt() function
It returns the character at a particular position. charAt(0) returns the first character
in the string. charAt(1) returns the second character in the string and so on. Look
at the following example code.
var x;
x = “JavaScript”;
y = x.charAt(4);
alert(y);
The output is given in Figure 6.17. Since
the fifth character in the variable x is ‘S’,
the letter is displayed in the browser
window. Fig. 6.17: Result of charAt()

f. length property
Besides functions, a string variable also provides some properties which are of use
to programmers. length property returns the length of the string. length means,
the number of characters in the string. For example,
var x, n;
x = “JavaScript”;
n = x.length;
alert(n);
Here, we can see how the length property is called. The property is called along
with the variable as x.length. Figure 6.18 shows the output of the above code.
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The difference between a function and a

property is that the function has parentheses
( and ) with parameters after the function
name, but the property does not.

Know your progress

Write the value of the variable
Fig. 6.18: Result of length property
y in the following:
1. x = “welcome”;
y = x.length;
2. x = “WELCOME”;
y = x.toLowerCase();
3. x = “Welcome”;
y = x.toUpperCase();
4. x = “welcome”;
y = x.toLowerCase();
5. x = “welcome”;
y = isNaN(x);
6. x = “welcome”;
y = charAt(3);

6.8 Accessing values in a textbox using JavaScript

In Chapter 5, we learned how to place various controls like textbox, checkbox,
radio button, submit button, etc. in a web page. Now we will discuss how to access
these web page elements using JavaScript. Actually all the program codes that we
have already discussed in this chapter did not accept any value from the user for
processing. The necessary data for processing was given directly in the program
code itself. After learning this section, we will be able to write a truely interactive
web page. That is, the user can enter some values in a text box, and some processing
can be done on this value and some result can be displayed in another text box. Go
through the following HTML code carefully.
Example 6.11 : To create a web page that displays a web form
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Text box</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmSquare">

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

<CENTER>
Enter a Number
<INPUT Type= “text" Name= "txtNum">
<BR><BR>
Square is
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtSqr">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The output is given in Figure 6.19. Note that we have given the name frmSquare
for the Form, txtNum and txtSquare for the two textboxes. Giving names to
them is very much important to access
them using JavaScript. If we do not give
any name to a web page element, the
JavaScript cannot access these elements.
We can also note that we have not given a
name to the submit button. This is
because, this button need not be referred
from the JavaScript. Fig. 6.19 : A form web page

Now let us make a slight modification in the above program code as given in
Example 6.12.
Example 6.12: To create a web page that displays the square of a number
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Text box</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function showSquare()
{
var num, ans;
num = document.frmSquare.txtNum.value;
ans = num * num;
document.frmSquare.txtSqr.value = ans;
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>

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<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmSquare">
<CENTER>
Enter a Number
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtNum">
<BR><BR>
Square is
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtSqr">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show"
onClick= "showSquare()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Go through the above code carefully. Note
the additions made to the code in Example
6.11. A function with the name showSquare() Fig. 6.20: Web page to find the square of a
number
is defined in the head section of the web page.
This function is called using the following line of code:
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show" onClick= "showSquare()">
onclick= "showSquare()" written within the button means that when the user
clicks this button, the function with the name showSquare()is called.
Now go through the function definition. Look at the following line:
num = document.frmSquare.txtNum.value;
Here document refers the body section of the web page. frmSquare is the name
of the Form we have given inside the body section. txtNum is the name of the text
box within the frmSquare and value refers to the content inside that text box.
That is document.frmSquare.txtNum.value means the document ’s
frmSquare’s txtNum’s value. Therefore the above line assigns the value of the
first text box in a variable num.
Now, you may be able to understand the meaning of the following line.
document.frmSquare.txtSqr.value = ans;
The above line assigns the value of the variable ans in the second text box. Thus
the above web page displays the square of the given number in the second text box
when the button is clicked. User can type any number in the first text box and click
the submit button to see its square. The screen shot of the web page while execution
is given in Figure 6.20.

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What will happen if the line

<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show" onClick= "showSquare()">
is replaced by
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show"
onMouseEnter= "showSquare()">
The function will be called for execution when you move the mouse over the button.
That means, you need not click the button for its execution. You may have noted
that when you move the mouse over some buttons in a web page, the colour of the
button may keep changing. This can be made possible by writing a JavaScript function
to change the colour of the button and call that function on the event
onMouseEnter . onClick , onMouseEnter , onMouseLeave , onKeyDown ,
onKeyUp are some of the commonly used events where we can call a function for
its execution. Table 6.6 shows common JavaScript events and their descriptions.
Event Description
onClick Occurs when the user clicks on an object
onMouseEnter Occurs when the mouse pointer is moved onto an object
onMouseLeave Occurs when the mouse pointer is moved out of an object
onKeyDown Occurs when the user is pressing a key on the keyboard
onKeyUp Occurs when the user releases a key on the keyboard
Table 6.6: Common JavaScript events
Now let us dicuss another example (Example 6.13) that allows the user to enter two
numbers in two different text boxes and display the sum of these numbers in a third
text box, when a button is clicked. The output of this code is given in Figure 6.21.
Example 6.13: To create a web page that displays the sum of two numbers
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Sum</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function showSum()
{
var num1, num2, ans;
num1 = document.frmSum.txtNum1.value;
num2 = document.frmSum.txtNum2.value;
ans = num1 + num2;
document.frmSum.txtSum.value = ans;
}
</SCRIPT>
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</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmSum">
<CENTER>
Enter a Number 1
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtNum1">
<BR><BR>
Enter a Number 2
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtNum2">
<BR><BR>
The sum is
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtSum">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show" onClick= "showSum()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
This program displays 1020 as the result as shown in Figure 6.21. This is because
the + operator is used to add strings also. By default, the content of the text box is
always treated as of string type. Therefore, even
though the content in the text box is a number,
when we assign this to a variable, it will be
treated as string type only. When we add the
two strings “10”+“20” the answer is “1020”.
The function showSum() can be modified as
follows to get the sum of two numbers.
Fig. 6.21: Web page to illustrate the use
function showSum() of + operator
{
var num1, num2, ans;
num1 = Number(document.frmSum.txtNum1.value);
num2 = Number(document.frmSum.txtNum2.value);
ans = num1 + num2;
document.frmSum.txtSum.value = ans;
}
We discussed the Number() function in the previous section of this chapter. The
Number()function converts the data into number type and assigns that number
into the variable num1. In the above function, num1 and num2 are treated as number
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

type data and hence the correct result is obtained

after adding. The output of the web page is given
in Figure 6.22 when the function in the Example
6.13 is replaced by the above function.
Let us consider another web page which displays
the sum of numbers upto a given limit. The user
Fig. 6.22: Web page to find the sum of
can enter the limit in a text box. two numbers using + operator
Example 6.14: To create a web page that displays sum of numbers upto a
given limit
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Sum</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function sumLimit()
{
var sum = 0, i, limit;
limit = Number(document.frmSum.txtLimit.value);
for(i = 1; i <= limit; i++)
sum += i;
document.frmSum.txtSum.value = sum;
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmSum">
<CENTER>
Enter the limit
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtLimit">
<BR><BR>
Sum of Numbers
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtSum">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show"
onClick= "sumLimit()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The output of the above code is given in Figure 6.23. In the above web page, on
clicking the show button, the sum of numbers up to the given limit is shown in the
second text box.
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If the show button in the Form is clicked

without entering the limit, it does not display
any message. That is, in this web page, if we
click the show button without entering the
limit, it will give 0 as the sum. If we do not
enter any value in the text box,
document.frmSum.txtLimit.value is Fig. 6.23: Web page that displays sum of
numbers upto a limit
empty. Hence Number() function will
convert this empty value to the value 0. i.e., the limit variable in the function will
have the value 0. Hence the loop will not be executed at all. Therefore, the variable
sum will have the initial value 0 itself, which is displayed in the second text box.
Now, let us provide a check to the sumLimit()function as given below:
function sumLimit()
{
var sum = 0, i, limit;
if (document.frmSum.txtLimit.value == “”)
{
alert(“Please enter the limit!”);
return;
}
limit = Number(document.frmSum.txtLimit.value);
for(i=1; i<=limit; i++)
sum += i;
document.frmSum.txtSum.value = sum;
}
JavaScript never gives an error. When the script engine is unable to execute an
instruction, it will ignore that line as well as the rest of the lines in the function.If we
click the show button without entering the limit, this code will show a message,
reminding us to enter the limit. The return statement is used to exit from the
function ignoring the rest of the lines. The return statement is similar to the return
statement used in C++.
Let us now check whether a number or an alpbabet is entered in the text box for
entering limit. For this, isNaN() function can be used. This helps to check whether
the user has given the correct data for processing.
function sumLimit()
{
var sum = 0, i, limit;

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

if (document.frmSum.txtLimit.value == “”)
{
alert(“Please enter the limit!”);
return;
}
if (isNaN(document.frmSum.txtLimit.value))
{
alert("Please enter a number as the limit!");
return;
}
limit = Number(document.frmSum.txtLimit.value);
for(i = 1; i <= limit; i++)
sum += i;
document.frmSum.txtSum.value = sum;
}
Java Script is mostly used for client side validation. When the user clicks the submit
button after entering the data, JavaScript can be used to check whether the user has
given all the necessary data, check whether the data is in the correct format or not,
etc. If they are not in the correct format, a message can be shown reminding the
user to enter the correct data.
The following example makes use of a drop-down list in JavaScript. This web page
allows the user to select a state from a drop-down list. On clicking the show button,
capital of the selected State is displayed in a text box. The output is given in Figure 6.24.
Example 6.15: To create a web page that displays the capital of a State
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - switch</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function capital()
{
var n, answer;
n = document.frmCapital.cboState.selectedIndex;
switch (n)
{
case 0:
answer = "Thiruvananthapuram";
break;
case 1:
answer = "Bengaluru";
break;

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case 2:
answer = "Chennai";
break;
case 3:
answer = "Mumbai";
break;
}
document.frmCapital.txtCapital.value = answer;
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmCapital">
<CENTER> State
<SELECT Size= 1 Name= "cboState">
<OPTION>Kerala</OPTION>
<OPTION>Karnataka</OPTION>
<OPTION>Tamilnadu</OPTION>
<OPTION>Maharashtra</OPTION>
</SELECT>
<BR><BR>
Capital
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtCapital">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Show" onClick= "capital()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Let us consider the following statement

Fig. 6.24: Web page to find the capital of a
from the above program. state
document.frmCapital.cboState.selectedIndex;
Here, ‘cboState’ is the name of the drop-down list. ‘selectedIndex’ gives the
index of the selected item in the drop-down list. If the first item is selected, the
index is 0, if the second item is selected, the index is 1, and so on. So, the above line
assigns the index of the selected item in the variable n.

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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

The following is a web page that allows the user to enter the name and age of a
student. The name must contain at least 5 characters. The age should be a number in
the range 15 to 20.
Example 6.16: To create a web page that validates name and age
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Validation</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function checkData()
{
var T_name, T_age, N_age;
T_name = document.frmValid.txtName.value;
if (T_name == "")
{
alert("Please enter name!");
return;
}
if (T_name.length < 5)
{
alert("Name must contain at least 5 characters!");
return;
}
T_age = document.frmValid.txtAge.value;
if (T_age == "")
{
alert("Please enter age!");
return;
}
if (isNaN(T_age))
{
alert("Please enter a number as the age!");
return;
}
N_age = Number(T_age);
if (N_age < 15 || N_age > 20)
{
alert("The age must be between 15 and 20!");
return;
}
}
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
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<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmValid">
<CENTER>Name
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtName">
<BR><BR>
Age
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtAge">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Save"
onClick= "checkData()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The output of the above code is given in
Figure 6.25. It checks all necessary
validations for the data. At first, it tests Fig. 6.25: Web page to validate name and age
whether there is an entry in the Name field or not. Then it tests whether the length
of the name entry has minimum 5 characters or not. Then, it tests whether there is
an entry in the age box. Then it checks whether the age entry is a number or not.
Finally, it tests whether the age entry is in the range 15 to 20 or not.
6.9 Ways to add scripts to a web page
Scripts can be placed inside HTML code in different ways. In the previous examples
we have placed the JavaScript code in the head section of the web page. Apart from
head section, scripts can be placed inside the <BODY> tag or as an external file.
Here we discuss the different ways of embedding scripts in web pages.
6.9.1 Inside <BODY>
Placing scripts inside the <BODY> tag has been discussed in the beginning of this
chapter. Here, the scripts will be executed while the contents of the web page is
being loaded. The web page starts displaying from the beginning of the document.
When the browser sees a script code in between, it renders the script and then the
rest of the web page is displayed in the browser window.
Let us discuss this method with an example. The following is a web page to get the
result of a candidate. The user can enter a register number in the text box. On
clicking the Get Result button, a JavaScript function should check whether there is
any entry in the register number box. If there is, it must be a number and it should
have seven digits. The output of the web page is given in Figure 6.26.
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

Example 6.17: To create a web page that accepts a register number after
validation
<HTML>
<HEAD> <TITLE>Javascript - Validation</TITLE> </HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmValid">
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
function checkData()
{
var rno;
rno = document.frmValid.txtRegno.value;
if (rno == "")
{
alert("Please enter Register No.");
return;
}
if (isNaN(rno))
{
alert("Invalid Register No.");
return;
}
if (rno.length < 7)
{
alert("The Register No. must have 7 digits");
return;
}
}
</SCRIPT>
<CENTER>
<BR>Enter Register Number
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtRegno">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Get Result"
onClick= "checkData()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
A script can also be at the bottom of <BODY> tag. If the scripts are loaded inside
the <BODY> tag or in the <HEAD> tag, they will be loaded along with the HTML

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code. This causes a visual delay in loading

the web page. If the scripts are placed
just before </BODY> tag, the contents of
a web page like text, images, etc. will be
displayed on the screen faster. However,
the disadvantage of this method is that
the scripts that are to be executed while Fig. 6.26: Web page displaying the Form to
accept register number
loading the web page may not work.
6.9.2 Inside <HEAD>
It is a usual practice to include scripts in the head section of the web page. We have
been adding scripts in the head section in all our examples. The main reason for this
is that the body section of most of the HTML pages contains a large volume of
text that specifies the contents to be displayed on the web page. Mixing a function
definition also with this will create a lot of confusion for the web designer for
making any kind of modification in the page.More over, the head section of a web
page is loaded before the body section. Therefore, if any function call is made in
the body section, the function will be executed as the function definition is already
loaded in the memory. In Example 6.17, the code within <SCRIPT> and </SCRIPT>
has to be moved to the <HEAD> section of the HTML code.
6.9.3 External JavaScript file
We can place the scripts into an external file and then link to that file from within the
HTML document. This file is saved with the extension ‘.js’. Placing JavaScripts in
external files has some advantages. This is useful if the same script is used across
multiple HTML pages or a whole website. It separates HTML and code which
makes HTML and JavaScript easier to read and maintain. Storing JavaScript as
separate files can speed up page loading. Note that in the above example (Example
6.17), the JavaScript code is stored as a separate file with the name “check.js”. The
contents of this file is as shown below:
function checkData()
{
var rno;
rno = document.frmValid.txtRegno.value;
if (rno == "")
{
alert("Please enter Register No.");
return;
}
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 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

if (isNaN(rno))
{
alert("Invalid Register No.");
return;
}
if (rno.length < 7)
{
alert("The Register No. must have 7 digits");
return;
}
}
Note that this file contains only JavaScript code and does not contain <SCRIPT>
tag. <SCRIPT> tag is used inside the HTML file only. The file can be linked to
HTML file using the <SCRIPT> tag. The Type attribute specifies that the linked
file is a JavaScript file and the Src attribute specifies the location and file name of
the external JavaScript file. The modified HTML code is given below.
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>Javascript - Validation</TITLE>
<SCRIPT Type= "text/JavaScript" Src= "checkdata.js">
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<FORM Name= "frmValid">
<CENTER>
<BR>Enter Register Number
<INPUT Type= "text" Name= "txtRegno">
<BR><BR>
<INPUT Type= "button" Value= "Get Result"
onClick= "checkData()">
</CENTER>
</FORM>
</BODY>
</HTML>
If Src attribute is present, then contents of <SCRIPT> tag is ignored. That is, you
cannot attach an external file and execute code in single <SCRIPT> tag. Two separate
<SCRIPT> tags are needed for this. One with Src for external file and another with
the code.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Know your progress

1. When will onMouseEnter event of JavaScript work?
2. The property of the drop-down list (<SELECT> element) used
to get the index of the selected item is __________.
3. Compare onKeyDown and onKeyUp events of JavaScript.
4. What is the use of Number() function?
5. What is the advantage of placing JavaScript code just above the
</BODY> tag?

Let us conclude

This chapter introduces JavaScript as a client side scripting language that is used
mainly for validations. The tag used in HTML to include JavaScript code and the
popular functions used are explained here. The datatypes in JavaScript and the use
of variables are also discussed in detail. The use of operators and control structures
is similar to that of C++. The different built-in functions and the events in JavaScript
are explained through examples. The different ways of including JavaScript code in
HTML page are presented in detail.

Let us practice

1. Develop a web page to display the following

screen. User can enter a number in the first
text box. On clicking the show button, product
of all numbers from 1 to the entered limit
should be displayed in the second text box.
2. Develop a web page to display the
following screen. User can enter a number
in the first text box. On clicking the show
button, Even or Odd should be displayed
in the second text box depending on
whether the number is even or odd.
3. Develop a web page to display the following screen. The user can enter an age
in the text box. If the user enters an alpbabet, instead of a number in the text

216
 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

box, on clicking the show button, it

should display a message “Invalid Age”
to the user. Other wise it should display
a message “Correct Data”.
4. Develop a login page as shown in the
figure. The page must contain one text
box for entering the username and one password box for entering the password.
The username must contain at least 4 characters and the password must contain
at least 6 characters. The first two
characters in the password must be
numbers. On clicking the show button,
if the valid data are given in boxes, a
message “Correct Data” should be
displayed. Otherwise, “Wrong Data”
message should be displayed.
5. Develop a web page to implement a
simple calculator. The page should have
two text boxes to enter two numbers.
It should also have 4 buttons to add,
subtract, multiply and divide the two
numbers. The answer should be
displayed in a third text box on clicking
the button. The web page should be as
shown in the given figure.
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
Let us assess 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678

1. Write the value of the variable z in each of the following:

a. var x, y, z;
x = 5;
y = 3;
z = ++x - y--;
b. var x, y, z;
x = “12”;
y = 13;
z = x + y;
c. var x, y, z;
x = 20;
y = 8;
x %= y;
z = x++;
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

d. var x, y, z;
x = 1;
y = 4;
z = !(x < y);
e. var x, y, z;
x = 5;
y = 6 ;
z = (x > y) || (y % 2 == 0);
2. Predict the output of the following
a. <HTML>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var i;
for (i = 10; i >= 1; i--)
document.write(i + "<BR>");
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
b. <HTML>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var i, s = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= 100; i += 2)
s += i;
document.write("Sum = " + s);
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
c. <HTML>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var n, s = 0;
n = 0;
while (n <= 50)
{
s = s + n;
n = n + 5;
}

218
 6. Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript

document.write("Sum = " + s);

</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>
d. <HTML>
<BODY>
<SCRIPT Language= "JavaScript">
var n, f = 1;
n = 5;
while ( n > 0)
{
f = f * n;
n--;
}
document.write("Product = " + f);
</SCRIPT>
</BODY>
</HTML>

3. Following is an html code segment in a web page

<FORM Name= “frmStud”>
<INPUT Type= “text” Name= “studentName”>
</FORM>
Fill in the blanks to store the value of the text box to the variable n.
var n;
n = ...........................;
4. Suppose you have written a JavaScript function named checkData( ). You want
to execute the function when the mouse pointer is just moved over the button.
How will you complete the following to do the same?
<INPUT Type= “button” .......... = “checkData()”>
5. Explain <SCRIPT> tag and its attributes.
6. Write the syntax of a built-in function in JavaScript.
7. Classify the following values in JavaScript into suitable data types.
“Welcome”, “123”, “true”, 67.4, .98, false, “hello”
8. What is meant by undefined data type in JavaScript mean?
9. Explain operators in JavaScript.

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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

10. Write JavaScript functions to perform the following

a. To check whether a variable N contains a number.
b. To convert the string “scert” to all capitals.
c. To convert the string “HTML” to all small letters.
d. To display a message “Welcome to functions”.
e. To display the third character in the string “Computer”.
11. Write JavaScript code to display the length of the string “Computer”.
12. A web page contains a button. Write HTML code for the button which executes
a function Message( ) on the occurance of the following events.
a. When user clicks the mouse on the button.
b. When user moves the mouse over the button.
13. What are the advantages of writing JavaScript code in the head section of an
HTML page?
14. Design an HTML page that contains a text box to enter the marks in a given
subject.
a. Write HTML code for this web page.
b. Provide validations for this text box in a separate JavaScript file and link it
with the HTML file. The validations are (i) it should not be empty (ii) it
should be a number (iii) it should be between 0 and 60.
c. List the advantages of writing the script in a separate file.

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 7 Web Hosting

W
e familiarised ourselves with creating
Significant Learning Outcomes
web pages in the earlier chapters. A
website consisting of several web
After the completion of this chapter, the pages are designed to give information about
learner: an organisation, product, service, etc. Suppose
we have developed a website for our school
• describes the use of a web server
using HTML. How can we make this website
and the concept of web hosting.
available on the Internet? These web pages are
• classifies different types of hosting. to be stored in the web servers connected to
• explains the way to buy hosting the Internet, to be made available to others.
space. This chapter presents an overview of web
• registers a domain and hosts a hosting, its different types and general features.
website using FTP client software. For accessing a website we need a domain
name. How domain names are chosen and
• explains the features of free
registered are also presented here. The various
hosting.
FTP client softwares available to transfer the
• identifies the use of Content files of the website (web pages, images, etc.)
Management Systems. from our computer to the server are also
• describes the need for responsive discussed. After learning this chapter, one will
web design. be able to register a domain name and host a
website.
7.1 Web hosting
To develop a website for our school we need
to design web pages. In the previous chapters,
we discussed how to design web pages. Any
text editor or a web designing tool can be used
to develop a home page, a page for the courses
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

in the school, facilities available, contact address, etc. and link them using a menu to
form an attractive website.
After developing the school website in our computer, it has to be made available in
the Internet. The designed website has to be uploaded to a web server to make it
available to Internet users all over the world. For this, either storage space is rented
on a web server to store the web pages that we have created or our own web server
is set up. Setting up a web server is very expensive compared to hosting a website in
a rented storage space.
Web hosting is the service of providing storage space in a web server to serve files
for a website to be made available on the Internet. The companies that provide web
hosting services are called web hosts. Web hosts own and manage web servers.
These web servers offer uninterrupted Internet connectivity, software packages for
offering additional services such as databases and support for programming
languages such as PHP, Java, ASP.NET, etc.
7.1.1 Types of web hosting
Suppose the entire content of our school website including html files, images, etc.,
require 4 MB of hard disk space on the web server. Web hosts provide only standard
packages of 10 MB, 20 MB, etc. of space on the web server. We may need to
choose the web host considering the packages offered by them that suit our purpose.
The number of visitors expected to visit our website is also a factor. If our website
requires a database, contains scripts, etc. then the support of such features are also
to be considered while choosing a web host.
The type of web hosting has to be decided based on requirements like the amount
of space needed for hosting, the number of visitors expected to visit the website,
the use of resources like databases, programming support, etc. Web hosts provide
different types of hosting packages. They can be shared hosting, virtual hosting and
dedicated hosting.
a. Shared hosting: Shared web hosting is the most common type of web hosting.
It is referred to as shared because many different websites are stored on one single
web server and they share resources like RAM and CPU. The features available on
shared web servers are generally basic and are not flexible to suit a website that
require specific features like high bandwidth, large storage space, etc. Shared hosting
is most suitable for small websites that have less traffic. Shared servers are cheaper
and easy to use, since they are configured with the most popular options. The updates
and the security issues of the software installed in the web server are taken care of
by the hosting company itself. A drawback is that since the bandwidth is shared by
several websites, if any of these has a large volume of traffic, it will slow down all
other websites hosted in the shared server.

218
 7. Web Hosting

b. Dedicated hosting: Dedicated web hosting is the hosting where the client leases
the entire web server and all its resources. The web server is not shared with any
other website. Websites of large organisations, government departments, etc. where
there are large numbers of visitors, opt for dedicated web hosting. Here, the client
has the freedom to choose the hardware and software for the server and has full
control over the web server. Dedicated servers provide guaranteed performance,
but they are very expensive. The advantage of dedicated servers is that such servers
are usually hosted in data centers where the service provider facilitates Internet
connectivity, round-the-clock power supply, etc. and the technical expertise for
managing web servers. The cost of setting up and managing these facilities is thus
reduced for the client. Since the bandwidth is not shared with other websites, it
speeds up the access of the website. If the client is allowed to place their own
purchased web server in the service providers facility, then it is called co-location.
c. Virtual Private Server: A Virtual Private Server (VPS) is a physical server that
is virtually partitioned into several servers using the virtualization technology. Each
VPS works similar to a dedicated server and has its own separate server operating
system, web server software and packages like e-mail, databases, etc. installed in it.
Unlike shared hosting, VPS provides dedicated amount of RAM for each virtual
web server. Each of these VPS works as a fully independent web server, as if each
were running on a separate physical server. The users of VPS are provided with the
rights to install and configure any software on their VPS. They are also given the
right to restart their VPS without affecting other virtual servers running on the
same physical server.
VPS hosting provides dedicated bandwidth to each website on the server. This
provides the advantages of a dedicated hosting, even though the actual server is
shared. This type of hosting is suitable for websites that require more features than
that provided by shared hosting, but does not require all the features of dedicated
hosting. VPS provides almost the same
services at a lesser cost than that of
dedicated hosting. Some popular
server virtualization softwares are
VMware, Virtualbox, FreeVPS, User-
mode Linux, Microsoft Hyper-V, etc.
Figure 7.1 gives a symbolic
representation of the different types of
web hosting packages. Fig. 7.1 : Types of web hosting

219
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

7.1.2 Buying hosting space

We have designed and stored the web
pages of our school website in a folder
in the computer. These files are to be
copied to a web server to make it
available on the Internet as shown in
Figure 7.2. For this, the appropriate
type of web hosting has to be chosen.
It is preferred that the website is hosted
using the services of a shared hosting
service provider as it is cheaper and
appropriate. Once the type of hosting Fig. 7.2 : Making a website available on the
server is decided, hosting space has to Internet
be purchased from a web hosting service provider.
While purchasing hosting space, several factors have to be taken into consideration.
First, we have to decide on the amount of space required. We need to select a
hosting space that is sufficient for storing the files of our website. If the web pages
contain programming content, we need a supporting technology in the web server.
The program used in the web page may require Windows hosting or Linux hosting.
Here we need to
choose between a
Windows server or a
Linux server as shown
in Figure 7.3. If our
website contains only
HTML code, we can
choose any server.
Other features like
database support, e-
mail facility, etc. can
also be considered
while choosing the
web host. Fig. 7.3 : Hosting options

7.1.3 Domain name registration

We have now bought hosting space for our web pages and now we need an
identification (URL) on the Internet. For this a suitable domain name has to be
registered for our school. Domain names are used to identify a website in the Internet.

220
 7. Web Hosting

Most of the web hosting companies offer domain name registration services. After
finalising a suitable domain name for our website, we have to check whether this
domain name is available for registration or it is already in use by somebody else.
The websites of the web hosting companies or web sites like www.whois.net provide
an availability checker facility where we can check this. These websites check the
database of ICANN that contains the list of all the registered domain names and
gives a response as shown
in Figure 7.4. If the
domain name entered is
available, we can proceed
with the registration. The
registration requires filling Fig. 7.4Fig. 7.4 : Domainname
: Domain name registration
registrationsearchsearch
result result
infor mation for WHOIS
database of domain names for
ICANN. WHOIS information
requires the name, address,
telephone number and e-mail
address of the registrant, as
shown in Figure 7.5. This
information can be made public
or can be kept private according
to the registrant's wish. After
paying the annual registration fees
online, the domain is purchased
and is registered in our name. The Fig. 7.5 : Providing WHOIS information
shopping cart of the purchase is shown in Figure 7.6.
Thus, we have
purchased a web
server space for our
school website and
have registered a
domain name for it.
Now, when the user
types our domain name, Fig. 7.6 : Buying a domain name
www.stjosephsbhss.org,
in the browser window, it should display the webpage stored in the web server we
have purchased. This will happen only if the DNS for server returns the IP address
of our web server when the browser requests for it with www.stjosephsbhss.org.

221
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Therefore, our domain name has to be connected to the IP address of the web
server where the web pages are stored. This is done using 'A record' (Address
record) of the domain. An 'A record' is used to store the IP address of a web
server connected to a domain name. The 'A record' can be modified by logging
into the control panel of the domain. Here, you can set the 'A record' of the domain
name to point to the IP address of web server as shown in Figure 7.7. After this,
the DNS
servers will be
able to resolve
our domain
name to
connect to our
web server. Fig. 7.7 : Changing 'A record' of the domain

A WHOIS search will provide information regarding a domain. It may

include information like domain ownership, where and when registered,
expiration date, etc. It is also used to determine whether a given domain
name is available or not. A WHOIS lookup on www.kerala.gov.in returns
the following.

Prepare a comparative table of popular web hosts and their prices

per year for their respective minimum hosting space. Provide pricing
for both Windows and Linux web hosting.
Prepare a comparative table for the pricing for a year for .org and
.com domain registrations in the popular service providers.
Let us do Search the WHOIS details of www.dhsekerala.gov.in and
www.scert.kerala.gov.in in www.whois.net and prepare a chart of the
details.

222
 7. Web Hosting

Know your progress

1. The companies that provide web hosting services are called
__________.
2. List the factors that decide the type of web hosting.
3. VPS is
a. Virtual Premium Service b. Virtual Private Service
c. Virtual Premium Server e. Virtual Private Server
4. What is co-location?
5. What does WHOIS information contain?
6. Why is 'A record' important for a domain name?

7.1.4 FTP client software

After buying a space on the hosting server and a domain name, we need to transfer
the files of the website from our computer to the web server. This requires an FTP
client software.
We have already discussed FTP in Chapter 8, Computer Networks of Class XI.
FTP is used to transfer files from one computer to another on the Internet. FTP
client software establishes a connection with a remote server and is used to transfer
files from our computer to the server computer. To connect to an FTP server,
FTP client software requires a
username and password and also the
domain name. This is to be provided
in the Site Manager dialog box as
shown in Figure 7.8. FTP sends
username and password to the server
as plain text which is unsecure.
Therefore nowadays, SSH FTP
(SFTP) protocol which encrypts and
sends usernames, passwords and data
to the web server is used in the FTP
software. SFTP uses Secure Shell
(SSH) protocol which provides
facilities for secure file transfer. Fig. 7.8 : FTP Login

Once the FTP client is authenticated the IDE of FTP software appears as given in
Figure 7.9. In this figure, the portion on the left side displays the folders and files in
our computer and the right side displays the files in the web server computer. We

223
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

can use either the menu or ‘drag and drop’ files from the left side window to the
right side window to upload the files to the web server. The files will then be
transferred (copied) from our computer to the web server. The popular FTP client
software are FileZilla, CuteFTP, SmartFTP, etc.

Fig. 7.9 : FTP client software IDE

Some web hosting companies provide their own control panel webpage through
which users can upload the files. Such hosting companies do not allow third party
FTP client
software to
upload files to
their web
servers. Figure
7.10 displays a
control panel
provided by a
web hosting
company to
transfer files.
Fig. 7.10 : FTP control panel provided by a hosting company

224
 7. Web Hosting

7.2 Free hosting

Free hosting provides web hosting services free of charge. The service provider
displays advertisements in the websites hosted to meet the expenses. Some free
web hosting sites provide the facility to upload the files of our website in their
server, but may place certain restrictions on the files. The size of the files that can
be uploaded may be limited (supports upto 5 MB only), audio/video files (mp3,
mp4, etc.) may not be permitted and so on. These websites usually provide control
panels to upload files from our computer to the web server as shown in Figure
7.10. Some other websites only permit us to use the templates (pre-formatted
designs) they provide for designing websites. They do not allow external files to be
uploaded to their web server.
Free web hosting services usually provide either their own subdomain
(oursite.example.com) or as a directory service (www.example.com/oursite) for
accessing our websites. Some free web hosting companies provide domain name
registration services also. Free web hosting is useful for sharing content on the web,
among groups having similar interests like family unions, nonprofit organisations,
etc. who are not able to spend money on web hosting. The availability of cheap
web hosting services has reduced the need for free web hosting. Sites.google.com,
yola.com, etc. are free web hosting services. A website of higher secondary school
teachers that uses free hosting is given in Figure 7.11.

Fig. 7.11 : A free web site

7.3 Content Management System
Content Management System (CMS) refers to a web based software system which
is capable of creating, administering and publishing websites. CMS provides an
easy way to design and manage attractive websites.
225
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Most CMS is available for free download at their websites. Copy the files of the
CMS to the hosting space on our web server and configure the website as shown in
Figure 7.12. Templates that provide a list of preset designs for websites are also

Fig. 7.12 : Configuring a website using Joomla!

available for download in some
websites. Some sample
templates available are
displayed in Figure 7.13. The
users need to choose a template
from the given list, upload them
to our website and add titles,
images and other descriptions
for the chosen design. This is as
simple as designing a document Fig. 7.13 : Templates available in Joomla!
in a word processor.
CMS provides standard
security features in its design,
that help even people with less
technical knowledge to design
and develop secure websites.
The CMS templates also reduce
the need for repetitive coding
and design for headings and
menus that appear in all pages
in a website, by internally
Fig. 7.14 : A web site developed using Joomla CMS providing features to add them
in all pages. Templates are available for download for free or for a small price at
226
 7. Web Hosting

popular CMS websites. There are also third party vendors who customise the CMS
for a fee. If you are hosting on a shared web server, verify whether the web server
supports the CMS you have downloaded.
CMS is economical and now many organisations, bloggers, etc. use it for their
websites. Some of the popular CMS software are WordPress, Drupal and Joomla!
Figure 7.14 shows the website of Motor Vehicles department of Government of
Kerala, developed using Joomla!
7.4 Responsive web design
Today we browse web pages using various devices like desktops, laptops, tablets
and mobile phones. All these devices have different screen sizes. Traditional web
pages are designed to be displayed on the screens of devices like desktops and
laptops. These web pages are difficult to view when it is accessed using tablets and
mobile phones. The user may have to use the scroll bar to move from one part of
the web page to another. In earlier days, a separate website was created for the
purpose of viewing in mobile devices. These websites contained web pages whose
size matched the screen size of these devices. But maintaining two websites for a
single organisation created issues. It would be better if the web page was able to
adjust itself to the screen size of the device. This type of web page designing is
called responsive web design. Figure 7.15 shows the appearance of a responsive
website in different devices.
Responsive web design is the custom of
building a website suitable to work on
every device and every screen size, no
matter how large or small, mobile phone
or desktop or television. The term
'responsive web designing' was coined by
Fig. 7.15 : Responsive web design
Ethan Marcotte, an independent designer
and author, to describe a new way of designing for the ever-changing Web. Responsive
web design can be implemented using flexible grid layout, flexible images and media
queries. Flexible grid layouts set the size of the entire web page to fit the display
size of the device. Flexible images and videos set the image/video dimensions to
the percentage of display size of the device. Media queries provide the ability to
specify different styles for individual devices. A horizontal menu in a web page for
larger displays might have to be converted to a drop down menu for a mobile
phone. These settings can be done using media queries inside the CSS file.
Screen sizes always vary - from a wearable device, mobile phones, tablets to laptops,
desktops and televisions. Therefore, it is important that websites are designed to
adapt to the screen size of the device.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Design a website containing the name, age, total runs scored, no. of
wickets taken, etc. of the members of the Indian cricket team and
host the web site using any free hosting services.
Prepare a list of popular CMS providers and write their features.
Let us do In the web hosting space provided, upload the files of the school
website you have prepared using any FTP software.
Let us conclude
After designing a website, it has to be hosted over the Internet using a suitable type
of hosting. Websites of small organisations can be hosted using shared hosting,
websites that have more traffic and need more security can opt for VPS hosting,
whereas websites of large organisations or those with very high traffic require
dedicated hosting. After buying a suitable web hosting space, FTP software can be
used to connect to the web server and can securely transfer the files of the website
to it. Domain name can be registered through a service provider and the 'A record'
can be set to point the domain to the web server. There are free hosting websites
that provide hosting free of cost. Content Management Systems (CMS) offer tools
and standard security features in its design that helps even people with less technical
knowledge to design and develop secure websites. Today, since we browse websites
using devices like mobile phones, tablets, laptops, etc. that have different screen
sizes, it is important to design websites that display themselves according to the
size of the screen they are viewed from.
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
Let us assess 12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
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12345678901234567890123456789012123456789012345678901234567890121234567
1. What do you mean by web hosting? Explain the different types of web hosting.
2. A supermarket in a city wishes to take its business online. It plans to accept
orders for its products through a website and receive payments online.
a. Which type of hosting is suitable for this website?
b. Explain the reason for your choice.
3. Emil wishes to purchase the web hosting space required to host a website for
his medical shop. List the features to be taken into consideration while buying
hosting space on a web server.
4. How can we connect a website hosted in a webserver to a domain name?
5. What is the advantage of using SFTP protocol in FTP software?
6. Raju wishes to host a website for his family. What are the advantages that free
web hosting companies provide?
7. What is CMS? What are the features of CMS? Give Examples.
8. Explain the need for applying responsive web design while developing websites
today.
9. How is responsive web design implemented?
228
 Database Management
8 System

T
his is an era of information. The
Significant Learning Outcomes
survival of organisations in this
competitive world largely depends on
After the completion of this chapter, the the need for information obtained with high
learner accuracy and speed. We know that
• recognises the need for files. infor mation is obtained through the
• identifies the major limitations of
processing of data. For this, a huge amount
the conventional file manage-
of data is to be collected, stored and
ment system.
processed to generate information. Every
organisation that we can think of like schools,
• lists and explains the different
banks, business organisations, etc. are in need
advantages of the Database
of information. Can you imagine how this
Management System.
huge quantity of data was handled
• lists the various components of traditionally? In earlier days, this was handled
DBMS and explains their purpose. manually with data recorded in books termed
• recognises the types of users and as 'book keeping'. It is obvious that large
their roles in the DBMS environ- storage space is a hazard and processing of
ment. data is laborious. With the advent of
• explains the levels of data computers the data could be stored effectively,
abstraction and data indepen- but the possibility of duplication,
dence in DBMS. inconsistency, invalidity, etc. remained. This
• explains relational data model by chapter provides an effective mechanism to
citing examples. overcome these limitations. The concept of
Database Management System (DBMS) is
• uses different terminologies in
introduced in this chapter as an effective
RDBMS, appropriately.
record keeping system (earlier called book
• applies and evaluates various keeping). Various operations are also
operations in Relational algebra. discussed to retrieve the required and relevant
information from the database.
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

8.1 Concept of database

Consider the Single Window System (SWS) of the Department of Higher Secondary
Education, maintaining a large collection (say 5,00,000 applications or 19 GB) of
data concerning students, courses, schools and grades each year for Class XI
admission process. This data is accessed simultaneously by several schools and
students. Questions about the allotment of students and schools must be answered
quickly, changes made to the data by different schools must be applied consistently,
and access to certain parts of the data (e.g., Grades or WGPA) must be restricted.
We can manage the data by storing it in the conventional file management system.
But, this approach has many drawbacks:
• We must keep more copies of the same data for different applications. This
storage leads to duplication of data.
• There is no mechanism to protect the data from inconsistent changes made by
different users accessing the database simultaneously.
• If the data are not properly organised, retrieval of information will be difficult,
and time consuming, and there may be chances of inaccuracy in the information..
• There is no way to ensure that data is restored to a consistent state if the system
crashes while changes are being made.
• Operating systems provide only a password mechanism for security. This is
not sufficiently flexible to enforce security policies in data.
• There is no standardisation on data.
8.1.1 Need of database
The drawbacks mentioned above can be overcome by using database. In situations,
where huge amount of data is to be mantained and manipulated, conventional file
system will not be sufficient. In such a situation we use database. Database is an
organized collection of inter-related data stored together with minimum redundancy,
in a manner that makes them accessible for multiple applications. Now we can try
to manage the data in SWS by storing it in a database. The software Database
Management System (DBMS) is essentially a set of programs which facilitates
storage, retrieval and management of database. The primary goal of DBMS is to
provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use in retrieving
and storing database.
8.1.2 Advantages of DBMS
Database systems are designed to manage large amounts of data. DBMS involves
both the database structures definition for the storage of data and the provision of
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mechanisms for the manipulation of data. In addition, the database system must
ensure the safety of the data stored, against unauthorized access or system failure.
If data is to be shared among several users, the system must avoid possible
anomalous results. The database management system has a number of advantages
over the traditional file management system. They are listed below.
• Controlling data redundancy: In file management systems, data may be placed
in many files. The storing of the same data in multiple locations (may be in the
same file or different files) or duplication of data is known as data redundancy.
Redundancy leads to higher cost in storage and data access. Database systems
do not maintain redundant data, instead all the data is kept at one place in a
centralized manner. All the applications or users that require data refer to the
centrally maintained database. Sometimes there can be technical or business
reasons for maintaining several copies of the same data. However, redundancy
should be carefully controlled in any case.
• Data consistency: Data redundancy may lead to data inconsistency; that is,
the various copies of the same data show different values in different files.
Assume that your class teacher and Principal maintain separate copies of the
address list of all students admitted in your class. During periodic address
change a few students report to the Principal and a few students report to the
changes to the class teacher. After a certain period of time both the address
lists become irrelevant and inconsistent since total corrections are not updated
in both. By controlling data redundancy, data consistency is obtained. If a data
item appears only once, any update to its value has to be performed only once
and the updated value is immediately available to all users.
• Efficient data access: A DBMS utilises a variety of techniques to store and
retrieve data efficiently.
• Data integrity: Data integrity refers to the overall completeness, accuracy
and consistency of data in the database. This can be indicated by an absence
of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record. Data integrity
is imposed within a database at its design stage through the use of standard
rules and procedures. Data integrity can be maintained through the use of
error checking and validation routines.
• Data security: The information inside a database is valuable to any company
or organization. Therefore it must be kept secure and private. Data security
refers to the protection of data against accidental or intentional disclosure or
unauthorized destruction or modification by unauthorized persons. The various
programs and users may share data in common. But access to specific
information can be limited to selected users by setting the access rights. Through
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the use of passwords, the information in a database is made available only to

authorised persons.
• Sharing of data: The data stored in the database can be shared among several
users or programs even simultaneously and each may use it for different
purposes.
• Enforcement of standards: With central control of the database, a Database
Administrator (DBA) defines and enforces the necessary standards. Standards
can be defined for data formats to facilitate exchange of data between systems.
Applicable standards might include naming conventions, display formats,
report structures, terminology, documentation standards, update procedures,
access rules and so on. This facilitates communication and cooperation among
various departments, projects and users within the organization.
• Crash recovery: When a system crashes, all or a portion of the data can become
unusable. DBMS provides some mechanism to recover data from the crashes.
Thus the DBMS protects data from the effects of system failures.

Know your progress

1. Storing of the same data in different places is called _______.
2. Address of a particular student is stored in two ways in a school
record; this situation is known as _______.
3. Unauthorised accessing of data can be prevented from using
______.
4. Sharing of data can reduce data redundancy. State whether true
or false?
5. Data redundancy will reduce data consistency. State whether true
or false?

8.2 Components of the DBMS environment

DBMS have several components, each performing very significant tasks in its
environment. The components are
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• Users
• Procedures

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 8. Database Management System

Hardware: The hardware is the actual computer system used for storage and
retrieval of the database. This includes computers (PCs, workstations, servers and
supercomputers), storage devices (hard disks, magnetic tapes), network devices
(hubs, switches, routers) and other supporting devices for keeping and retrieval of
data.
Software: The software
part consists of the actual
DBMS, application
programs and utilities.
DBMS acts as a bridge
between the user and the
database. In other words,
DBMS is the software that
interacts with the users,
application programs, and
databases. All requests from Fig. 8.1: Database system environment
users for access to the
database are handled by the DBMS. Database management system software consists
of several software components that handle various tasks such as data definition,
data manipulation, data security, data integrity, data recovery and performance
optimization. One general function provided by the DBMS is thus the shielding of
database from complex hardware-level detail. The DBMS controls the access and
helps to maintain the consistency of the data.
Application programs are most commonly used to access data found within the
database to generate reports, tabulations, and other information to facilitate decision
making. Utilities are the software tools used to help manage the database system.
For example, all major DBMS provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help
create database structures, control database access, and monitor database operations.
Data: It is the most important component of DBMS environment from the end
users point of view. The database contains operational data and the meta-data (data
about data). The database should contain all the data needed by the organization.
The major feature of databases is that the actual data and the programs that uses
the data are separated from each other. For effective storage and retrieval of
information, data is organized as fields, records and files.
Assume a box containing a collection of cards which stores the Admission Number,
Name, Batch, Result, Marks of students in a class. Each card will have the same
format but the data written on them is different as in Figure 8.2.

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Fig. 8.2: Concept of data organisation

Fields: A field is the smallest unit of stored data. Each field consists of data of a
specific type. In Figure 8.2 Adm. No., Name, Batch, Result, and Marks are the
fields.
Record: A record is a collection of related fields. In the Figure 8.2, each card in the
box contains the related fields of a record. For example, the fields 103, Mohanan,
Science, Pass, and 520 constitute a record.
File: A file is a collection of all occurrences of same type of records. The box
shown in Figure 8.2 may be considered as a file.
Users: There are a number of users who can access data on demand using
application programs. The users of a database system can be classified depending
on the mode of their interactions with DBMS. The different categories of users are
Database Administrator (DBA), Application Programmers, Sophisticated users
and Naive Users.
Procedures: Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that govern the design
and use of the database. The users of the system and the person that manages the
database require documented procedures on how to use or run the system. These
may consist of instruction on how to:
i. log onto the DBMS.
ii. use a particular DBMS facility or application program.
iii. start and stop the DBMS.
iv. make backup copies of the database or handle hardware or software
failures
v. reorganise the database across multiple disks, improve performance, or
archive data to secondary storage.

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Know your progress

1. Data about data is called ________.
2. List the name of major components of a database system?
3. Categorize the following components of DBMS environment.
Hard disk, Switch, DBA, Payroll system, End user, railway
reservation system.

8.3 Data abstraction and data independence

For the system to be usable, it must retrieve data efficiently. The need for efficiency
has led designers to use complex data structures to represent data in the database.
Since many database system users are
not computer trained, developers hide
the complexity from users through
several levels of abstraction. The data
in a DBMS is described at three levels
of abstraction, as illustrated in Figure
8.3. The database description consists
of a structure at each of these three
levels of abstraction: the physical level,
conceptual level and view level.
Fig. 8.3: Levels of abstraction
a. Physical level
The lowest level of abstraction describes how data is actually stored on secondary
storage devices such as disks and tapes. The physical level describes complex low-
level data structures in detail. We must decide what file organisations are to be used
to store the relations and create auxiliary data structures, called indexes, to speed
up data retrieval operations.
A sample physical schema for the SWS database follows:
• Store all relations as unsorted files of records. (A file in a DBMS is either a
collection of records or a collection of data)
• Create indexes on the first column of the files Student, School, and Course.
b. Logical level
The next-higher level of abstraction describes what data is stored in the database,
and what relationships exist among those data. The logical level thus describes the
entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. Although

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implementation of the simple structures at the logical level may involve complex
physical-level structures, the user of the logical level does not need to be aware of
this complexity. Database administrators, who must decide what information to
keep in the database, use the logical level of abstraction. Logical level is also referred
as conceptual level.
c. View level
View level is the highest level of database abstraction and is the closest to the users.
It is concerned with the way in which individual users view the data. It describes
only a part of the entire database. Most of the users of the database are not concerned
with all the information that is contained in the database. Instead they need only a
part of the database that is relevant to them. This simplifies their interaction with
the system. The system may provide many views for the same database. Figure 8.4
shows the three levels of data abstraction for a STUDENT file with fields AdmNo,
Name, Batch, Result, Marks.

Fig. 8.4: Example for levels of abstraction

8.3.1 Data independence

Since a database may be viewed through three levels of abstraction, any change in
the database structure at a particular level may affect the schema of other levels.
The frequent changes made on database should not lead to the redesigning and re-
implementation of the database. The ability to modify the schema definition (data
structure definition) in one level without affecting the schema definition at the next

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higher level is called data independence. There are two levels of data independence,
physical data independence and logical data independence.
a. Physical data independence
Physical data independence refers to the ability to modify the schema followed at
the physical level without affecting the schema followed at the conceptual level.
That is, the application programs remain the same even though the schema at physical
level gets modified.
b. Logical data independence
Logical data independence refers to the ability to modify a conceptual schema
without causing any changes in the schema followed at view (external) level. The
logical data independence ensures that the application programs remain the same.
It is more difficult to achieve logical data independence than physical data
independence because the application programs are heavily dependent on the logical
structure of the database.
8.4 Users of database
Depending on the degrees of expertise or the mode of the interactions with DBMS
the users of a database system can be classified into the following groups:
• Database Administrator (DBA)
• Application Programmers
• Sophisticated Users
• Naive Users
8.4.1 Database Administrator
The person who is responsible for the control of the centralized and shared database
is the Database Administrator (DBA). The DBA is responsible for many critical
tasks such as,
Design of the conceptual and physical schemas: The DBA is responsible for
interacting with the users of the system to understand what data is to be stored in
the DBMS and how it is likely to be used. Based on this knowledge, the DBA must
design the conceptual schema and the physical schema.
Security and authorization: The DBA is responsible for ensuring authorized access
of data. For example, in a school, teachers allow students to find out course details,
results of the student and the details as to who teaches a particular subject. At the
same time students shall not be permitted to see teachers' salaries or grades of

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other students. The DBA can enforce this policy by giving permission to students
to read only the course view.
Data availability and recovery from failures: The DBA must take steps to restore
the data to a consistent state when the system fails to complete a transaction or in
case of a system crash. The DBMS provides software support for these functions,
but the DBA is responsible for implementing procedures to back up the data
periodically and maintain logs (special files for storing all activities in a database
such as insertion, deletion, updation etc.) of system activity (to facilitate recovery
from a crash).
8.4.2 Application programmers
Application programmers are computer professionals who interact with the DBMS
through application programs. Application programs are programs written in any
host language (for example Visual Basic, C, C ++, Java, etc.) and interact with the
DBMS through Data Manipulation Language (DML). Application programs should
ideally access data through the external schema.
8.4.3 Sophisticated users
Sophisticated users include engineers, scientists, business analysts, and others who
are thoroughly familiar with the facilities of the DBMS. They interact with the systems
through their own queries (a request to a database) to meet their complex
requirements.
8.4.4 Naive users
Naive users interact with the system by invoking one of the application programs
that were written previously. They are not concerned with or even aware of the
details of the DBMS. Naive users deal only with the higher level of abstraction.
People accessing data over the web, clerical staff in an office, billing clerk in a
supermarket or hotels, bank clerk, etc. are examples of some naive users.
Know your progress
1. The person who interacts with the database through query
language is called ________
2. The billing clerk in a Supermarket is a ________ user.
3. Who provides data security in a database?
4. Who changes the structure of a database?
5. ________ interacts with the database through the prewritten
application program.

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8.5 Relational data model

The relational data model represents database as a collection of tables called relations,
each of which is assigned a unique name. In relational model, both data and the
relationships among them are represented in tabular form. This representation
enables even beginners to understand the concepts of a database easily.

Edgar Frank Codd (19 August 1923 - 18 April 2003)

was an English computer scientist who invented the
relational model for database management. He was
born on the Isle of Portland in England. He served
as a pilot in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War. In
1948, he joined IBM. He received the Turing Award in 1981. He
died of heart failure at his home in Williams Island, Florida, at
the age of 79 on 18 April 2003.

Today, a vast majority of database products are based on the relational model and
they are known as Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS). The major
advantages of the relational model over the other data models are its simple data
representation and the ease with which even complex queries can be expressed. The
popular RDBMS are Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, DB2, Informix and
Ingress. Most commercial relational database systems offer a query language that
includes Structured Query Language (SQL), Query-by-Example (QBE) or Datalog.
We shall study the widely used query language SQL in the Chapter 9.
8.6 Terminologies in RDBMS
Before discussing the operations on relational databases, let us be familiar with
some terminologies associated with RDBMS.
a. Entity
An entity is a person or a thing in the real world that is distinguishable from others.
For example, each student is an entity, and each school can be considered as another
entity.
b. Relation
Relation is a collection of data elements organized in terms of rows and columns.
A relation is also called Table. A sample relation named STUDENT is shown in
Table 8.1.

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STUDENT relation

AdmNo Roll Name Batch Marks Result

101 24 Sachin Science 480 EHS
102 14 Rahul Commerce 410 EHS
103 4 Fathima Humanities 200 NHS
104 12 Mahesh Commerce 180 NHS
105 24 Nelson Humanities 385 EHS
106 8 Joseph Commerce 350 EHS
107 24 Shaji Humanities 205 NHS
108 2 Bincy Science 300 EHS
Table. 8.1: A sample relation
c. Tuple
The rows (records) of a relation are generally referred to as tuples. A row consists
of a complete set of values used to represent a particular entity. In Table 8.1, each
row in the STUDENT relation represents the result of a particular student.
d. Attribute
The columns of a relation are called attributes. AdmNo, Roll, Name, Batch, Marks
and Result are attributes of the STUDENT relation. The values of each attribute
are taken from the range of possible values called domain.
e. Degree
The number of attributes in a relation determines the degree of a relation. The
relation STUDENT has six columns or attributes and therefore the degree of the
STUDENT relation is 6.
f. Cardinality
The number of rows or tuples in a relation is called cardinality of the relation. The
relation STUDENT has eight tuples and hence the cardinality of the STUDENT
relation is 8.
g. Domain
A domain is a pool of values from which actual values appearing in a given column
are drawn. For example, the domain of the column Batch in the relation STUDENT
shown in Table 8.1 is the set of values {Science, Humanities, Commerce}. That is,

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 8. Database Management System

any one of the values from this set only can appear in the column Batch. Similarly,
the set {EHS, NHS} is the domain of the column Results.
h. Schema
The description or structure of a database is called the database schema, which is
specified during database design. In the relational model, the schema for a relation
specifies its name, the name of each column, and the type of each column. As an
example, student information in a School database may be stored in a relation with
the following structure:
STUDENT (Admno : integer,
Roll : integer,
Name : character(50),
Batch : character(20),
Marks : decimal,
Result : character(4))
i. Instance
An instance of a relation is a set of tuples in which each tuple has the same number
of fields as the relational schema. The preceding schema says that each row in the
STUDENT relation has six columns, with column names and types as indicated.
An example for instance of the STUDENT relation is shown in Table 8.1.
Know your progress
1. Organization of data in terms of rows and columns is called
________.
2. ________ in a table gives the complete data of a particular
entity.
3. Number of rows in a relation is called ________.
4. Number of ________ in a relation is called degree of the
relation.
5. In the relational model, data is organised as ________.
8.6.1 Keys
A relation is defined as a set of tuples. All the tuples in a relation must be distinct.
That is, no two tuples can have the same combination of values for all their attributes.
Therefore there should be a way to identify a tuple in a relation. The concept of a
key allows us to make such distinctions. A key is an attribute or a collection of
attributes in a relation that uniquely distinguishes each tuples from other tuples in a
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given relation. If a key consists of more than one attribute then it is called a composite
key. In the extreme, the entire tuple is the key since each tuple in the relation is
guaranteed to be unique. However, we are interested in smaller keys, if they exist,
for a number of practical reasons.
a. Candidate key
A candidate key is the minimal set of attributes that uniquely identifies a row in a
relation. In the STUDENT relation of Table 8.1, AdmNo can uniquely identify a
row. Therefore it can be considered as a candidate key. There may be more than
one candidate key in a relation. Also, a candidate key need not be just one single
attribute. It can be a composite key. For example, a combination of Roll, Batch
and Marks can also be used to identify a particular student. Therefore, Roll + Batch
+ Year can be considered as another candidate key of STUDENT relation.
b. Primary key
A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen to be the unique identifier for
that table by the database designer. A primary key is a set of one or more attributes
that can uniquely identify tuples within the relation. As it uniquely identifies each
entity, it cannot contain null value and duplicate value.
Candidate keys are considered as candidates for primary key position. From the
candidate keys the one with the least number of attributes may be selected as primary
key. In our example (STUDENT relation), the attribute AdmNo can be used as the
primary key. That is, no two students in the STUDENT relation can have the same
AdmNo. In Table 8.1, we can see unique values in the column Name, but in real
case scenario, more than one student can have the same name.
c. Alternate key
A candidate key that is not the primary key is called an alternate key. In the case of
two or more candidate keys, only one of them can serve as the primary key. The
rest of them are alternate keys. In our example the combination of Roll + Batch +
Year is the alternate key since AdmNo is taken as the primary key.
d. Foreign key
A key in a table can be called foreign key if it is a primary key in another table. Since
a foreign key can be used to link two or more tables it is also called a reference key.
Suppose we have used Batch code instead of Batch name as shown in Table 8.2 and
we have a relation BATCH as shown in Table 8.3. It is clear that BatchCode is the
primary key in relation Batch, but it is used in STUDENT table as a non-key attribute.
So, BatchCode is referred to as a foreign key with respect to STUDENT relation.

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 8. Database Management System

STUDENT relation

AdmNo Roll Name BatchCode Marks Result

101 24 Sachin S2 480 EHS
102 14 Rahul C2 410 EHS
103 4 Fathima H2 200 NHS
104 12 Mahesh C2 180 NHS
105 24 Nelson H2 385 EHS
106 8 Joseph C2 350 EHS
107 24 Shaji H2 205 NHS
108 2 Bincy S2 300 EHS
Table 8.2: Modified STUDENT relation
BATCH relation

Know your progress BatchCode BatchName Strength

1. The minimal set of S1 Science 150
attributes that uniquely S2 Science 150
identifies a row in a
relation is ________ C1 Commerce 100
2. In a table Employee C2 Commerce 100
Emp_code, Pan_no H1 Humanities 100
are the candidate keys.
H2 Humanities 100
If Emp_code is taken
as the primary key then Table 8.3: Instance of Batch relation
Pan_no is ________ key.
3. How many primary keys are possible in a relation?
4. If a key consists of more than one attributes then it is called
________

8.7 Relational algebra

We have discussed the features of relational model, which provides facilities for
craeting a database. Once the database is designed and data is stored, the required
information is to be retrieved. A variety of operations are provided by RDBMS.
The collection of operations that is used to manipulate the entire relations of a
database is known as relational algebra. These operations are performed with the

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help of a special language associated with the relational model, called query language.
We will learn this language in the next chapter to perform these operations. The
operations involved in relational algebra take one or two relations as input and
produces a new relation as the result. The fundamental operations in relational algebra
are SELECT, PROJECT, UNION, INTERSECTION , SET DIFFERENCE,
CARTESIAN PRODUCT, etc. The SELECT and PROJECT operations are unary
operations because they operate on one relation. The remaining operations are
binary operations as they operate on pairs of relations.
8.7.1 SELECT operation
SELECT operation is used to select rows from a relation that satisfies a given
predicate. The predicate is a user defined condition to select rows of user's choice.
This operation is denoted using lower case letter sigma ( σ ). The general format of
select is as follows:
σ condition
(Relation)
The result of SELECT operation is another relation containing all the rows satisfying
the given predicate (or conditions). The relational algebra uses various comparison
operators < (less than), <= (less than or equal to), > (greater than), >= (greater
than or equal to), = (equal to) and < > (not equal to) to set up simple conditions,
and logical operators ∨ (OR), ∧ (AND) and ! (NOT) to construct composite
conditions.
To illustrate the SELECT operation, consider the relation STUDENT given in Table
8.1. The following examples show how SELECT operations are expressed in
relational algebra and what output they produce.
Example 8.1: To select all the students who are eligible for higher studies.
σ Result="EHS"
(STUDENT)

The output of this

operation is a relation AdmNo Roll Name Batch Marks Result
as shown in Table 8.4. 101 24 Sachin Science 480 EHS
102 14 Rahul Commerce 410 EHS
Example 8.2: To select
105 24 Nelson Humanities 385 EHS
all the students in the
Commerce batch who 106 8 Joseph Commerce 350 EHS
are failed. 108 2 Bincy Science 300 EHS
Table 8.4: Output of Example 8.1

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 8. Database Management System

σ Result="NHS" ∧ Batch="Commerce"
(STUDENT)
The result of this
operation is a relation AdmNo Roll Name Batch Marks Result
as shown in Table 8.5 104 12 Mahesh Commerce 180 NHS
Table 8.5: Output of Example 8.2

Example 8.3: To select all the students in the batch Science or Commerce.
σ Batch="Science" ∨ Batch="Commerce"
(STUDENT)

Table 8.6 shows the AdmNo Roll Name Batch Marks Result
output this operation. 101 24 Sachin Science 480 EHS
102 14 Rahul Commerce 410 EHS
104 12 Mahesh Commerce 180 NHS
106 8 Joseph Commerce 350 EHS
108 2 Bincy Science 300 EHS
Table 8.6: Output of Example 8.3
8.7.2 PROJECT operation
The PROJECT operation selects certain attributes from the table and forms a new
relation. If the user is interested in selecting the values of a few attributes, rather
than all the attributes of the relation, then use PROJECT operation. It is denoted by
lower case letter π . The general format of project operation is as follows:
π A1, A2,…., An
(Relation)
Here A1, A2, . . . ., An refer to the various attributes that would make up the
relation specified.
Example 8.4: Select Name, Result and Name Marks Result
Marks attributes in STUDENT relation. Sachin 480 EHS
π (STUDENT) Rahul 410 EHS
Name, Marks, Result

The output of this operation is given in Table Fathima 200 NHS

8.7. Mahesh 180 NHS
It is possible to combine the SELECT and Nelson 385 EHS
PROJECT operations into a single statement. Joseph 350 EHS
The illustration of this is shown in Examples Shaji 205 NHS
8.5 and 8.6. Bincy 300 EHS
Table 8.7: Output relation of Example 8.4

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Example 8.5: To select admission number and name AdmNo Name

of students who are Eligible for Higher Studies.
101 Sachin
π ( σ result="EHS" (STUDENT))
AdmNo, Name 102 Rahul
The resultant relation of this operation is given in Table 105 Nelson
8.8. Compare it with Table 8.4 for the verfication of
106 Joseph
correctness of the result.
108 Bincy
Example 8.6: To select name and marks of those Table 8.8: Output relation of
students in the Humanities batch who are Not eligible Example 8.5
for Higher Studies.
Name Marks
π Name, Marks
( σ result="NHS" ∧ Batch="Humanities" (STUDENT))
Fathima 200
The result of this nested operation is shown in Table
8.9. Shaji 205
Table 8.9: Output relation of
8.7.3 UNION operation Example 8.6

UNION operation is a binary operation and it returns a relation containing all tuples
appearing in either or both of the two specified relations. It is denoted by ∪ . The
two relations must be union-compatible, and the schema of the result is defined to
be identical to the schema of the first relation. If two relations are union-compatible,
then they have the same number of attributes, and corresponding attributes, taken
in order from left to right, have the same domain. Note that attribute names are not
used in defining union-compatibility.
Consider two relations ARTS and SPORTS given in Tables 8.10 and 8.11 containing
the details of students who participate in the arts festival and the sports meet of a
school, respectively. Both the relations ARTS and SPORTS consist of AdmNo,
Name and BatchCode as fields. It is clear that that these two relations are union
SPORTS relation
ARTS relation
AdmNo Name BatchCode
AdmNo Name BatchCode
102 Rahul C2
101 Sachin S2
103 Fathima H2
103 Fathima H2
105 Nelson H2
106 Joseph C2
106 Joseph C2
110 Nikitha S1
108 Bincy S2
132 Vivek C1
132 Vivek C1
154 Nevin C1
164 Rachana S1
Table 8.10: Instance of ARTS relation
Table 8.11: Instance of SPORTS relation
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 8. Database Management System

compatible. That is, the two relations have the same number of attributes and the
type of the corresponding attributes are also the same.
Relation ARTS ∪ SPORTS returns the AdmNo Name BatchCode
details of the students participated in arts 101 Sachin S2
or sports or both. That is, the expression
103 Fathima H2
ARTS ∪ SPORTS returns a table as shown
106 Joseph C2
in Table 8.12. This table consists of the
110 Nikitha S1
records belonging to the tables ARTS or
SPORTS or both, eliminating the 132 Vivek C1
duplication. In Table 8.12, we can see that 154 Nevin C1
records of students with admission 102 Rahul C2
numbers 103, 106, and 132 appear only 105 Nelson H2
once in the relation. 108 Bincy S2
164 Rachana S1
8.7.4 INTERSECTION operation Table. 8.12: Relation of ARTS U SPORTS
INTERSECTION operation is also a binary operation and it returns a relation
containing the tuples appearing in both of the two specified relations. It is denoted
by ∩ . The two relations must be union-compatible, and the schema of the result is
defined to be identical to the schema of the first relation.
If we apply INTERSECT operation on the relations in Tables 8.10 and 8.11, the
expression ARTS ∩ SPORTS returns the AdmNo Name BatchCode
details of the students participated in both
103 Fathima H2
arts and sports. That is ARTS ∩ SPORTS
returns a table consisting of rows 106 Joseph C2
common to ARTS and SPORTS as shown 132 Vivek C1
in Table 8.13. Table. 8.13: Relation of ARTS SPORTS

8.7.5 SET DIFFERENCE operation

SET DIFFERENCE operation is also a binary operation and it returns a relation
containing the tuples appearing in the first relation but not in the second relation. It
is denoted by - (minus). The two relations must be union-compatible, and the
schema of the result is defined to be identical to the schema of the first relation.
The result of SET DIFFERENCE operation ARTS - SPORTS on Tables 8.10 and
8.11 returns the details of the students participated in arts but not in sports. That is,
the resultant table will contain the rows appearing in relation ARTS but not in relation
SPORTS as given in Table 8.14.
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 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

Relation SPORTS - ARTS returns the AdmNo Name BatchCode

details of the students participated in
101 Sachin S2
sports but not in arts as shown in Table
8.15. 110 Nikitha S1
154 Nevin C1
Union and Intersection operations are
Table. 8.14: Relation of ARTS - SPORTS
commutative, that is the order of relation
is not important. For example, the result
of ARTS U SPORTS and SPORTS U AdmNo Name BatchCode
ARTS are same. Also the result of 101 Rahul C2
ARTS ∩ SPORTS and SPORTS ∩ ARTS 105 Nelson H2
are the same. But Set Difference operation 108 Bincy S2
is not commutative, that is the order of 164 Rachana S1
relation is important. For example, the
Table. 8.15: Relation of SPORTS - ARTS
result of ARTS - SPORTS and SPORTS
- ARTS are not same (refer to Tables 8.14 and 8.15).
8.7.6 CARTESIAN PRODUCT operation
CARTESIAN PRODUCT returns a relation consisting of all possible combinations
of tuples from two relations. It is a binary operation on relations, which has a degree
(number of attributes) equal to the sum of the degrees of the two relations operated
upon. The cardinality (number of tuples) of the new relation is the product of the
number of tuples of the two relations operated upon. CARTESIAN PRODUCT is
denoted by × (cross). It is also called CROSS PRODUCT. All the tuples of the first
relation are concatenated with tuples of the second relation to form tuples of the
new relation.
Let us consider a relation TEACHER as shown in Table 8.16, which contains the
details of teachers in the school. We can use this relation to perform cartesian
production operation with STUDENT
TEACHER relation
relation in Table 8.2. The output of the
operation STUDENT × TEACHER is TeacherId Name Dept
shown in Table 8.17. This table shows that 1001 Viswesaran English
each record of STUDENT relation is 1002 Meenakshi Computer
concatenated with the rows in TEACHER Table 8.16: Instance of TEACHER relation
relation.

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 8. Database Management System

Adm Roll Name Batch Marks Result TeacherId Name Dept

No Code

101 24 Sachin S2 480 EHS 1001 Viswesaran English

101 24 Sachin S2 480 EHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer

102 14 Rahul C2 410 EHS 1001 Viswesaran English

102 14 Rahul C2 410 EHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer

103 4 Fathima H2 200 NHS 1001 Viswesaran English
103 4 Fathima H2 200 NHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
104 12 Mahesh C2 180 NHS 1001 Viswesaran English
104 12 Mahesh C2 180 NHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
105 24 Nelson H2 385 EHS 1001 Viswesaran English
105 24 Nelson H2 385 EHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
106 8 Joseph C2 350 EHS 1001 Viswesaran English
106 8 Joseph C2 350 EHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
107 24 Shaji H2 205 NHS 1001 Viswesaran English
107 24 Shaji H2 205 NHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
108 2 Bincy S2 300 EHS 1001 Viswesaran English
108 2 Bincy S2 300 EHS 1002 Meenakshi Computer
Table 8.17: Result of STUDENT X TEACHER operation

A Database model defines the logical design of data. The model describes
the relationships between different parts of the data. The different
models used in database design are Hierarchical Model, Network Model,
Relational Model and Object-Oriented Model. Hierarchical structures
were widely used in the early mainframe database management systems, such as the
Information Management System (IMS) by IBM. Popular DBMS product in Network
model were Cincom Systems' Total and Cullinet's IDMS.

Let us conclude

We have discussed the basic concepts of DBMS and its components. The advantages
of database over traditional file system have been detailed. A brief idea about
various terminologies associated with database is presented in the context of
relational data model. Once the data is organised systematically in database, the
operations provided by relational algebra to generate required information are

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experienced with the help of sample relations. A good understanding about the
concepts introduced by this chapter is essential to learn the next chapter effectively.
In that chapter we will discuss how database is created and information is retrieved
using a query language.
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Let us assess 123456789012345678901234567890121234567890123456789012345678901212345678
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1. Who is responsible for managing and controlling the activities associated with
the database?
a. Database administrator b. Programmer
c. Naive user d. End user
2. In the relational model, cardinality is the
a. number of tuples b. number of attributes
c. number of tables d. number of constraints
3. Cartesian product in relational algebra is
a. a Unary operator b. a Binary operator
c. a Ternary operator d. not defined
4. Abstraction of the database can be viewed as
a. two levels b. four levels
c. three levels d. one level
5. In a relational model, relations are termed as
a. tuples b. attributes
c. tables d. rows
6. In the abstraction of a database system the external level is the
a. physical level b. logical level
c. conceptual level d. view level
7. Related fields in a database are grouped to form a
a. data file b. data record
c. menu d.bank
8. A relational database developer refers to a record as
a. criteria b. relation
c. tuple d. attribute
9. An advantage of the database management approach is
a. data is dependent on programs
b. data redundancy increases
c. data is integrated and can be accessed by multiple programs
d. none of the above
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 8. Database Management System

10. Data independence means

a. data is defined separately and not included in programs
b. programs are not dependent on the physical attributes of data
c. programs are not dependent on the logical attributes of data
d. both (b) and (c)
11. Key to represent relationship between tables is called
a. primary key b. candidate Key
c. foreign Key d. alternate Key
12. Which of the following operations is used if we are interested only in certain
columns of a table?
a. PROJECTION b. SELECTION
c. UNION d. SELECT
13. Which of the following operations need the participating relations to be union
compatible?
a. UNION b. INTERSECTION
c. SET DIFFERENCE d. All of the above
14. Which database level is closest to the users?
a. External b. Internal
c. Physical d. Conceptual
15. The result of the UNION operation between R1 and R2 is a relation that
includes
a. all the tuples of R1
b. all the tuples of R2
c. all the tuples of R1 and R2
d. all the tuples of R1 and R2 which have common columns
16. A file manipulation command that extracts some of the records from a file is
called
a. SELECT b. PROJECT
c. JOIN d. PRODUCT
17. An instance of relational schema R (A, B, C) has distinct values of A including
NULL values. Which one of the following is true?
a. A is a candidate key b. A is not a candidate key
c. A is a primary Key d. Both (a) and (c)

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18. How many distinct tuples are there in a relation instance with cardinality 22?
a. 22 b. 11
c. 1 d. None
19. A set of possible data values is called
a. Attribute b. Degree
c. Tuple d. Domain
20. Why should you choose a database system instead of simply storing data in
conventional files?
21. Explain the different levels of data abstraction in DBMS?
22. How are schema layers related to the concepts of logical and physical data
independence?
23. Consider the instance of the EMPLOYEE relation shown in the following
table. Identify the attributes, degree, cardinality and domain of Name and
Emp_code.
Emp_Code Name Department Designation Salary
1000 Sudheesh Purchase Manager 25000
1001 Dhanya Sales Manager 25000
1002 Fathima Marketing Clerk 12000
1003 Shajan Sales Clerk 13000

24. Identify primary key, candidate keys and alternate keys in the instance of
EMPLOYEE relation in Question 23.
25. Consider the instance of the STUDENT relation shown in the following table.
Assume Reg_no as the primary key.
a. Identify the candidate keys and alternate keys in the STUDENT relation.
b. How are the primary key and the candidate key related?

Reg_no Name Batch Result Marks

101 Sachin Science Pass 480
103 Fathima Humanities Fail 200
106 Joseph Commerce Pass 350
108 Bincy Science Pass 300

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 8. Database Management System

26. What is a database? Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using DBMS.
27. What is data independence? Explain the difference between physical and logical
data independence.
28. Enforcement of standard is an essential feature of DBMS. How are these
standards applicable in a database?
29. Cardinality of a table T1 is 10 and of table T2 is 8 and the two relations are
union compatible. If the cardinality of result T1 ∪ T2 is 13, then what is the
cardinality of T1 ∩ T2? Justify your answer.
30. Cardinality of a table T1 is 10 and of table T2 is 8 and the two relations are
union compatible
a. What will be the maximum possible cardinality of T1 ∪ T2?
b. What will be the minimum possible cardinality of T1 ∩ T2?
31. Consider the relations, City (city_name, state) and Hotel (name, address,
city_name). Answer the following queries in relational algebra
a. Find the names and address of hotels in Kochi.
b. List the details of cities in Kerala state.
c. List the names of the hotels in Thrissur.
d. Find the names of different hotels.
e. Find the names of hotels in Kozhikode or Munnar .
32. Using the instance of the EMPLOYEE relation shown in question 23, write
the result of the following relational algebra expressions.
a. σ Department="Sales" (EMPLOYEE).
b. σ salary>20000 ∧ Department="Sales" (EMPLOYEE).
c. σ salary>20000 ∨ Department="Sales" (EMPLOYEE).
d. π name, salary (EMPLOYEE).
e. π name, salary ( σ Designation="Manager" (EMPLOYEE)).
f. π name, Department ( σ Designation="Clerk" ^ salary > 20000 (EMPLOYEE)).
33. Consider the instance of the BORROWER and DEPOSITOR relations shown
in following figure which stores the details of customers in a Bank. Answer the
following queries in relational algebra.
a. Display the details of the customers who are either a depositor or a
borrower.
b. Display the name of customers who are both a depositor and a borrower.

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c. Display the details of the customers who are depositors but not borrowers.
d. Display the name and amount of customer who is a borrower but not
depositor.

BORROWER DEPOSITOR
Acc_No Name Amount Acc_No Name Amount
AC123 Albin 50000 AC123 Albin 500
AC103 Rasheeda 25000 AC105 Shabana 25000
AC106 Vishnu 25000 AC116 Vishnu 125000
AC108 Aiswarya 30000 AC108 Aiswarya 3000

34. Consider the instance of the CUSTOMER and BRANCH relations shown in
the following table. Write the Cartesian Product of the two relations.
CUSTOMER BRANCH
Acc_No Name Branch_ID Amount Branch_ID Name
AC123 Albin B1001 50000 B1001 Kochi
AC103 Rasheeda B1001 25000
B1002 Guruvayur
AC106 Vishnu B1001 25000
AC108 Aiswarya B1077 30000 B1077 Idukki

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 9. Structured Query Language

Structured Query
9 Language

I
n the last chapter, we discussed the
Significant Learning Outcomes
Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS). We know that relational
After the completion of this chapter, the database is a set of related data stored in tables
learner
called relations. We also have a basic idea about
• recognises the importance and
relational algebra, which deals with various
features of Structured Query
operations performed on relations. Now, we
Language.
• explains the components of SQL.
need more clarity on these operations which
• distinguishes the features of DDL, include creating a table, inserting data into a
DML and DCL commands. table, manipulating the data stored in a table
• identifies the characteristics of and deleting data from a table, modifying the
MySQL. structure of a table, removing a table, etc. on
• lists different data types and their a relational database. This chapter introduces
features. a language called Structured Query Language
• explains the effect of different (SQL) for these operations. Most of the
constraints in SQL. relational database management systems like
• performs operations using DDL MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres,
commands like CREATE, ALTER, SQL Server and MS Access use SQL as
DROP. standard database language. We use one of the
• uses DML commands like SELECT, most popular open source RDBMS, like
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE for data
MySQL, to implement Structured Query
manipulation.
Language.
• identifies various clauses
associated with SQL commands and 9.1 Structured Query Language
their purpose.
• uses operators for setting different Structured Query Language (SQL) is a
conditions. language designed for managing data in
• lists different aggregate functions relational database management system
and explains their usage. (RDBMS). SQL provides an easy and efficient
• constructs nested queries for
information retrieval. 255
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

way to interact with relational databases. There are numerous versions of SQL. The
original version was developed in the 1970’s by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond
F. Boyce at IBM's San Jose Research Laboratory (now the Almanden Research
Centre). This language was originally called Structured English Query Language
(Sequel) and later its name was changed to SQL. In 1986, American National
Standard Institute (ANSI) published an SQL standard.
As we know a relational database system is a structured collection of tables
(relations) and the data is stored in these tables. Tables are uniquely identified by
their names and are comprised of columns and rows. A column (field) in a table
represents a particular type of information. In a table, each row represents a
collection of related data. We know that rows in a table are known as tuples (or
records) and columns are known as attributes.

Examine the following table, named "Student" (refer to Table 9.1)

and answer the questions given below for recollecting the basic
Let us do
terminologies related to database.

Adm_no Name Gender Date_Birth Income Course

1001 Alok M 2/10/1998 24000 Science
1002 Nike M 26/11/1998 35000 Science
1003 Bharath M 1/1/1999 45000 Commerce
1004 Virat M 5/12/1998 22000 Science
1005 Meera F 15/8/1998 Science
1006 Divakar M 21/2/1998 Humanities
Table 9.1: Student table

i. The cardinality of the table is _________.

ii. The degree of the table is _________.
iii. List out the different tuples in the table.
iv. List out the different attributes in the table.
v. What are the values in the domain of the attribute 'Course'?
SQL is a powerful tool for implementing RDBMS. It provides facilities to create a
table, insert data into a table, retrieve information from a table, modify data in the
table, delete the existing data from a table, modify the structure of a table, remove
a table from a database, etc.
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 9. Structured Query Language

9.1.1 Features of SQL

Structured Query Language is an ANSI/ISO standard language for writing database
queries. A query is a request to a database. It can perform all the relational operations
mentioned earlier. SQL is effective in framing queries because of the following
features:
• SQL is a relational database language, not a programming language like C,
C++.
• It is simple, flexible and powerful.
• It provides commands to create and modify tables, insert data into tables,
manipulate data in the tables etc.
• It gives guidelines to major popular RDBMS like Oracle, SQL Server, MySQL,
MS Access, Sybase, Informix and Postgres to perform database operations.
• SQL is a non-procedural language since it describes what data to retrieve,
delete, or insert, rather than how to perform the operation.
• As part of ensuring data security, SQL provides facility to add or remove
different types of access permissions to users on databases or tables.
• It provides the concept of views (This concept will be discussed later in this
chapter).
9.1.2 Components of SQL
SQL has three components, namely Data Definition Language (DDL), Data
Manipulation language (DML) and Data Control Language (DCL). Let us discuss
these components and their roles in developing RDBMS.
Data Definition Language
Consider Table 9.1 (Student table). How can we create such a table? Is it possible
to add a new column to this table? How can we remove a table from the database?
The Data Definition Language (DDL) will give solutions to all these questions.
DDL is a component of SQL that provides commands to deal with the schema
(structure) definition of the RDBMS. The DDL commands are used to create,
modify and remove the database objects such as tables, views and keys. The common
DDL commands are CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.
Data Manipulation Language
In Table 9.1, we can see several tuples (or rows or records). How are these tuples
inserted into the table? Suppose the monthly family income of a particular student
is to be modified. Is it possible? How can we delete the record of a student from

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the table? The Data Manipulation Language (DML) provides commands for these
types of manipulations.
DML is a component of SQL that enhances efficient user interaction with the database
system by providing a set of commands. DML permits users to insert data into
tables, retrieve existing data, delete data from tables and modify the stored data.
The common DML commands are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
Data Control Language
Data Control Language (DCL) is used to control access to the database, which is
very essential to a database system with respect to security concerns. DCL includes
commands that control a database, including administering privileges and committing
data. The commands GRANT and REVOKE are used as a part of DCL.
GRANT : Allows access privileges to the users to the database.
REVOKE : Withdraws user's access privileges given by using GRANT command.

Know your progress

1. SQL stands for __________.
2. Which are the three components of SQL?
3. SQL can be used to:
a. create database structures only. b. query database data only.
c. modify database data only. d. All of these can be done by
SQL.
4. SQL is:
a. a programming language. b. an operating system.
c. a data sublanguage. d. a DBMS.
5. Which of the following is not an RDBMS package?
a. ORACLE b. SQL SERVER c. MySQL d. HTML

9.2 Working on MySQL

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987, standardised SQL. Since 1986, the
SQL standard has been evolving to include a larger set of features. The standard
has been revised several times and several versions exist. SQL:2011 is the seventh
revision of the ISO and ANSI standard for the SQL database query language. It
was formally adopted in December 2011. Despite the existence of such standards,
the different database software packages provide their own versions of the standard
258
 9. Structured Query Language

ANSI SQL. Therefore, most SQL codes are not completely portable among different
database software without adjustments. In this chapter, SQL will be discussed using
open source database software MySQL.
MySQL is a free, fast, easy-to-use RDBMS, used for many applications. It is
developed, marketed, and supported by MySQL AB, which is a Swedish company.
MySQL is becoming very popular for many reasons:
• MySQL is released under an open-source license. So it is customizable.
• It provides high security to the database.
• It is portable as it works on many operating systems and with many languages
including PHP, PERL, C, C++, JAVA, etc.
• MySQL works rapidly and effectively even with large volume of data.
• It is highly compatible with PHP, one of the popular languages for web
development.
MySQL was developed by Michael "Monty" Widenius and David Axmark
in 1995. It was originally owned by a Swedish company called MySQL
AB, and was bought over by Sun Microsystems in 2008. Sun Microsystems
was acquired by Oracle in 2010.
MySQL is often deployed in a Linux-Apache-MySQL-PHP (LAMP), Windows-Apache-
MySQL-PHP (WAMP), or Mac-Apache-MySQL-PHP (MAMP) environment. All components
in LAMP are free and open-source, inclusive of the Operating System. The official site
for MySQL is www.mysql.com. The reference for MySQL is the "MySQL Reference
Manual", available at http://dev.mysql.com/doc

9.2.1 Opening MySQL

We can work on MySQL by giving commands at the mysql> prompt. In Ubuntu
Linux, we have to open the Terminal window using the following command sequence
to get this prompt:
Applications → Accessories → Terminal
In the Terminal window we give the following command to start MySQL:
mysql -u root -p

MySQL in Windows OS can be opened by proceeding as follows:

Start → Programs → MySQL → MySQL Server (version number) → MySQL
command line client

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Fig 9.1: MySQL prompt at Ubuntu Linux Terminal window

When we open MySQL, it may ask for the password for verification. (Here we
should use the same password that we entered during the installation process). After
the password verification, we will get the prompt of MySQL as shown in Figure
9.1.
SQL is not case sensitive. That is, commands can be given in the upper or
the lower case or even in a mix. But hereafter, we will use some styles to
distinguish SQL commands and keywords from other texts. Commands
and keywords will be specified in the upper case letters, whereas user-
defined words such as table name, column name etc. will be in the lower case. Commands
and outputs (or responses) can be stored in a text file after using the command tee.
For example, tee E:\outputs.txt will create a file outputs.txt in E: drive to store
whatever appears in the screen after the execution of this command. In this chapter
the outputs stored in this file will be presented as figures.

The prompt gives us the message that MySQL is ready to accept any query from the
user. Now we can input our queries at this prompt.
To exit from MySQL, give the command QUIT or EXIT at the prompt as:
mysql> EXIT;
9.2.2 Creating a database
We need to create a database before we work on the data. The database is the
container in which we store the tables. To create a database in MySQL, we use the
CREATE DATABASE command. The syntax is as follows:
CREATE DATABASE <database_name>;
While creating a database, the following points are to be remembered:
• The <database_name> in the syntax indicates the name of the database that
we want to create. It is recommended that the database name should be as
meaningful and descriptive as possible.
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 9. Structured Query Language

• The <database_name> should be unique. We cannot have two databases

with the same name in a MySQL database server.
Let us start our database operations
with the creation of a new database
called "school". Figure 9.2 shows the
screen shot after the execution of the
command. We can see the MySQL
command prompt and the command
Fig. 9.2: MySQL window after the execution
in the first line. The second line is the of a command
message returned by MySQL as a
response to the command being executed. From the message, it is clear that a new
database with the name school has been created successfully. (Note that here onwards we
will avoid such screen shots as figures, instead the command required for the specified operation
will be presented in a separate font.)
9.2.3 Opening database
To perform operations on a database, we have to open it explicitly. When we open
a database, it becomes the active database in the MySQL server. MySQL gives a
command USE to open a database. The syntax is:
USE <database_name>;
Let us open the data base school using the command as follows:
USE school;
The response of this command after the execution is given below:
Database changed
Now the database named school is the active database in our system. That means, the
different DDL, DML and DCL commands we execute hereafter will be related to
the database school. We can check the existence of a database. The SHOW DATABASE
command is used to check whether a database exists or not. It will list the entire
databases in our system. The syntax is:
SHOW DATABASES;
The output of this command is shown in Figure 9.3.
9.2.4 Data types in SQL
Data type defines the type of value that may be
entered in the column of a table. Data types ensure Fig. 9.3: Output of SHOW
DATABSES command

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the correctness of the data, if we use them in a meaningful way. Care should be
taken to assign correct data types for columns during the designing of the database.
For example, if the numeric value 2 is designated as a text data type, such as a
string, then it cannot be used in a mathematical operation; whereas the same number
stored in an integer column can be used mathematically. So, let us understand the
concept of SQL data types like, the type of data they represent, range of values
supported by each of them, etc. Data types differ in different versions of SQL.
Here, we look at the different data types available in MySQL.
MySQL data types are classified into three. They are numeric data type, string (text)
data type, and date and time data type. All numerical values like 7, 100.234, -456, 0,
etc. can be represented by any of the numeric data types. The data "Aleena" (name
of a student), "Kerala" (name of a state), 'F' (specification of a gender), etc. are
string type by nature. Data like '01-01-2020', '23:34:3' can be represented by Date
and Time data types.
a. Numeric Data types
Numeric data type values can be used like any normal number. They can be added,
subtracted, multiplied and divided. The most commonly used numeric data types
in MySQL are INT or INTEGER and DEC or DECIMAL.
(i) INT or INTEGER
As we know, integers are whole numbers without a fractional part. They can be
positive, zero or negative. An integer value can be represented in MySQL by INT
or INTEGER data type. The data items like 69, 0, -112 belong to INT data type.
(ii) DEC or DECIMAL
Numbers with fractional parts can be represented by DEC or DECIMAL data type.
The standard form of this type is DECIMAL(size,D) or DEC(size,D). The
parameter size indicates the total number of digits the value contains including
decimal part. The parameter D represents the number of digits after the decimal
point. For example, the type specification DEC(5,2) or DECIMAL(5,2) denotes
that 5 is the precision and 2 is the scale. The column with this specification is able to
store any value having a maximum of five digits, out of which two are after the
decimal point. That is, the range of values will be from -999.99 to 999.99.
Table 9.2 shows an overview of numeric data types in MySQL. Remember that the
values are version dependent.

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 9. Structured Query Language

Data types Usage Signed Unsigned Storage in

Bytes
TINY INT Very small -128 to 127 0 to 255 1
integer values
SMALL INT A small integer -32768 to 32767 0 to 65535 2
MEDIUM INT A medium- -8388608 to 0 to 16777215 3
sized integer 8388607
value
INT Normal sized 2147483648 to 0 to 4
integer value 2147483647 4294967295
BIG INT Large integer Value up to 19 digits Value up to 264 8
value
FLOAT(M,D) Floating point Decimal precision 4
numbers can go to 24 places
DOUBLE(M,D) A double Decimal precision 8
precision can go to 53 places
floating-point
number
DECIMAL(M,D) Store exact A Decimal type can 8
precision store a Maximum of
values 65 Digits, with 30
digits after decimal
point.
Table 9.2: Numeric data types of MySQL and their characteristics

b. String (Text) data types

String is a group of characters. The most commonly used string data types in MySQL
are CHARACTER or CHAR and VARCHAR.
(i) CHAR or CHARACTER
Character includes letters, digits, special symbols etc. The CHAR is a fixed length
character data type. The syntax of this data type is CHAR(x), where x is the maximum
number of characters that constitutes the data. The value of x can be between 0
and 255. CHAR is mainly used when the data in a column are of the same fixed
length and small in size. For example, if we want to store data like 'M' for male and
'F' for female, in the column Gender of a table, it is better to declare that column as
of type CHAR. It always uses the specified amount of space even though the data
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need not require that much. If the number of characters in the data is less than the
declared size of the column, the remaining character positions in the string will be
filled with white spaces (spacebar character). But when we retrieve this value from
the table, all trailing spaces are removed. Note that if the size of a column of type
CHAR is 1, it is not necessary to mention the size, because the default size of CHAR
type is 1.
(ii) VARCHAR(size)
VARCHAR represents variable length strings. It is similar to CHAR, but the space
allocated for the data depends only on the actual size of the string, not on the
declared size of the column. For example, if we want to store data in the column
Name of a table, it is better to declare that column as of type VARCHAR, because the
data in the column may contain different number of characters. The length of the
string can vary from 0 to 65535 characters (MySQL version dependent). The
VARCHAR type saves memory space since VARCHAR type did not append spaces
with the values when they are stored. The data like name of people, addresses etc.
are examples of this data type.
C. Date and Time data types
MySQL has data types for storing dates and times. The data type used to store date
type value is DATE and to store time value is TIME.
(i) DATE
The DATE data type is used to store dates. MySQL represents date values in YYYY-
MM-DD format. The supported range is from 1000-01-01 to 9999-12-31. Dates
are displayed in MySQL in one format, but we can use various date formats in our
SQL statements. The YYYY-MM-DD is the standard format. But we can use any
punctuation character between the date parts. For example, '2011-01-24',
'2011/01/25', '20110126' are valid date combinations in MySQL. We can insert
date type values into a column of DATE data type in any of the above formats.
Although MySQL tries to interpret values in several formats, date parts must always
be given in year-month-day order (for example, '98-09-04').
(ii) TIME
The TIME data type is used to specify a column to store time values in MySQL. It
shows values in the standard HH:MM:SS format. The TIME data type can be used
to store a specific point in time (like 10 hours 05 minutes 25 seconds) as well as an
interval of time between two points in time (like the time between now and the
weekend) that may sometimes be larger than 23 hours. When manually entering a
time into MySQL it is highly recommended that you use the exact format HH:MM:SS.

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Value Data type

Now look at Table 9.3 and fill 325.678
the Data type column with 'A'
Let us do suitable MySQL data type for 'Computer'
the given data. '2016-01-01'
450
22:32:45
456787
Table 9.3: Data type of values

Know your progress

1. SQL stands for ___________.
2. ___________ command is used to make a database active.
3. How can we see the names of databases in the system?
4. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR data types?
5. Which is the format for storing date type data in MySQL?
6. Can we store the number 234 in a column declared with CHAR(5)
data type?
9.3 SQL commands
SQL provides commands to perform different operations on database. As we
mentioned earlier, the commands are classified as DDL commands, DML
commands and DCL commands. Here, we will discuss the most commonly used
DDL commands and DML commands. DDL commands are used to perform
operations associated with the structure of database. The operations include creation
of tables, modification in the structure of tables and removal of tables. DML
commands are associated with the operations on the content of tables. These
operations include insertion of records, retrieval of records, modification or
updation of records and deletion of records.
These commands will be introduced in such a way that we can create a table for
organizing data of a particular entity, retrieve required information and remove
those we do not want to keep further.
9.4 Creating tables
Tables are the central and the most important objects in any relational database.
The primary purpose of any database is to hold data that are stored in tables. Now

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let us again consider the table student given in Table 9.1. How can we create a table
with a set of columns? The DDL command CREATE TABLE is used to define a
table by specifying the name of the table and giving the column definitions consisting
of name of the column, data type and size, and constraints if any, etc. Remember
that each table must have at least one column. The syntax of CREATE TABLE
command is:
CREATE TABLE <table_name>
(<column_name> <data_type> [<constraint>]
[, <column_name> <data_type> [<constraint>,]
..............................
.............................. );
Here, the <table_name> represents the name of the table that we want to create;
<column_name> represents the name of a column in the table; <data_type>
represents the type of data in a column of the table; and <constraint> specifies
the rules that we can set on the values of a column. All the columns are defined
within a pair of parentheses, and are separated by commas. We can define all the
columns even in a single line.
9.4.1 Rules for naming tables and columns
While naming the tables and columns, certain points are to be remembered and
they are listed below.
• The name may contain letters (A - Z, a - z), digits (0 - 9), under score ( _ ) and
dollar ($) symbol.
• The name must contain at least one character. (Names with only digits are
invalid).
• The name must not contain white spaces, special symbols.
• The name must not be an SQL keyword.
• The name should not duplicate with the names of other tables in the same data
base and with other columns in the same table.

In some MySQL versions, the table name can be a quoted identifier. The
identifier quote character is the backtick ("`"). If we use table name
as quoted, then we can include any special symbols in the name of the
table.

Now, let us create a table student to store the details of a group of higher secondary
students in a school. The fields of the table and their descriptions are given in Table
9.4.
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Sl. No. Attributes Description

1 Admission number Integer value
2 Name String of 20 characters long
3 Gender A single character
4 Date of birth Date type
5 Course String of 15 characters long
6 Family income Integer value
Table 9.4: Attributes of student table
The SQL statement or query to create a table in MySQL to incorporate the details
shown in Table 9.4 is given in Query 9.1.
Query 9.1 CREATE TABLE student
(adm_no INT,
name VARCHAR(20),
gender CHAR,
dob DATE,
course VARCHAR(15),
f_income INT);
Here, the CREATE TABLE statement creates a table named student with five columns
adm_no, name, gender, dob, course and f_income. The columns adm_no can
contain integer values, name can contain strings up to a maximum of 20 characters,
gender can store a single character indicating whether a student is a boy or a girl,
dob can store date of birth, course can contain the group in which he/she is
studying and f_income can hold the monthly income of the family. The columns
name and course will spare only the actual space required by the respective string
data.
After creating a table, when we insert records in that table, some kind of restriction
may need to be enforced in certain columns. Restrictions may be in the form of
denying empty values in some columns and refusing duplicate values in some other
columns. But it should be addressed during the table creation itself. MySQL provides
some keywords called constraints, for this purpose.
9.4.2 Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data that are entered into the column of a
table. When we create a table, we can apply constraints on the values that can be
entered into its fields. If this is specified in the column definition, SQL will not
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accept any values that violate the criteria concerned. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database. The constraints ensure database integrity and
hence they are often called data base integrity constraints. Constraints could be
column level or table level.
a. Column Constraints
Column constraints are applied only to individual columns. They are written
immediately after the data type of the column. The following are column constraints:
i. NOT NULL
This constraint specifies that a column can never have NULL values. NULL is a keyword
in SQL that represents an empty value. It is important to remember that NULL
does not equate to a blank or a zero; it is something else entirely. Though a blank is
equal to another blank and a zero is equal to another zero, a NULL is never equal to
anything, not even another NULL. Two NULL values cannot be added, subtracted or
compared.
ii. AUTO_INCREMENT
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
If no value is specified for the column with AUTO_INCREMENT constraint, then
MySQL will assign serial numbers automatically and insert the newly assigned value
in the corresponding column of the new record. By default, the starting value for
AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will be incremented by 1 for each new record. This
special behavior also occurs if we explicitly assign the value NULL to the column.
The AUTO_INCREMENT feature makes it easy to assign a unique ID to each new
row, because MySQL generates the values for us. The auto increment column must
be defined as the primary key of the table. Only one AUTO_INCREMENT column
per table is allowed.
iii. UNIQUE
It ensures that no two rows have the same value in the column specified with this
constraint.
iv. PRIMARY KEY
This constraint declares a column as the primary key of the table. This constraint is
similar to UNIQUE constraint except that it can be applied only to one column or a
combination of columns. The primary keys cannot contain NULL values. In other
words, it can be considered as a combination of UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint is used to enforce a rule that a column should contain
only unique, non-NULL data.

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v. DEFAULT
Using this constraint, a default value can be set for a column, in case the user does
not provide a value for that column of a record.
Let us apply some of these constraints in the student table and modify Query 9.1 as
given in Query 9.2.
Query 9.2 CREATE TABLE student
(adm_no INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
gender CHAR DEFAULT 'M',
dob DATE,
course VARCHAR(15)
f_income INT);
In Query 9.2, the constraints PRIMARY KEY and AUTO_INCREMENT are applied to
the column adm_no. So, this column will not allow duplicate values during data
entry. If we donot specify a value for this column, MySQL will generate a data
automatically. The constraint NOT NULL applied to the column name does not
allow to leave the column with a null value. That is, data is a must in this column.
Similarly, if we do not give a value to the column gender, ‘M’ will be stored as the
default value.

b. Table constraints
Table constraints are similar to column constraints; the main difference is that table
constraints can be used not only on individual columns, but also on a group of
columns. When a constraint is to be applied on a group of columns of a table, it is
called table constraint. The table constraint appears at the end of the table definition.
For example, Query 9.3 creates a table named stock. The constraint UNIQUE is
applied to the combination of icode and iname.
Query 9.3 CREATE TABLE stock
(icode CHAR(2) PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
iname VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
dt_purchase DATE,
rate DECIMAL(10,2),
qty INT,
UNIQUE (icode, iname));

In Query 9.3, the constraint UNIQUE is applied to the combination of values of

columns icode and iname. It enforces a situation that no two rows can have the
same values for the columns icode and iname when taken together.
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9.4.3 Viewing the structure of a table

We have created two tables, student and stock. How do we know the structure of the
table after its creation? The DESCRIBE command is used to display the structure
definitions of a table. The syntax is:
DESCRIBE <table_name>;
OR
DESC <table_name>;
The structure of the table student can be viewed using the command:
DESC student;
Figure 9.4 shows the output of this command.

Fig. 9.4: Structure of student table

Note that in Query 9.2, we did not mention the

size for the columns adm_no and f_income while
creating the table. But MySQL takes the default
size 11 as the size of these two columns. The
column adm_no is declared with PRIMARY KEY
and AUTO_INCREMENT. So this column will not Fig. 9.5: Output of SHOW TABLES
allow duplicate values and null values. If we do
not specify a value for this column, a new value will be generated by adding 1 to the
value of the respective column of the previous record. In the absence of a value for
this column for the first record, MySQL gives 1 as the value. We can also see that a
default value 'M' is set for the column gender. Figure 9.4 illustrates these aspects.
There is a command SHOW TABLES, which shows the tables created in the current
database as given in Figure 9.5.

Write the structure of the table stock, referring to Figure 9.4 and
Query 9.3. Verify your answer in the lab with the command, DESC
stock;
Let us do
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Know your progress

1. Which of the following commands is used to display the structure
of a table?
a. LIST b. SHOW c. DESCRIBE d. STRUCT
2. Write the syntax of CREATE TABLE command.
3. Name the different column constraints.
4. What is the difference between primary key constraint and unique
constraint?
5. What are the features of AUTO_INCREMENT constraint?
6. Write down the rules for naming a table.
7. How many columns in a table can be specified as primary key of
the table?

9.5 Inserting data into tables

We have created a database and its tables. Now we need to put some records into
these tables. We have the details of six students in Table 9.1. Let us discuss how
these records can be inserted into the table.
The DML command INSERT INTO is used to insert tuples into tables. The syntax
is:
INSERT INTO <table_name> [<column1>,<column2>,...,<columnN>]
VALUES(<value1>,<value2>,...,<valueN>);
Here <table_name> is the name of the table into which the tuples are to be
inserted; <column1>, <column2>, …., <columnN> indicate the name of columns
in the table into which values are to be inserted; <value1>,<value2>, ….,
<valueN> are the values that are inserted into the columns specified in the
<column_list>.
For example, let us insert a new record into the table student with data 1001, 'Alok',
'M', 1998/10/2, 'Science', 24000 into the columns adm_no, name, gender, dob,
course and f_income, respectively. Query 9.4 makes it possible.
INSERT INTO student
Query 9.4
VALUES (1001,'Alok','M','1998/10/2', 'Science',
24000);
The response of the system will be:
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.05 sec).

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The INSERT statement adds a new row to the table student giving a value for every
column in the table. While inserting a row, if we provide values for all the columns
of the table, we need not specify the name of column(s) in the query. But we need to
make sure that the order of the values is in accordance with the order of the columns
in the table. Now let us insert another row with some modifications as shown in
Query 9.5.
Query 9.5 INSERT INTO student (name, dob, course, f_income)
VALUES ('Nike','1998/11/26','Science',35000);
The response for this statement will be:
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.01 sec)
In Query 9.5, admission number and gender are not provided. Being a record after
the one with admission number 1001, the admission number of this student will be
1002. The gender will be set with the default value 'M'.
While inserting data into tables, the following points are to be taken care of:
• While adding a new row, we should ensure the data type of the value and the
column matches.
• We follow the integrity constraints, if any, defined for the table.
• CHAR or VARCHAR type data should be enclosed in single quotes or double
quotes.
• Column values for DATE type columns are to be provided within single quotes.
The string will internally be converted into DATE data type.
• Null values are specified as NULL (or null) without quotes.
• If no data is available for all columns, then the column list must be included,
following the table name.
MySQL allows inserting several rows into a table with a single INSERT command
by specifying multiple value lists. The general format is as follows:
INSERT INTO <table-name> VALUES(...), (...), ... ;
Let us insert two more records given in Table 9.1 using Query 9.6.
Query 9.6 INSERT INTO student (name, dob, course, f_income)
VALUES('Bharath','1999/01/01','Commerce',45000),
('Virat','1998/12/05','Science',22000);
The response of the system will be:
Query OK, 2 rows affected (0.02 sec)
Records: 2 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0

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We can observe that the two records are given within separate pairs of parentheses.
The response indicates that the two records are inserted successfully.
Suppose we do not have the monthly income data of a student. How can we insert
the record? Query 9.7 illustrates the solution.
Query 9.7 INSERT INTO student(name, dob, gender, course)
VALUES('Meera','1998/08/15','F','Science');
As a response to this query, the value for adm_no will be generated by the system,
but the value for f_income column will be kept as NULL. The order of columns is
also changed in this query. The absence of values in a row can be managed in another
way also as shown in Query 9.8.
Query 9.8 INSERT INTO student(name, dob, gender, course,
f_income)
VALUES('Divakar','1998/02/21','Science',NULL);
Note that, in the VALUES clause, NULL is given for f_income.

Let us insert some more records in table student. Write queries to

store the details of students shown in Table 9.5.
Let us do

adm_no name gender dob course f_income

1025 Kaushi M 1998/10/2 Commerce 17000
1026 Niveditha F 1999/03/04 Humanities 52000
1027 Sreekumar M 1998/06/06 Science 15000
1057 Chaithanya F 1999/06/03 Science
Table 9.5: More records for Student table

Know your progress

1. Which of the following is used to add a row into a table?
a. ADD b. CREATE c. INSERT d. MAKE
2. Which statement is used to insert new data into a table?
a. ADD RECORD b. INSERT RECORD
c. INSERT INTO d. INSERT ROW
3. Write the essential keywords used along with INSERT command.

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Write SQL statements to insert some records in the table stock created
using Query 9.3. While giving values to the columns, utilise the facility
Let us do
of AUTO_INCREMENT and UNIQUE constraints.

9.6 Retrieving information from tables

We have created a database school and a table student, and then inserted ten records
into it. Now let us learn how information is retrieved from the data stored in tables.
It is a kind of data manipulation operation and SQL provides the command SELECT
for this purpose. It is used to retrieve information from specified columns in a
table. The SELECT command has several forms of its own. The simplest form of
SELECT command is:
SELECT <column_name>[,<column_name>,<column_name>, ...]
FROM <table_name>;
Here <column_name> indicates the column from which data is retrieved and
<table_name> denotes the name of the table from which the information is
retrieved. The name of the table is given with the keyword FROM, which is an essential
clause with SELECT command. The SELECT command will display the data in
columns, in the order in which they appear along with the SELECT command.
Now let us illustrate the execution of SELECT
command through various queries. On executing
Query 9.9 we get the name and course of students
in the table student as shown in Figure 9.6.
Query 9.9 SELECT name, course
FROM student;

If we want to display the entire column values of

a table, we need not give a complete list of
columns of the relation. Instead, an asterisk (*)
symbol can be used to substitute the complete
Fig. 9.6: Output of Query 9.9
list of columns as shown in Query 9.10. The output
is shown in Figure 9.7.
Query 9.10 SELECT * FROM student;

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Fig. 9.7: Entire content of student table

We can see NULL values in column f_income of some rows in Figure 9.7. It is due
to the missing of values in the insertion of those rows (refer Queries 9.7, 9.8 and
Table 9.1, and 9.5).
9.6.1 Eliminating duplicate values in columns using DISTINCT
Suppose we want to know the names of different courses in the table student. If we
construct a query SELECT course FROM student; it will display the column
course with all the ten values as shown in Figure 9.7. Data will be selected from all
rows of the relation to display, even if the data appearing in the result get duplicated.
This duplication can be eliminated using the keyword DISTINCT as given in Query
9.11. Observe the output given in Figure 9.8.
Query 9.11 SELECT DISTINCT course
FROM student;
In the output, there are no duplicate values. If
the column used with DISTINCT keyword
contains more than one NULL value, only one
will be shown in the result.
If we give the keyword ALL in the place of
DISTINCT, then the result will contain all the
duplicate values in the column. That is, the
output will be the same as that in the case when Fig. 9.8: Use of DISTINCT
we neither specify DISTINCT nor ALL.
9.6.2 Selecting specific rows using WHERE clause
In certain situations, we need to display only a subset of a table. For example, we
may require the details of female students only, or the details of students whose
family monthly income is below Rs. 25000/-. In these cases, there is a selection in
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the retrieval of records. Obviously the selection is based on some condition(s).

SQL enables us to impose some selection criteria for the retrieval of records with
WHERE clause of SELECT command. The syntax of SELECT command with WHERE
clause is:
SELECT <column_name>[,<column_name>,<column_name>, ...]
FROM <table_name>
WHERE <condition>;
When a WHERE clause is present, the SELECT command goes through the entire
table one row at a time and examines whether the row satisfies the condition(s) or
not. If a row satisfies the condition, that row is displayed in the output. The conditions
are expressed with the help of relational operators and logical operators. MySQL
provides a variety of such operators and they are listed in Table 9.6.
Operator Meaning/Result
= Equal to
Relational Operators

<> or != Not equal to

> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
NOT True when condition is false
operators
Logical

AND True if both the conditions are true

OR True if either of the conditions is true
Table 9.6: Operators used for setting conditions
Let us write an SQL statement to display the details of female students in the table.
Query 9.12 is the required statement which contains a WHERE clause and = operator
for setting the condition and Figure 9.9 shows the output.
Query 9.12 SELECT * FROM student
WHERE gender='F';

Fig. 9.9: List of female students - the output of Query 9.12

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 9. Structured Query Language

Suppose we want to see the name, course and monthly family income of only the
Science group students whose income is below Rs. 25000. Here we have to constitute
two conditions - one for checking the income and the other for checking the course.
When these two conditions are matched while going through the records in the
table, the values of their name, course and f_income columns will be retrieved
for display. Query 9.13 is the required query and Figure 9.10 shows the output.
Note that AND operator is used to combine the two conditions.
Query 9.13 SELECT name, course, f_income FROM student
WHERE course='Science' AND f_income<25000;
Write a query to display the name, course
and monthly income of students studying
in courses other than Science group (i.e.,
the students of Commerce and Humanities
groups).
While writing the above query, you might
Fig. 9.10: Use of AND operator
have used OR operator for setting the
condition. The same information can be obtained by the use of NOT operator.
Query 9.14 illustrates this and Figure 9.11 shows the corresponding output.
Query 9.14 SELECT name, course, f_income FROM student
WHERE NOT course='Science';
Identify some requirements with respect
to the table stock which can be attained
by setting different conditions, and
construct queries using appropriate
operators.
SQL has a set of special operators for
Fig. 9.11: Use of NOT operator
setting conditions. These include
BETWEEN...AND, IN, LIKE and IS. Let us discuss how these operators help us to
constitute conditions.
a. Condition based on a range of values
A range of values can be given as condition. The SQL operator BETWEEN...AND
is used to specify the range. Suppose we need a list of students whose monthly
income falls in the range of Rs. 25000/- to Rs. 45000/-. We know that this can be
obtained by the statement given in Query 9.15. Figure 9.12 shows the output.
Query 9.15 SELECT name, f_income FROM student
WHERE f_income>=25000 AND f_income<=45000;

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The same output can be obtained by using the statement given in Query 9.16. In this
statement the operator BETWEEN...AND is used to construct the condition. The
output includes both the lower and upper values given in the range.
Query 9.16 SELECT name, f_income FROM student
WHERE f_income BETWEEN 25000 AND 45000;
From Query 9.16 and Figure 9.12, we can
conclude that the BETWEEN...AND operator
allows specifying a range of values which belong
to either numeric or date and time type data.
b. Conditions based on a list of values
While setting conditions for the retrieval of Fig. 9.12: Use of BETWEEN...AND
operator
records, a list of values can be provided. The
values may be of any data type, but it should match with those of the column used
in the condition. In such a case, the operator IN is used with the list. Suppose we
want to retrieve the details of students in Commerce and Humanities groups. The
statement in Query 9.17 can generate the details as shown in Figure 9.13.
Query 9.17 SELECT * FROM student
WHERE course='Commerce' OR course='Humanities';

Fig. 9.13: Output of Query 9.17

The same output can be obtained by using IN operator in the condition as shown in
Query 9.18.
Query 9.18 SELECT * FROM student
WHERE course IN('Commerce', 'Humanities');
As we see in Query 9.18, the IN operator checks whether the value in the specified
column (here it is course) of a record matches any of the values in the given list.
When matches are found while going through the records, they will be displayed.
Since there are only three courses in the table, the result shown in Figure 9.13 can
also be obtained using Query 9.19.
Query 9.19 SELECT * FROM student
WHERE course NOT IN('Science');

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c. Conditions based on pattern matching

There may be the need of retrieving data based on some pattern matching. That is,
string data having some similarities in characters may be the criterion for the retrieval
of records. SQL provides a pattern matching operator LIKE for this purpose.
Patterns are specified using two special wildcard characters % and _ (underscore),
where % (percentage) matches a substring of characters and _ (underscore) matches
a single character. Patterns are case sensitive; i.e.; uppercase characters do not match
lower case characters. Consider the following examples:
• "Ab%" matches any string beginning with "Ab".
• "%cat%" matches any string containing "cat" as substring. For example,
"education", "indication", "catering" etc.
• "_ _ _ _" matches any string of exactly four characters without any space in
between them.
• "_ _ _ %" matches any string of at least 3 characters.
Query 9.20 illustrates the use of LIKE operator. It gives a list of names in the table
that end with the substring 'ar'. Figure 9.14 shows the output of this query.
Query 9.20 SELECT name FROM student
WHERE name LIKE '%ar';
The following query will display only 'Divakar'
since there are two _ (underscore) characters for
pattern matching.
SELECT name FROM student
WHERE name LIKE 'Div__ar'; Fig. 9.14: Use of pattern matching

d. Conditions based on NULL value search

We have seen that there may be NULL values in
some fields of a record. We can retrieve such
records with the help of IS operator. The
condition will be true when the specified column
contains a NULL value in the records. In the student
table, the f_income column contains NULL value
in three records (refer to Figure 9.7). Query 9.21
retrieves these records and Figure 9.15 shows Fig. 9.15: NULL value checking
the output.
Query 9.21 SELECT name, course FROM student
WHERE f_income IS NULL;

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On the other hand, if we want to retrieve the records containing non-null values in
the f_income column, the following statement can fulfill the task:
SELECT name, course FROM student
WHERE f_income IS NOT NULL;

Identify some requirements with respect to the table stock which need
the use of the special SQL operators we discussed, and construct
Let us do
queries to solve the problems.

Know your progress

1. Name the keyword used with SELECT command to avoid
duplication in the values of a column.
2. Which is the essential clause for SELECT query?
3. Which of the following operators is used to check for NULL value
in a column?
a. IN b. LIKE c. IS d. NOT
4. The operator used for checking pattern matching is _________.
5. What is wrong with the following statement?
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE grade = NULL;
6. The command that extracts records from a table is _________.

9.6.3 Sorting results using ORDER BY clause

As we can see in the results of the SELECT queries discussed so far, the records are
always obtained in the order in which they appear in the table. Is it possible to
display them in a specific order - ascending or descending, of some column values?
Yes. The result of a query can be sorted in the ascending or descending order by
making use of ORDER BY clause. The order is to be specified by using the keyword
ASC (for ascending) or DESC (for descending) along with the column name that is
used with ORDER BY clause. By default, the display will be in the ascending order.
Remember that only the results that appear on the screen are sorted. The order of
records in the table will be kept unaltered.
Query 9.22 will display the details of students in the alphabetical order of their
names. Figure 9.16 shows the output.
Query 9.22 SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY name;

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Fig. 9.16: Details of students according to the alphabetical order of their names

Suppose we want to see the details according to their monthly family income. If we
have to obtain the result from the highest income to the lowest, Query 9.23 can
serve the purpose. Figure 9.17 shows the output.
Query 9.23 SELECT * FROM student
ORDER BY f_income DESC;

Fig. 9.17: Age-based listing of students (younger to older)

As shown in Figure 9.17, if the column used with ORDER BY clause contains NULL
values, they will be listed last.
Multiple sorting can be performed after selection with the help of ORDER BY
clause. For example, if we need a course-based listing of students in the alphabetical
order of their names, a statement as given in Query 9.24 can be used. Figure 9.18
shows its output.
Query 9.24 SELECT name, course FROM student
ORDER BY course, name;

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Look at the output shown in Figure 9.18. First

the values in the column course is arranged
alphabetically and then the names are arranged
under each course.
Earlier we have used the WHERE clause for
condition based retrieval of records. The
retrieved records can be displayed in a
particular order using ORDER BY clause.
Suppose we want to display the name and
family income of Science group students
according to the descending order of income.
The two clauses can be combined to generate Fig. 9.18: Multiple sorting
this output as shown in Query 9.25. The
output is shown in Figure 9.19.
Query 9.25 SELECT name, course, f_income FROM student
WHERE course='Science'
ORDER BY f_income DESC;
As shown in Figure 9.19, the records
with NULL values in the sorted column
will appear at last as they appear in the
table. Another important aspect is that,
if an ORDER BY clause is used in a
SELECT statement, it should appear
only after the WHERE clause, if any.
Because, the records should be
selected first, then only they are given
Fig. 9.19: Condition based selection and sorting
for reordering.

Know your progress

1. What is the meaning of ORDER BY clause ?
2. Which keyword is used for sorting the data in descending order
in MySQL?
a. DESC b. ASC c. SORT d. MODIFY
3. In which order are the records displayed in the absence of ORDER
BY clause.
4. In SQL, what is the default sort order of the ORDER BY clause?

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Identify some requirements with respect to the table stock which need
the sorting of records based on different conditions, and construct
Let us do
queries to solve the problems.

9.6.4 Aggregate functions

MySQL provides a number of built-in functions that can be applied to all rows in a
table or to a subset of the table specified by WHERE clause. These functions are
called aggregate functions because they operate on aggregate of tuples (records).
The result of an aggregate function is a single value.
Commonly used aggregate functions are given in Table 9.7.
Function Return value
SUM() Total of the values in the column specified as argument.
AVG() Average of the values in the column specified as argument.
MIN() Smallest value in the column specified as argument.
MAX() Largest of the values in the column specified as argument.
COUNT() Number of non NULL values in the column specified as argument.
Table 9.7: Some built-in functions of MySQL

Let us discuss these functions to generate useful information from the table. Query
9.26 gives the highest, lowest and average family monthly incomes of the students.
Figure 9.20 shows the result.
Query 9.26 SELECT MAX(f_income), MIN(f_income), AVG(f_income)
FROM student;
While calculating
these values, the
NULL values in the
argument column are
not considered. Fig. 9.20: Use of aggregate functions
These functions can be applied to a subset of the table formed by some selection
crierion as shown in Query 9.27. It gives the number of students in the Science group.
Figure 9.21 shows the output.
Query 9.27 SELECT COUNT(*), COUNT(f_income)
FROM student
WHERE course='Science';

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If we refer to Figure 9.19, we can see that

the correct answer is 7. Then, why is there a
mismatch between the two column values
in Figure 9.21? The first column is
COUNT(*) and it gives the number of
Fig. 9.21: Use of COUNT() function
records having Science as the value in column
course. Note that the * (asterisk) symbol stands for the collection of all the columns
in the table. So, if there is at least one field in a record, that record will be taken into
consideration for COUNT(*). But COUNT(f_income) in Query 9.27 counts only
the non-NULL values in column f_income of the records which contains Science in
column course. This is why the second column in Figure 9.21 contains only 4.
Refer to Figure 9.17 and identify the rows that conatins NULL in column f_income.
9.6.5 Grouping of records using GROUP BY clause
Sometimes, we need to divide the tuples in a table into different groups based on
the values in a column. The rows of a table can be grouped together based on a
common value using the GROUP BY clause. The attribute (column) specified in the
GROUP BY clause is used to form groups. Tuples with the same value in the attribute
specified in the GROUP BY clause are placed together in one group. Thus different
groups are formed based on distinct values in the column. So this process can be
considered as categorisation of records.
Using Query 9.27, number of students in Science group is obtained. Suppose we
want to know the number of students in each group along with average family
monthly income. Query 9.28 can be used. The output is shown in Figure 9.22.
Query 9.28 SELECT course, COUNT(*),AVG(f_income)
FROM student
GROUP BY course;
Here different groups are
formed under different values
('Commerce', 'Humanities' and
'Science') in column course and
the functions COUNT(*) and
AVG(f_income) are applied
to each group. Fig. 9.22: Grouping of rows using GROUP BY clause

9.6.6 Applying conditions to form groups using HAVING clause

We have already learnt about the WHERE clause, which places conditions on individual
rows. We can apply conditions to form groups with the help of HAVING clause.
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This clause is used along with GROUP BY clause. The condition in HAVING clause is
applied to form groups of records, not individual rows.
Query 9.29 applies a condition for forming groups. Here the groups will be formed
only if the condition provided with HAVING clause is satisfied.
Query 9.29 SELECT course, COUNT(*) FROM student
GROUP BY course
HAVING COUNT(*) > 3;
If we refer to Figures 9.22 and 9.23, we can find
that only Science group has more than 3 students.
Groups are not formed based on values 'Commerce'
and 'Humanities', since the number of records with Fig. 9.23: Condition based
each of these values are 2 and 1, respectively. That grouping
is why details of these groups are not shown by Query 9.29.

Know your progress

1. List the aggregate functions of SQL.
2. How do COUNT(*) and COUNT(column_name) differ?
3. What is the difference between WHERE clause and HAVING clause?
4. The usage SUM(*) or MAX(*) is invalid. Why?
5. What will be the result of the following query?
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT course) FROM student;

Identify some queries with respect to the table stock which requires
the utilisation of aggregate functions and ORDER BY clause. Write
Let us do
SQL statements to answer these queries.

9.7 Modifying data in tables

In certain situations, we need to change the values in the columns of a table. For
example, following a revision in salary or wages, the family monthly income of a
student may be changed. Similarly, the missing values (NULL) in monthly income of
some students may need to be replaced by valid data at a later stage. This kind of
changes can be done using the DML command UPDATE. It changes the values in
one or more columns of specified rows. These changes may be affected in all or
only in selected rows of the table. The new data for the column within these rows is
given using the keyword SET, which is the essential clause of UPDATE command.
The new data can be a constant, an expression or data from other tables.

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The syntax of UPDATE command is:

UPDATE <table_name>
SET <column_name> = <value> [,<column_name> = <value>,...]
[WHERE <condition>];
Suppose the family monthly income of the student Kaushi is to be changed to Rs.
27000/-. Query 9.30 can perform this modification.
Query 9.30 UPDATE student
SET f_income=27000
WHERE name='Kaushi';
After the execution of this query, the response of MySQL will be as follows:
Query OK, 1 row affected (0.08 sec)
Rows matched: 1 Changed: 1 Warnings: 0
Let us see the change in the record using the query,
SELECT * FROM student WHERE name='Kaushi';
The output of this query is shown in Figure 9.24. Compare this figure with Figure
9.17 and see the change.

Fig. 9.24: Details of Kaushi with modified data in f_income column

We can use expressions to set the column values in records. Query 9.31 illustrates
this concept.
Query 9.31 UPDATE student
SET f_income=f_income+1000
WHERE f_income<25000;
The output of this query will be as follows:
Query OK, 3 rows affected (0.06 sec)
Rows matched: 3 Changed: 3 Warnings: 0
The output reveals that three records satisfy the given condition and hence the
values in f_income column of these records are incremented by 1000 (refer to
Figures 9.17, 9.25).
The columns with NULL values can also be modified with UPDATE command. Suppose
we want to store Rs. 20000/- as the monthly income in the respective field of the
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records in which the column contains NULL value at present. Query 9.32 makes it
possible.
Query 9.32 UPDATE student
SET f_income=20000
WHERE f_income IS NULL;
The changes made by Queries 9.31 and 9.32 can be observed in Figure 9.25, which
is obtained by the query: SELECT * FROM student;

Fig. 9.25: Modifications in column f_income

With respect to the table stock, write SQL statements to make some
modifications in some column values.
Let us do

9.8 Changing the structure of a table

In some situations, we may need to modify the structure of tables. It is an operation
related to the schema and hence SQL provides a DDL command ALTER TABLE
to modify the structure of a table. The alteration will be in the form of adding or
dropping column(s), changing the data type and size of existing column(s), renaming
a table, etc. Let us see how these changes are incorporated.
9.8.1 Adding a new column
One or more columns can be added at any position in an existing table. The syntax
for adding a new column to a table is:
ALTER TABLE <table_name>
ADD <column_name> <data_type>[<size>] [<constraint>]
[FIRST | AFTER <column_name>];

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Here the <table_name> indicates the name of the table which is to be altered;
ADD is the keyword to add the new column; <column_name> <data_type>
[<size>] indicates the description of the new column. FIRST | AFTER indicates
the position of the newly added column.
If we want to add a column at the first position, use the clause FIRST. If we want to
add a column at a specified position, use the clause AFTER <column_name>.
Note that if we do not specify the position of the new column, then by default, it
will be added as the last column of the table. Remember that the newly added
column contains only NULL values.
Let us add two columns gr_mks and reg_no in the table student to hold the
grace marks awarded to the students and their register number for the Higher
Secondary examinations, respectively. Query 9.33 can make these changes in the
structure of the table.
Query 9.33 ALTER TABLE student
ADD gr_mks INTEGER AFTER dob,
ADD reg_no INTEGER;

The response of MySQL for this query will be as follows:

Query OK, 10 rows affected (0.25 sec)
Records: 10 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0

9.8.2 Changing the definition of a column

We can modify the characteristics of a column like data type, size and/or constraints
by using the clause MODIFY with ALTER TABLE command. The syntax to modify
the definition of a column is:
ALTER TABLE <table_name>
MODIFY <column_name> <data_type>[<size>] [<constraint>];
Let us modify the newly added column reg_no by providing a constraint UNIQUE
to ensure that no two students have the same register number. Query 9.34 makes
this change.
Query 9.34 ALTER TABLE student
MODIFY reg_no INTEGER UNIQUE;

The response of MySQL will be the same as that we obtained for Query 9.30. We
can observe the changes made by the Queries 9.33 and 9.34 using the command:
DESC student;. The output is shown in Figure 9.26.

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Fig. 9.26: Structure of table student after alteration

We can see from Figure 9.26 that column gr_mks is added after dob and reg_no
as the last column. Also note that column Key for reg_no contains UNIQUE
constraint. Now, if we see the contents in the new columns using the command
SELECT * FROM student;, we can see NULL values as shown in Figure 9.27.

Fig. 9.27: Contents in the new columns after modifying the structure of table student

Write SQL statements to fill in data in the new columns with proper
values and display the changes in the records.
Make some structural modifications in the table stock and store
Let us do values according to the changes.

9.8.3 Removing column from a table

If we want to remove an existing column from a table, we can use DROP clause
along with ALTER TABLE command. The syntax for removing a column from a
table is:
ALTER TABLE <table_name>
DROP <column_name>;
For example, if we want to remove the column gr_mks from the table student,
Query 9.35 is sufficient.

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Query 9.35 ALTER TABLE student

DROP gr_mks;
The response of MySQL will be the same as we received for the earlier ALTER
TABLE statements. The change can be observed using the command: DESC
student;

9.8.4 Renaming a table

We can rename a table in the database by using the clause RENAME TO along with
ALTER TABLE command. We can rename a table even though it contains tuples.
The syntax for renaming a table is:
ALTER TABLE <table_name>
RENAME TO <new_table_name>;
For example, if we want to rename the table student
as student2015, Query 9.36 can help us.
Query 9.36 ALTER TABLE student
RENAME TO student2015;
The response of this query will be as follows: Fig. 9.28: Renaming of table

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.06 sec)

The change can be viewed using the query: SHOW TABLES; and the output will be
as shown in Figure 9.28.
9.9 Deleting rows from a table
Sometimes we need to remove one or more records from the table. The DML
command DELETE is used to remove individual or a set of rows from a table. The
rows which are to be deleted are selected by using the WHERE clause. If the WHERE
clause is not used, all the rows in the table will be deleted. The DELETE command
removes only records and not the individual field values. The syntax of the DELETE
command is:
DELETE FROM <table_name> [WHERE <condition>];
For example, if the record of Sreekumar with admission number 1027 is to be
deleted from the table, Query 9.37 can be used.
Query 9.37 DELETE FROM student2015 WHERE adm_no=1027;
The output of this query will be: Query OK, 1 row affected (0.08 sec)
Note that the name of the table is specified as student2015, because we have renamed
the table student as student2015. The change in the table can be observed in Figure
9.29, which is obtained by the query: SELECT * FROM student2015;
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 9. Structured Query Language

Fig. 9.29: Contents in the renamed table after deleting a record

Figure 9.29 shows only seven columns. This is because of the removal of column
gr_mks as a result of Query 9.35.

The deletion of values in a column is not possible. The effect may be

brought out by filling the column with NULL values using UPDATE command
as follows:
UPDATE <table-name>
SET <column-name> = NULL
[WHERE <condition>];

9.10 Removing table from a database

If we do not need a table, it can be removed from the database using DROP TABLE
command. This DDL command removes a table from the database permanently
even though the table contains tuples. We have to be very careful while deleting any
existing table because once data is lost, it cannot be recovered later. The syntax to
remove a table is:
DROP TABLE <table_name>;
For example, if we want to remove the table student2015 from the database school,
Query 9.38 can be used.
Query 9.38 DROP TABLE student2015;
Know your progress
1. The command used to edit the structure of a table is ________.
2. Restructuring of a column affects the values in it. State whether
true or false.
3. How will you remove a column from a table?
4. Name the command used to remove a row from a table.
5. What happens when we use DELETE FROM command without a
WHERE clause?
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9.11 Nested queries

We are all familiar with the concept of nesting as we discussed it in nested if, nested
loop, etc. Now, we will discuss nested queries. We know that nested means one
inside another. Here the result of one query is dynamically substituted in the condition
of another. A MySQL inner query is also called sub query, while the query that
contains the sub query is called an outer query. SQL first evaluates the inner query
(sub query) within the WHERE clause and the result of inner query is then substituted
in the condition of the outer query. While using relational operators, ensure that the
sub query (inner query) returns a single row output.
Suppose we want to display the name and course of the students who have the
highest family monthly income. Query 9.39 can perform this task and Figure 9.30
shows the output.
SELECT name, course FROM student2015
Query 9.39
WHERE f_income=(SELECT MAX(f_income)
FROM student2015);
In this example, the sub query (here query inside the
pair of parentheses) is evaluated first and the highest
value in f_income column (here 52000) is returned.
This value is then compared with the value in
f_income attribute of the records in the table and Fig. 9.30: Result of nested query
when a match is found, it is retrieved by the outer
query.
9.12 Concept of views
MySQL supports the concept of views, which is a feature of RDBMS. A view is a
virtual table that does not really exist in the database, but is derived from one or
more tables. The table(s) from which the tuples are collected to constitute a view is
called base table(s). These tuples are not physically stored anywhere, rather the
definition of the view is stored in the database. Views are just like windows through
which we can view the desired information that is actually stored in a base table.
The contents of a view are taken from other tables depending upon a query
condition. A view can be created with the DDL command CREATE VIEW. The
syntax is:
CREATE VIEW <view_name>
AS SELECT <column_name1> [,<column_name2],...]
FROM <table_name>
[WHERE <condition>];

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Let us create a view that contains the details of only those students who were born
before January 1, 1999. Query 9.40 creates this view named student1998.
Query 9.40 CREATE VIEW student1998
AS SELECT * FROM student2015
WHERE dob < '1999-1-1';
The output of this query will be: Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.31 sec)
Figure 9.31 shows the structure of the view and Figure 9.32 shows the contents of
the view. These can be obtained by the commands DESC student1998; and
SELECT * FROM student1998; respectively.

Fig. 9.31: Structure of the view student1998

Fig. 9.32: Contents in the view student1998

Note that in Figure 9.31, the column Key does not contain the constraints of adm_no
and reg_no, and Figure 9.32 shows the details of students born in the year 1998
only.
We can use all the DML commands with the view in quite a similar fashion as in the
case of tables. Figure 9.32 is a result of such a query. Remember that we are accessing
the base table though the associated views. So, take care when operations like update
and delete are performed on views as they actually reflect in the base tables.
Query 9.41 illustrates this concept.
Query 9.41 UPDATE student1998
SET reg_no=2201020
WHERE adm_no=1001;
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Let us check the data in the table 'student2015' after executing this query. Figure
9.33 shows the output of the query: SELECT * FROM student2015;

Fig. 9.33: Effect of updation in the base table through the view

The advantages of views lie in the fact that without sparing extra storage space, we
can use the same table as different tables (but virtual). Another advantage is that the
views implement sharing along with privacy. It also helps to reduce the complexity
of conditions with WHERE clause while retrieving, updating or deleting records
from tables.
If a view is no longer needed, it can be removed from the database with DROP
VIEW command. But it will not affect the base table(s). The syntax is:
DROP VIEW <view_name>;
For example, if we want to delete the view student1998 from the database, Query
9.42 can be used.
Query 9.42 DROP VIEW student1998;

Know your progress

1. What is mean by nested query?
2. What is view in SQL?
3. Creation of a view needs a SELECT command. State whether
true or false.
4. Removal of a view deletes a table from the database. State
whether true or false.
5. Can we update a table using its view?

We have discussed all the DDL and DML commands of SQL, which
are implemented through MySQL, with examples and their outputs.
Let us summarise them in Table 9.8. The first two rows are filled in
Let us do and the remaining rows are left to you.
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 9. Structured Query Language

SQL Command Essential Purpose of the command

Keyword
CREATE TABLE To create tables
ALTER TABLE ADD/MODIFY To change the structure of tables
DDL

DROP TABLE
CREATE VIEW
DROP VIEW
INSERT
SELECT
DML

UPDATE
DELETE
Table 9.8: Summary of SQL command

Let us conclude
Structured Query Language is used to operate on relational database. MySQL is a
popular RDBMS package by which we can implement SQL commands. We have
used various DDL commands to perform operations related with the structure of
database. Constraints have been presented to ensure data validity and integrity in
database. We have also discussed different DML commands to perform operations
associated with the data contained in tables of a database. These operations include
insertion, retrieval, modification and deletion of data in tables. We have also
familiarized ourselves with nested queries and the concept of views. A good
understanding of this chapter is essential for your higher studies in the field of
computers.

Let us practice

1. The structure of a table is given to store the details of marks scored by students
in an examination.
Data Type Description
Register number Numeric A unique and essential data to identify a
student
Name String A maximum of 30 characters
Course String It can be Science, Commerce or
Humanities
Marks of six subjects Numeric each Six separate columns are required

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Write SQL statements for the creation of the table and the following
requirements:
a. Insert data into the fields (at least 10 records).
b. Display the details of all students.
c. List the details of Science group students.
d. Count the number of students in each course.
e. Add a new column named Total to store the total marks.
f. Fill the column Total with the sum of the six marks of each student.
g. Display the highest total in each group.
h. Find the highest, lowest and average score in Subject 6 in Commerce
group.
i. Display the names in the alphabetical order in each course.
j. Display the name of the student with the highest total.

2. The structure of a table is given to store the details of items in a computer

shop.

Data Type Description

Item number Numeric A unique and essential data to identify
an item
Item name String A maximum of 30 characters
Date of purchase Date Duplication is allowed
Unit price Fractional Number Price of a single item
Quantity Numeric Number of items
Manufacturer String Name of supplier (can duplicate)
Write SQL statements for the creation of the table and the following
requirements:
a. Insert data into the fields (at least 10 records).
b. Display the details of all items in the table.
c. Display the names of items and total price of each.
d. List the items manufactured by a company (specify the name) avialable in the
table.
e. Find the number of items from each manufacturer.
f. Display the details of items with the highest price.

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 9. Structured Query Language

g. List the names of items whose price is more than the average price of all
the items.
h. Display the names of items purchased after 1-1-2015.
i. Get the details of items manufactured by two or three companies (specify
the names) avialable in the table .
j. Display the details of items from a company (specify the name) with a stock
of more than 20 pieces.

3. The structure of a table is given to store the details of higher secondary school
teachers.
Data Type Description
Teacher ID Numeric A unique and essential data to identify a teacher
Name String A maximum of 30 characters
Gender Character Male or Female
Date of joining Date Duplication is allowed
Department String Science, Commerce, Humanities or Language
Basic pay Numeric Basic salary of a teacher

Write SQL statements for the creation of the table and the following
requirements:
a. Insert data into the fields (at least 10 records).
b. Display the details of all female teachers in the table.
c. List the details of male teachers in the Science department.
d. Display the names and basic pay of teachers in the Language department
whose basic pay is Rs. 21000/- or more.
e. Display the names and 71% of basic pay of the teachers.
f. Find the number of teachers in each department.
g. Display the details of teachers whose basic pay is less than the average
basic pay.
h. List the male teachers who joined before 1-1-2010.
i. Increment the basic pay of all teachers by Rs. 1000/-.
j. Delete the details of teachers from the Language department.

4. The structure of a table is given to store the details of customers in a bank.

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Data Type Description

Account number Numeric A unique and essential data to identify a
customer
Name String A maximum of 30 characters
Gender Character Male or Female
Date of joining Date Duplication is allowed
Type of account String SB or Current
Balance amount Numeric Can be a fractional number
Write SQL statements for the creation of the table and the following
requirements:
a. Insert data into the fields (at least 10 records).
b. Display the details of customers having SB account.
c. Display the names of customers with a balance amount greater than Rs.
5000/-.
d. Display the details of female customers with a balance amount greater
than Rs. 10000/-.
e. Count the number of male and female customers.
f. Display the names of customers with the highest balance amount.
g. Display the names of customers whose names end with 'kumar'.
h. Update the balance amount of a particular customer with a deposit amount
of Rs. 2000/-.
i. Display the details of customers with a tax deduction of 2% of the balance
amount for those who have Rs.2,00,000/- in their account.
j. Delete the details of customers with current account.
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1. The command to remove rows from a table 'CUSTOMER' is:
a. REMOVE FROM CUSTOMER b. DROP TABLE CUSTOMER
c. DELETE FROM CUSTOMER d. UPDATE CUSTOMER
2. If values for some columns are unknown, how is a row inserted?
3. Distinguish between CHAR and VARCHAR data types of SQL.
4. What is the difference between PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints?
5. What do you mean by NULL value in SQL?

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6. Which of the following is the correct order of clauses for the SELECT
statements?
a. SELECT, FROM, WHERE, ORDER BY
b. SELECT, FROM, ORDER BY, WHERE
c. SELECT, WHERE, FROM, ORDER BY
d. SELECT, WHERE, ORDER BY, FROM
7. The SQL operator ________ is used with pattern matching.
8. Read the following strings:
(i) 'Sree Kumar' (ii) 'Kumaran' (iii) 'Kumar Shanu' (iv) 'Sreekumar'
Choose the correct option that matches with the pattern '%Kumar', when used
with LIKE operator in a SELECT statement.
a. Strings (i) and (ii) only c. Strings (i) and (iii) only
b. Strings (i), (iii) and (iv) only d. All the strings
9. List any five built-in functions of SQL and the value returned by each.
10. Distinguish between WHERE clause and HAVING clause.
11. Write any four DML commands in SQL.
12. Write the essential clause required for each of the following SQL command.
a. INSERT INTO b. SELECT c. UPDATE
13. Consider the given table Customer and write the output of the following SQL
queries:
AccNo Name Branch Amount
1001 Kumar Calicut 10000
1002 Salim Trivandrum 20000
1003 Fida Kottayam 18000
1004 John Kannur 30000
1005 Raju Thrissur 5000
a. SELECT * FROM customer WHERE Amount>25000;
b. SELECT Name FROM customer
WHERE Branch IN ('Calicut, 'Kannur');
c. SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customer WHERE Amount < 20000;
d. SELECT Name FROM customer WHERE Name LIKE "%m%";
e. SELECT * FROM customer ORDER BY Amount DESC;

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14. Distinguish between COUNT(*) and COUNT(column-name).

15. Consider the given table ITEMS.

Item Name Category Unit Sales

Code Price Price
0001 Pencil Stationery 5.00 8.00
0002 Pen Stationery 8.00 10.00
0003 NoteBook Stationery 10.00 20.00
0004 Chappal Footwear 50.00 70.00
0005 Apple Fruits 60.00 90.00
0006 Orange Fruits 40.00 60.00
0007 Pen Stationery 10.00 12.00

a. Suggest a suitable primary key for the above table. Give justification.
b. Write SQL statements for the following:
i. To list all stationery items.
ii. To list itemcode, name and profit of all items.
iii. To count the number of items in each category.
iv. To list all stationery items in the descending order of their unit price.
v. To find the item with the highest selling price.
vi. To create a view that contains the details of all stationery items.
16. What are the different modifications that can be made on the structure of a
table? Which is the SQL command required for this? Specify the clauses needed
for each type of modification.
17. A table is created in SQL with 10 records. Which SQL command is used to
change the values in a column of specified rows? Write the format.
18. Name the keyword used with SELECT command to avoid duplication of values
in a column.
19. Distinguish between DISTINCT and UNIQUE in SQL.
20. Pick the odd one out and give reason:
a. CREATE b. SELECT c. UPDATE d. INSERT

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10 Planning

I
Significant Learning Outcomes n today's competitive world, one has to
manage the future of an enterprise more
After the completion of this chapter, the cleverly. Managing the future means
learner managing the information. A large enterprise
may generate huge amount of data such as
• identifies the need of Enterprise
financial data, customer details, purchase
Resource Planning (ERP) in an
details, employee data etc. Only the
enterprise.
organization that makes the best possible use
• lists different functional units of an of this information can succeed. In this age of
ERP system. information explosion, it is very difficult to
• explains the importance of manage this huge information by people alone.
Business Process Re-engineering Information technology and its related
(BPR) in the implementation of ERP. technologies can be used for planning and
• recognises different phases in organizing resources and information of an
implementation of an ERP system. enterprise. Hence most of the organizations
• lists some important ERP packages are moving to Enterprise Resource Planning
in the market. (ERP) packages as a solution to their
• explains the benefits and risks of
information management problem.
ERP implementation in an 10.1 Overview of an enterprise
enterprise.
An enterprise is a group of people and other
• becomes familiar with some resources working together for a common
related technologies of ERP goal. An enterprise may consist of different
system. sections or departments such as manufacturing
or production, planning, sales, purchase,
finance, distribution etc. Each department will
have their own duties and responsibilities and
they are working to achieve the objective which
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

is set for the enterprise. There are different

types of resources in an enterprise like men,
material, money and machine. Information
system can be designed for various
departments of an enterprise so that accurate
and timely data can be provided to the
concerned persons. Figure 10.1 is a schematic
diagram of an enterprise and it shows that an
enterprise contains resources and people
working for a common goal or objective.
Fig 10.1: An Enterprise
10.2 Concept of Enterprise Resource Planning
In some enterprises, different departments function independently. So the
information that is produced by each
department may be available only to
the top management of the
department and it is not available to
the other departments. Here, there
is no communication between
different sections of an enterprise.
An organization or an enterprise
where there is no communication
between departments can be
depicted as shown in Figure 10.2. Fig. 10.2: An enterprise with no or little
communication between departments
For better benefit and efficiency,
each department must know what
the other departments are doing. An
enterprise can be considered as a
system and all its departments as its
sub systems. Information about the
entire enterprise can be stored in a
centralized database and it is made
available to all departments. Such an
enterprise can be depicted as shown
in Figure 10.3.
ERP combines all the business
requirements of an enterprise or
company together into a single,
Fig. 10.3: An enterprise with Central Database
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 10. Enterprise Resource Planning

integrated software that runs off a single database so that the various departments
of an enterprise can share information and communicate with each other more
easily. Conceptually, ERP replaces the old standalone computer systems in each
area of an enterprise such as finance, human resource, manufacturing, sales, etc.
with a single software program that facilitates various functional modules. Thus,
employees in any department get the required information related to the activities
of the respective department. In addition to this, the information will be available
across the departments. For example, someone in the finance department can use
ERP to see if any sale order has been shipped from the warehouse so that he can
now confidently plan for working capital management for the next period. It
organises and integrates operation processes and information flows to make
optimum use of resources such as men, material, money and machine.
ERP system is a fully integrated business management system covering functional
areas of an enterprise like Finance, Human Resources, Production, Sales , Logistics
etc. The key element of ERP is the use of a single database to store data for various
system modules. ERP systems utilise components of both computer software and
hardware.
10.3 Functional units of ERP
The resources available in an enterprise must be utilized effectively. So it is the
responsibility of the management to plan the resources. The ERP system helps the
management in making the planning process more productive and efficient.
The entire ERP package contains many modules or sub units. The number and
functioning of modules vary with the nature of enterprise and the type of ERP
package. Some commonly used modules, available in almost all packages are briefly
explained below.
Financial module
This module is the core of many ERP software packages. It can collect financial
data from various functional departments and generate valuable financial reports.
Financial reports include balance sheets, general ledger, trial balance, financial
statements, etc. This module also includes financial accounting, investment
management, enterprise controlling and treasury.
Manufacturing module
Manufacturing module contains necessary business rules to manage the entire
production process. This module of ERP enables an enterprise to combine
technology and business processes to get integrated solutions. It provides
information for the entire operation to be carried out for the production. It also
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provides freedom to change manufacturing and planning methods as and when

required.
Production planning module
This module is used for optimising the utilisation of available resources and helps
the organisation to plan their production. Optimisation is the process of making
the best effective use of resources. This module identifies the materials required,
allocates optimal resources using historical production and performs sales
forecasting with the sales data.
HR module
HR stands for human resource. HR module of ERP focuses on the management
of human resources and human capital. HR module maintains an updated and
complete employee database including personal information, salary details,
attendance, performance, promotion, etc. of all employees in an enterprise.
Inventory control module
This module covers processes of maintaining the appropriate level of stock in the
warehouse. It is responsible for identifying the inventory requirements, setting target,
monitoring item usages, reporting inventory status, etc. Integration of inventory
control with sales, purchase and finance helps an enterprise to generate intelligent
reports.
Purchasing module
Purchase module is used for making the required raw materials available in the
right time and at the right price. Generating purchase order for the supplier,
evaluating the supplier, and billing are made available in this module. Purchase
module is closely connected with the inventory, finance and production planning
module.
Marketing module
Marketing module is used for monitoring and tracking customer orders, increasing
customer satisfaction and for eliminating credit risks. It helps marketers to analyze,
plan, execute and measure all marketing activities.
Sales and distribution module
Revenue from sale is the life-blood of any enterprise. Sales module deals with
important parts of a sales cycle. Sales cycle includes inquiries, order placement,
order scheduling, dispatching and invoicing. This module is closely integrated with
the e-commerce website of the organization.

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 10. Enterprise Resource Planning

Quality management module

This module is used for
managing the quality of the
product. The quality management
module fulfills the following
functions-Quality planning,
Quality inspection and Quality
control. Based on the size and
nature of enterprise, other than
above modules, there may be
different types of modules in the
functional unit of an enterprise.
An ERP system integrates all the
above components into a single
software system. Figure 10.4
shows the various functional
units of ERP. Fig 10.4: Functional units of ERP
10.4 Business Process Re-engineering
Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) is the analysis and redesign of work flow
within an enterprise. It involves changes in structure and process of a business
environment. Due to rapid change in business field, especially in information
technology, the process of a business needs to be redesigned for better service and
benefit. Information technology plays a major role in business process re-engineering
as it provides office automation, online business, flexible manufacturing, high speed
delivery and paperless transactions.
Re-engineering of a business will result in efficient time management, reduced cost
and effective utilization of resources. In the business world, competition is based
on price, quality, selection and service. Nowadays, with the advent of internet and
e-commerce, distance and time is not a barrier for a business. These changes impose
the need for organizational transformation, where the entire processes and
organizational structure are changed.
In Business Process Re-engineering, re engineering and process may be defined
separately. Re-engineering is the rethinking and redesigning of a business process
to achieve improvements in the performance of an enterprise. Business process is
a structured set of activities designed to produce a specified output for an enterprise.
Each process consists of related steps or activities that use people, information
and other resources.
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A business process consists of three elements.

• Inputs: Data such as application forms, customer enquiries and materials for
processing.
• Processing: Set of activities or stages of operations to get an output.
• Outcome: It is the output of processing steps.
Here, processing is the time consuming and problematic element of business process.
Basically, a business process is the way in which we perform our work and, business
process re-engineering is the process of changing this way in a better style to
accomplish the goals of an enterprise. So BPR mainly focuses on processing parts,
which is to be re-engineered to reduce limitations and to increase performance.
The fundamental rethinking and redesign
of the business process to achieve
improvements in performance such as
cost, quality, service and speed of an
enterprise is called business process re-
engineering. Figure 10.5 illustrates the
phases in the life cycle of BPR which
includes identification of business process,
analysis of current business process,
designing of a revised process and
implementation of revised process. Fig 10.5: Business Process Re-engineering
(BPR)
Connection between ERP and BPR
Before implementing ERP in a business, the need of such a new system must be
ensured. Business process re-engineering will help an enterprise to determine the
changes in the structure or process of a business for better aspects. So ERP and
BPR are related and they go hand in hand, and in most of the cases business process
re engineering is performed before enterprise resource planning. Conducting
business process re engineering before implementing enterprise resource planning
will help an enterprise to avoid unnecessary modules from the software. BPR first
ensures that business processes are optimized before software is configured and
also ensures that software functionality will closely match the actual process steps.
All business process re- engineering does not necessary lead to the implementation
of a new ERP system. Some BPR may find that there is no need of BPR in the
enterprise because of cost, effectiveness and other challenges.
In some other cases BPR and ERP are used together to achieve better result for the
enterprise and to improve existing ERP.
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Know your progress

1. Define the term enterprise.
2. ________ is a fully integrated business management system.
3. Analysis and redesign of work flow within an enterprise is called
________
4. List any four commonly available modules in ERP.
5. In ERP, information about all the departments of an enterprise
is stored in ________?
10.5 Implementation of ERP
Nowadays almost all major organisations are moving to enterprise resource planning
package as a solution to their information management problem. If an ERP package
is correctly selected and implemented in an enterprise, then the productivity and
profit of the organisation will increase dramatically. The implementation should be
well planned and executed perfectly. So, the ERP implementation has to go through
different phases. But, there are no clear lines separating these phases and in many
cases, one phase will start before the previous one is completed.
The different phases of ERP implementation are given below.
• Pre evaluation screening
• Package selection
• Project planning
• Gap analysis
• Business Process Reengineering
• Installation and configuration
• Implementation team training
• Testing
• Going live
• End user training
• Post implementation
Fig 10.6: Phases of ERP implementation
Pre evaluation screening
There may be a number of packages available in the market for implementing ERP
in an enterprise. Instead of evaluating all the packages, for selecting an appropriate
package, we have to limit the number of packages to be evaluated. So pre evaluation
screening is the first phase of implementation of a ERP package.
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Package selection
In the previous phase, we selected a few packages for evaluating their performance
and efficiency. The package that we select will decide the success or failure of the
project. Since an ERP system needs huge investment, once a package is selected
and purchased, it is not an easy task to switch to another one. The most important
factor kept in mind while evaluating the different screened packages is that, it should
be flexible enough to meet the enterprise requirements.
Project planning
In this phase, the implementation process is planned and designed. The time schedule
and deadlines for different activities are determined. Roles and responsibilities of
the concerned staff are identified and assigned to each person. This phase decides
when to begin the project, how to do it and when to complete it.
Gap analysis
There is no ERP package available in the market which fulfils all the requirements
of an enterprise perfectly. Although ERP vendors may claim that their software
will solve all problems, there will still be some gaps. Even the best ERP package
will be able to meet only 80 percentage of the needs of the enterprise. So, the gap
should be analysed and considered in the following phases of ERP implementation.
Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
The fundamental rethinking and redesign of the business process to achieve
improvements in performance such as cost, quality, service and speed of an
enterprise is called business process re engineering. The importance of BPR in the
implementation of an ERP system has been already discussed (refer to Section 10.4)
Installation and configuration
This is the main functional phase of an ERP implementation. Before installing a
new ERP package, the whole process of the enterprise should be analyzed in detail.
Instead of replacing the old system with the new ERP system, it will be better and
effective to develop an appropriate prototype. This prototype is a miniature of the
actual ERP that is going to be implemented. In future, we have to conduct continuous
testing of the prototype to find out the weakness, and steps can be taken to avoid
these mistakes when the real ERP system gets introduced. The task of configuration
of ERP system should be assigned to experienced staff.
Implementation team training
This is the phase where the company trains its employees to implement and later
run the system. The ERP vendors and the hired consultants will leave the organisation
after the implementation is over. So the company must select employees with the
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 10. Enterprise Resource Planning

right attitude, willingness to change and learn new things, and who are not afraid of
technology.
System testing
The software is tested to ensure that it performs properly from both the technical
and functional areas of an enterprise. The validity of output can be determined
with the help of sample data. If any mistakes are found out at this stage, it should
be corrected before the operation of ERP system.
Going live
This is the phase where ERP is made available to the entire organization. After this
phase, the system is ready for use. After configuration and testing, removing errors,
and checking the correctness of reports, the system becomes 'live' to perform the
enterprise operations. For the smooth functioning, the ERP vendors will provide
support and service to the enterprise.
End-user training
The actual users of the ERP system need training on how to use the system. This
phase may be started before the system goes live. The employees who are going to
use the new system are identified. Their skills are noted and they are divided into
groups, based on the skill. Each group is then given training on the new system.
Since the success of ERP system is in the hands of end-users, this training is very
important.
Post implementation
After installing and operating a new ERP system, there may be the need of updating
and evaluating the system. So, after implementation, it is to be checked whether the
objective set for the ERP system is met. In this phase, errors may be corrected and
necessary steps may be taken to improve the processing efficiency.
10.6 ERP solution providers/ERP packages
Selection of ERP package is very crucial in the implementation of an ERP system.
If an ERP package is chosen correctly, implemented judiciously and used efficiently,
the productivity of the enterprise will be increased. ERP package vendors are
investing huge amount of time, money and effort in the research and development
of packaged solutions. There are so many ERP vendors in the world. Some of the
popular ERP packages are Oracle, SAP, Odoo, Microsoft Dynamics, and Tally.
Oracle
Oracle corporation is headquartered in Redwood shores , California, USA. Oracle
was originally known for its database system rather than its ERP system. The ERP
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package from Oracle provides strong finance and accounting module. It also
provides good customer and supplier interaction, effective production analysis,
efficient human resource management and better pricing module. Oracle also
developed Customer Relationship Management (CRM) and Supply Chain
Management (SCM) software.
JD Edwards was a popular ERP package provider
which was purchased by PeopleSoft company in 2003.
Later PeopleSoft company was purchased by Oracle
Corporation in 2005.
SAP
SAP stands for Systems, Applications and Products for data processing. It is a
German multinational software corporation headquartered in Walldorf and founded
in 1972. The company started by developing software for integrated business
solutions. In the beginning, the software was developed aiming at large multinational
companies. After gaining good acceptance from them,
the company started developing packages for small scale
enterprises also. SAP also developed Customer
Relationship Management (CRM), Supply Chain
Management (SCM), and Product Life cycle Management
(PLM) software.
Odoo
Odoo is an open source ERP. In open source ERP the
source code or program can be modified as necessary,
based on the requirement of organization. Odoo was
formerly known as OpenERP until May 2014.
Microsoft Dynamics
Microsoft is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Redmond,
Washington. Microsoft Dynamics is part of Microsoft business solutions. It provides
a group of enterprise resource planning products
primarily aimed at midsized enterprises. This package
can be installed and used easily and it provides good
user interface. It also provides customer relationship
management (CRM) software.
Tally ERP
Tally solutions Pvt Ltd is a Bangalore based Software Company in India. Tally ERP
is a business accounting software for accounting, inventory and payroll.
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In the near future, new ERP vendor may introduce new

ERP packages and existing ERPs may get more facilities
and capabilities. Selecting an ERP solution is a serious
exercise and has to be executed with great care.

Other than the above packages there are so many popular packages in
the market. Some of them aEpicore, Infor, Sage , Reach , Openbravo,
Apache OFBiz, Compiere, WebERP, ERP5 etc.

10.7 Benefits and risks of ERP

Installing an ERP package in an enterprise has many direct and indirect advantages.
More over, it has some challenges also. Let us discuss the benefits and limitations
of an ERP system.
10.7.1 Benefits of ERP system
There are so many advantages on implementing an ERP system in an enterprise.
Some of the major benefits are briefly explained:
1. Improved resource utilization
An enterprise can plan and manage its resources effectively by installing ERP
software. So the wastage or loss of all types of resources can be reduced, and
improved resource utilization can be ensured.
2. Better customer satisfaction
Customer satisfaction means meeting maximum customers’ requirements for a
product or service. Using an ERP system, a customer will get more attention and
service of an enterprise without spending more money and time. With the
introduction of web based ERP, a customer can place the order, track the status of
the order and make the payment from his/her home.
3. Provides accurate information
In today's competitive world, an enterprise has to plan and manage the future
cleverly. So, an enterprise needs high quality, relevant and accurate information. An
ERP system will be able to provide such information for the better future planning
of the enterprise.
4. Decision making capability
Accurate and relevant information given to decision makers will help them to take
better decisions for running a system more smoothly. Better decision from an
enterprise will help them to go a step ahead of its competitors.
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5. Increased flexibility
An ERP system improves the flexibility of manufacturing operations and the entire
organization. A flexible organization can adapt to the changes in the environment
rapidly. ERP system helps organizations to remain flexible by making enterprise
information available without any departmental barriers.
6. Information integrity
The most important advantage of ERP is in its promotion of integration of various
departments and hence we will get an integrated form of information about the
enterprise. The entire information about an enterprise is stored in a centralized
data base, so that complete visibility into all the important processes across various
departments of an organisation can be achieved.
Moreover, an ERP system provides high security, business intelligence, unified
reporting system, improved supplier performance, use of latest technologies, high
speed delivery of product and better analysis and planning capabilities.
10.7.2 Risks of ERP implementation
Some of the problems and limitations of using an ERP package in an enterprise
are the following:
1. High cost
The cost of ERP software configuration and implementation is very high. The
high price of the package, associated license fees and other charges are the main
problems of ERP installation. There may be additional indirect costs due to ERP
implementation like new IT infrastructure, upgrading the network facilities etc. For
small scale enterprises purchasing and installing such an expensive package may not
be preferable.
2. Time consuming
The ERP implementation process has to go through different phases and it is highly
time consuming. It may take months or even one or two years to get completed and
fully functional.
3. Requirement of additional trained staff
To run an ERP system, trained and experienced employees are to be appointed in
the enterprise. The correct selection of an ERP package alone cannot guarantee the
success of an enterprise. In addition, the contribution of skilled and trained persons
in using ERP system is very important.

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4. Operational and maintenance issues

Implementation of an ERP needs major changes in the current process of an
enterprise. Sometimes, it will be difficult to adjust with these changes by employees
and management of an enterprise, as it is human nature to resist changes. Most
enterprises are implementing ERP in the assumption that someday the project will
end. But actually the implementation is a life cycle and the ERP system cannot end
with the implementation and it is a continuous process. So, maintenance of an ERP
system is very difficult.
10.8 ERP and related technologies
An ERP system integrates separate business functions - material management,
product planning, sales, distribution, financial and others - into single applications.
If some other technologies which are going to be discussed in this section are used
along with stand alone ERP package, the performance of the enterprise will be
increased significantly. Let us discuss some of the related technologies used along
with ERP packages.
Product Life Cycle Management (PLM)
Product life cycle is used for determining the lifespan of a product. Product life
cycle management is the process of managing the entire life cycle of a product.
Figure 10.7 shows the general schematic diagram of four stage product life cycle
which consists of development and introduction of a new product, then its growth
in the market, its maturity and at last
its decline if it cannot compete with
similar products of other companies.
Product Life cycle Management is
performed for increasing the quality of
a product, for increasing marketing
opportunities and for ensuring usage
of latest technology in production for
introducing a new model. To create a
new product or to modify an existing
product, the company must understand
its customer, market and competitors.
The infor mation gathered from
product life cycle will help an enterprise
to understand the state/status of a
Fig 10.7: General schematic diagram of four stage
product in the existing market. product life cycle

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Customer Relationship Management (CRM)

Customer is an individual or group who receives or consumes goods and services.
Customers are the most important part of any enterprise. The success of any
enterprise depends on good relationship with its customers. CRM is a broadly used
term that covers policies used by an enterprise to manage their relationships with
customers. The objectives of a CRM strategy must consider a company's specific
situation and its customers’ needs and expectations. Customer Relationship
Management is a comprehensive approach for creating, maintaining and expanding
customer relationships. It is not only the responsibility of customer service group
or IT team. It touches all major part of an enterprise. Figure 10.8 shows the
processes involved in CRM.
It includes the capture, storage and analysis of
customer information. The data gathered as a
part of CRM must consider customer privacy
and data security. Customers want the assurance
that their data is not shared with third parties
without their consent and not accessed illegally
by third parties. Customers also want their data
used by companies to provide a benefit to them.
The technology requirement of customer Fig 10.8: Processes in CRM
relationship management consists of a database to store entire information about
the customer and a software for interacting, analyzing and supporting customers.
Management Information System (MIS)
We can see that there are three components in MIS - Management, Information and
System. Management is the ultimate user or the decision maker, information is the
processed data and system is the integration and holistic view of the enterprise. In
the technical perspective, an information system collects, stores, and distributes
information from an organization's environment and internal operations to support
organizational functions. It is also used for decision making, communication,
coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of an enterprise. Information
systems transform raw data into useful information through three basic activities:
input, processing, and output.
An enterprise may contain different categories of employees like clerks, assistants,
officers, executives, managers etc. All of them are the users of MIS. A management
information system will collect relevant data from inside and outside an enterprise.
This data is processed and stored in a centralized database and is made available to

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its users whenever it is needed. MIS has the capability to generate reports as and
when the user demands it. It is mainly used to create reports on the basis of which
decisions are made. Figure 10.9 shows the role of MIS in an organisation.
So Management Infor-
mation System can be
defined as an integrated
system of man and
machine for providing
the infor mation to
support the operations, Fig 10.9: Role of MIS in an organisation
the management and the decision making function in an organisation.
Supply Chain Management (SCM)
The supply chain consists of all the activities associated with moving goods from
the supplier to the customer. It begins with collecting raw materials and ends with
receiving the goods by the consumer, as shown in Figure 10.10. It is very important
for companies to move product to their customers quickly. Faster product delivery
or availability will increase the sale and satisfaction of customers. So it is very
important to manage the activities in supply chain. Software packages are available
in the market for managing the same.
Supply Chain Management
(SCM) is a systematic approach
for managing supply chain.
SCM activities include
inventory management,
transportation management,
warehouse management,
distribution strategy
planning, customer service
performance monitoring,
Fig 10.10: Activities involved in SCM
computer simulation etc.
Decision Support System (DSS)
Decision Support Systems are interactive, computer-based systems that aid users
in judgment and choice activities. It is a computer program application that analyses
business data and presents it so that users can make business decisions more easily.
DSS focuses on providing help in analysing situations rather than providing right
information in the form of various types of reports. DSS is only a support in nature,

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 11 Trends and Issues in ICT

T
he use of Internet has increased
Significant Learning Outcomes rapidly in the last few decades. The
modern society cannot think of a day
After the completion of this chapter, the without the Internet and the services provided
learner by it. The developments in computer
• identifies the various mobile technology have led to the development of
computing terminologies. powerful but cheaper mobile devices. People
have started accessing these services on the
• recognises the features of mobile
Internet using their mobile devices like mobile
operating systems.
phones, tablets, etc.
• discovers the features of Android Information and Communication Technology
operating system. (ICT) is the term often used as an extended
• lists and explains various synonym for Information Technology (IT).
Intellectual Property Rights. ICT is more specific in integrating
• explains cyberspace.
telecommunication and computers. In this
chapter, we discuss the different technologies
• distinguishes different types of and services in mobile communication. The
cyber-crimes. various mobile operating systems available are
• details cyber law and ethics. discussed here with special focus on Android
operating system. The technologies like
• identifies the importance of IT Act.
bigdata, Radio Frequency Identification
• recognises infomania. (RFID) that improve the way of doing business
is also discussed here.
Similar to rights on property like land, house,
etc., intellectual properties like music, films,
software, designs, etc. have also ownership
rights. These rights are called Intellectual
Property Rights (IPR) and the issues related to
 Computer Applications (Commerce) - XII

them are discussed in this chapter. Every technology has a dark side. Internet also
has its share of issues and threats. Some people use this medium for performing
illegal activities. We will discuss about such actions and how we can safeguard
ourselves in the Internet.
11.1 Mobile computing
The advances in computer technology have led to the development of more
computing power in small devices. Light weight computing devices with low power
consumption are now cheap and common. Devices like laptops, tablets, smart
phones, etc. have drastically changed the lifestyle and work culture of people. Today
people are able to connect to others, send and receive files or other information
anywhere anytime. This has increased computing demands on a daily basis.
Mobile computing is a technology that has computing capability and can transmit/
receive data while in motion. Mobile computing requires portable computing devices
like laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc., wireless communication networks and
connectivity to the Internet. The demand for mobile computing started the growth
and development of mobile communication technology.
11.2 Mobile communication
The term ‘mobile’ has completely revolutionised communication by opening up
innovative ways for exchanging information. Today, mobile communication has
become the backbone of society. Mobile system technologies have improved
standards of living. Mobile communication networks do not depend on any physical
connection to communicate between two devices.
11.2.1 Generations in mobile communication
The mobile phone was introduced in the year 1946. In the initial stage, growth in
mobile communication was very slow. With the increase in the number of users,
accommodating them within the limited available frequency spectrum became a
major problem. To solve this problem, the concept of cellular communication was
evolved.The cellular concept was developed in the 1960’s at Bell Laboratories.
However, in the late 1990’s, when the
Government of India offered
spectrum licenses for mobile
communication, cellular technology
became a common standard in our
country. Let us discuss different
generations in mobile communication
.
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a. First Generation networks

First Generation (1G) networks refer to the first generation of wireless telephone
technology (mobile telecommunications) developed around 1980. 1G mobile
phones were based on the analog system and provided basic voice facility only.
b. Second Generation networks
Second Generation (2G) networks follow the digital system for communication.
This improved the audio quality in transmission. In 2G networks, phone
conversations are digitally encrypted.These networks provided far greater mobile
phone coverage. 2G networks also introduced data services for mobile. Picture
messages and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS ) were introduced. The two
popular standards introduced by 2G systems are Global System for Mobiles (GSM)
and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA). A detailed discussion on the GSM
and CDMA standards are given below:
i. Global System for Mobiles
Global System for Mobiles (GSM) is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular
communication. It is a digital, circuit-switched network for voice telephony. The
frequency band for GSM is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz. GSM follows a uniform
international standard that made it possible to use a mobile device around the
world. The network is identified using the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Users
can select a handset of their choice. GSM is the most successful family of cellular
standards. Let us now discuss the different technologies that are used to enhance
data communication features to GSM.
General Packet Radio Service and
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
2G network was expanded later to include improved data communication features
using General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) and Enhanced Data rates for GSM
Evolution(EDGE).
GPRS is a packet oriented mobile data service on GSM. When compared to
conventional GSM, users of GPRS benefited from shorter access time and higher
data rates. GPRS allows billing based on volume of data transferred. Although
GPRS is a ‘data only’ technology, it helps to improve GSM’s voice quality.
EDGE is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission
rates for GSM. EDGE is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network
with GPRS deployed on it. It provides nearly three times faster speeds than the
GPRS system. Both the phone and the network must support EDGE, otherwise
the phone will revert automatically to GPRS.
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ii. Code Division Multiple Access

In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system, several transmitters can send
information simultaneously over a single communication channel. CDMA provides
wider coverage than GSM and provides better reception even in low signal strength
conditions. The voice quality in CDMA is better than GSM. It has a signal with
wider bandwidth and increased resistance to interference. CDMA technology
provides better security to the mobile network when compared to GSM.
c. Third Generation networks
The Third Generation (3G) wireless network technology provides high data transfer
rates for handheld devices. The high data transfer rates allow 3G networks to offer
multimedia services combining voice and data. 3G is also referred to as wireless
broadband as it has the facility to send and receive large amounts of data using a
mobile phone. The access part in 3G networks uses WCDMA (Wideband Code
Division Multiple Access). It requires upgrading the base stations (mobile towers)
and mobile phones. Besides, the base stations need to be close to each other.
d. Fourth Generation networks
A Fourth Geneartion (4G) system, also called Long Term Evolution (L.T.E.),
provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access to mobile devices. 4G networks
offer very high speeds and provides excellent performance for bandwidth intensive
applications such as high quality streaming video. One of the key requirements for
4G is a wireless IP-based access system. The access part in 4G networks uses
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA). 4G provides good
quality images and videos than TV.
e. Fifth Generation networks
Fifth Geneartion (5G) is the next step in the evolution of mobile communication.
It will offer faster, more number of connections, more energy-efficient and cost-
effective data communication than its predecessors. 5G will be a key component
that will help to realise the vision of unlimited access to information and sharing of
data anywhere and anytime. 5G will also provide wireless connectivity for a wide
range of new applications in wearable devices, smart homes, traffic safety/control,
industry applications, etc. By 2020, it is thought that 5,000 crore to 1,00,000 crore
devices will be connected to the Internet. 5G will be a wireless access solution which
is aimed at addressing the demands and requirements of mobile communication
beyond 2020.
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11.2.2 Mobile communication services

Mobile communication industry uses a number of acronyms for the various
technologies that are being developed. Here, we will discuss a few popular mobile
communication technologies like SMS, MMS, GPS and smart cards.
a. Short Message Service
Short Message Service (SMS) is a text messaging service in mobile communication
systems that allows exchanging short text messages. SMS is the most widely used
data application by mobile phone users. The GSM standard allows to send a message
containing upto 160 characters. When a message is sent, it reaches a Short Message
Service Center (SMSC), which provides a ‘store and forward’ mechanism. SMSC
attempts to send messages to the recipients. If a recipient is not reachable, the
SMSC waits and then retries later. Some SMSC’s also provide a ‘forward and forget’
option where transmission is tried only once and if it fails, the message is not sent
again. SMS messages are exchanged using the protocol called Signalling System
No. 7 (SS7).
The First SMS
The first SMS message was sent on 3rdDecember 1992 from a personal
computer to a cellular phone on the Vodafone GSM network in the UK.The
content of the message was ‘Merry Christmas’.

b. Multimedia Messaging Service

Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) is a standard way to send and receive messages
that consists of multimedia content using mobile phones. It is an extension of the
capability of SMS to send text messages. Unlike SMS, MMS does not specify a
maximum size for a multimedia message. MMS supports contents such as text,
graphics, music, video clips and more. An MMS server is responsible for storing
and handling incoming and outgoing messages. Associated with the MMS server is
the MMS proxy relay, which is responsible for transferring messages between
different messaging systems.
c. Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite based navigation system that is
used to locate a geographical position anywhere on earth, using its longitude and
latitude. GPS is designed and operated by the U.S. Department of Defence and it
consists of satellites, control and monitoring stations, and receivers.
The basis of the GPS is a group of satellites that are continuously orbiting the
earth. These satellites transmit radio signals that contain their exact location, time,
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and other information. The radio signals from the satellites, which are monitored
and corrected by control stations, are picked up by the GPS receiver. GPS receivers
take the information transmitted from the satellites to calculate a user’s exact location
on earth. A GPS receiver needs only three satellites to plot a 2D position, which
will not be very accurate. Ideally, four or more satellites are needed to plot a 3D
position, which is much more accurate.

Global positioning satellite network

Cellular
Data
Network Internet

GPS Tracking
Application
Fig. 11.1: GPS fleet tracking

GPS is used for vehicle fleet tracking by transporting companies to track the
movement of their trucks. Figure 11.1 depicts the working of a truck tracking
application using GPS. Vehicle navigation systems will direct the driver to his or
her destination through the best route. In commercial aviation GPS is used for
aircraft navigation. GPS is also used in oil exploration, farming, atmospheric studies
etc. GPS receivers are now integrated in many mobile phones for implementing
various tracking applications.
d. Smart cards
Let us recollect about smart cards and smart card
readers that we discussed in Chapter 2 of Class XI.
A smart card is a plastic card embedded with a
computer chip / memory that stores and transacts
data. The advantages of using smart cards is that it
is secure (data is protected), intelligent (it can store
and process data) and that it is convenient (it is easy Fig. 11.2: A model smart card

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to carry). That is why business firms and other organisations use smart cards for
authentication and storing data.A model of smart card issued by the Government
of India for RSBY scheme is shown in Figure 11.2.
In mobile communication, the smart card technology is used in Subscriber Identity
Modules (SIM) for GSM phone systems (refer to Figure 11.3). The smart card is
inserted or integrated into the mobile handset. The card stores personal subscriber
information and preferences. SIM cards help to identify a subscriber, roam across
networks and provide security to value added services
like Internet browsing, mobile commerce, mobile
banking, etc. Smart cards also work as credit cards, ATM
cards, fuel cards, authorisation cards for television
receiver, high-security identification cards, etc.
Fig. 11.3 : GSM SIM card
11.3 Mobile operating system
A mobile operating system is the operating system used in a mobile device (smart
phone, tablet, etc.), similar to an operating system used in a desktop or laptop
computer.

Fig. 11.4: Icons of popular mobile operating systems

A mobile OS manages the hardware, multimedia functions, Internet connectivity,
etc. in a mobile device. It is the software platform on which other programs, called
application programs, run. Popular mobile operating systems are Android from
Google, iOS from Apple, BlackBerry OS from BlackBerry and Windows Phone
from Microsoft.
Android operating system
Android is a Linux-based operating system designed mainly for touch screen mobile
devices such as smart phones and tablet computers. It was originally developed by
Android Inc. that was founded in Palo Alto, California in 2003 by Andy Rubin and
his friends. In 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. making it a wholly owned
subsidiary of Google. At Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device
platform powered by the Linux kernel. In 2007, the Open Handset Alliance, a
consortium of several companies which include Google, HTC, Intel, Motorola,
etc. was established with a goal to develop open standards for mobile devices.
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Android was released along with the formation of the Open Handset Alliance
(OHA).
The user interface of Android is based on touch inputs like swiping, tapping, pinching
and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects. Android allows users to
customise their home screens with shortcuts to applications and widgets. Since its
launch in 2007, the Android operating system’s market share has been growing at a
fast pace to make it the most widely used mobile operating system today. Major
Android versions have been developed under a codename and released according
to alphabetical order. Table 11.1 shows the Android version names.
The Android OS consists of a
kernel based on Linux kernel. Version Code name
Android uses Linux kernel as it 4.4 KitKat
has a powerful memory and
4.1 Jelly Bean
process management system,
permissions-based security 4.0.3 Ice Cream Sandwich
structure and open source 3.1 Honeycomb
nature. An Application
Framework for developers to 2.3 Gingerbread
build applications using the 2.2 Froyo
Android Software
Development Kit is available in 2.0 Eclair
Android. Android Software 1.6 Donut
Development Kit can be used to
develop applications like 1.5 Cupcake
Google Maps, Facebook, etc. Table 11.1: Android version names
that run on Android.
The Android code is released under the Apache License. Apache licensing allows
the software to be freely modified and distributed by device manufacturers and
developers. Android has a large community of developers writing applications
called ‘apps’ that enhance the functionality of devices. Apps are written using a
customised version of the Java programming language.
The acceptance of Android is due to factors like its open source nature. This makes
it easy for developers to make programs/applications for Android OS called
Android apps. Most of these apps are available for free download from the Android
Play Store. It enhances the popularity of this OS.
With remarkable advances in mobile hardware and software, these trimmed-down
operating systems may be heading in a direction that could replace a desktop OS. It
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is also likely that mobile OS could be further developed to be included in electronic

devices like televisions, washing machines, watches, etc.

Prepare a chart displaying the different mobile operating systems

available in the market and their features.
Let us do

Know your progress

1. SIM is
a. Subscriber Identity Module
b. Subscriber Identity Mobile
c. Subscription Identification Module
d. Subscription Identification Mobile
2. What is a GPS?
3. The protocol used to send SMS messages is ______.
4. Name the technology used to send multimedia content using
mobile phones.
5. What are the functions of a mobile operating system?

11.4 ICT in business

In Chapter 11, IT Applications of Class XI, we discussed the advantages of using
ICT in business. Here, we will discuss some tools which help to improve the way of
doing business. ICT has become a vital part of the business of many companies.
The use of ICT to improve the quality of the product or service given to customers
is growing at a fast pace. The way people shop and the way the product reaches the
customer have undergone remarkable changes. The Internet has changed the shopping
habits of people. The major change in business is through the introduction of ICT
in business. The use of ICT in all areas of business is shifting business from traditional
shops to online retailers.
Marketing and sales have undergone a strategic shift. Customer preferences have
an important role in today’s business. Along with mass marketing, marketing specific
to a customer has also gained prominence. Once shopping turned online, retailers
could track not only what customers bought, but also what else they looked for;
how they navigated through the site; how much they were influenced by promotions,
social media reviews, and page layouts; and similarities across individuals and groups.
This is achieved with the help of ICT.
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Once a customer purchases a product, the product has to be billed and transported
to his location. This has to be done with minimum cost and time. The use of ICT in
transporting and tracking the product through its transit improved efficiency and
thereby winning the confidence of the customers. We will now discuss some of the
major developments in business through the use of ICT.
11.4.1 Social networks and big data analytics
Today before buying a product either online or from a nearby shop, people tend to
search websites for their price, user reviews and for comparing similar products.
They also search different social network groups and receive opinions from friends
on a particular product. Therefore business firms have started watching the
conversations and opinions posted in social media. Business firms are using the
power of social media to gain a better understanding of their markets. They use
this data from the social media and also from browsing patterns of users for their
planning. The volume of such data is very large. This data that comes from posts to
social media sites, digital pictures and videos, purchase transaction records, cell
phone data, etc. which are related to a particular business can be considered as big
data in business.
Analysis of large data is difficult. The data sources can be either structured from
databases or unstructured from audio, documents, spreadsheets, social media posts,
etc. Different software tools can be used to analyse big data, store it and take decisions
in the business. Big data analytics is the process of examining large data sets containing
a variety of data types to uncover hidden patterns, market trends, customer
preferences and other useful business information. The analytical findings/reports
can lead to refining marketing campaigns, new revenue opportunities, better customer
service, improved
operational efficiency,
competitive advantages
over rival organisations
and other business
benefits. A schematic
diagram of big data
analytics is given in
Figure 11.5.
Big data analytics
provide an oppor- Fig. 11.5: Big data analytics
tunity for business firms to answer questions that were previously considered beyond
their reach. This opened the doors to a new world of possibilities to interact
effectively with the customer, with the knowledge of his preferences.
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11.4.2 Business logistics

Business logistics is the management of the flow of goods/resources in a business
between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet the
requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics
can include items such as food, products, animals, etc.
The objective of business logistics is ensuring the availability of the right product,
in the right quantity and condition, at the right place and time for the right customer,
at the right cost. Business logistics includes
i. purchase of materials from a company’s suppliers
ii. transportation of those materials to the company’s production facilities
iii. movement of finished goods through warehouses and transportation channels
to customers.
It also involves the integration of information flow, inventory, packaging and security
to products. The complexity of logistics can be reduced by the use of hardware
and software.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology can be used to identify, track,
sort or detect a wide variety of objects in logistics. RFID hardware consists of a
RFID tag and a reader. The RFID tag consists of a combination of transmitter and
responder. This tag contains a microchip for storing data and a sending and receiving
antenna for data exchange with the RFID reader. These thin tags are inserted or
pasted on product containers or products. Each RFID tag contains identifiable
information about a product. In RFID, communication takes
place between a reader and an RFID tag. The advantage of
RFID tag is that the tag need not be in a straight line with the
reader. Also, the reader can read the contents of a tag from
a distance of several meters. An RFID tag is given in Figure
11.6.
Tags can either be active, i.e., powered by battery, or passive,
i.e., powered by the reader. Apart from logistics, RFID is
gaining popularity in large supermarkets, payments in
highway toll booths, etc. as an alternative to bar codes. RFID
tags are also fixed on animals like tigers, lions, etc. in the Fig. 11.6: RFID tag
forests, which makes their census easier.
RFID gives transportation and logistics operations increased visibility into product
movement and business processes. It increases efficiency by providing real-time
data that gives up-to-date information about the products. RFID based business
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logistic softwares help to lower the operating costs, increase productivity in the
distribution centers, maximize on-time deliveries and improve customer service
and satisfaction.
11.5 Information security
Today, almost all activities that we perform in real life like communication, buying
goods, banking, etc. can be achieved through the Internet. While executing all these
activities, information is exchanged between computers. The security of information
passed over Internet is a primary concern. In this section, we will discuss in detail
about the cyber world and the various issues like copyright and trademark violations,
cyber crimes, etc. that we come across while surfing the Internet.
11.5.1 Intellectual Property Right
Many people are engaged in creative work like music, literary work, artistic work,
discoveries, inventions, designs and software development. These works are the
creation of the mind. They demand a lots of hard work and time. The outcome of
such work is called intellectual property. It is unjust to use the idea of a person
without his permission. The person involved in developing such properties must
get the benefits of it. So, it should be protected from unauthorised access.
The importance of intellectual property was first recognised in the Paris Convention
for the Protection of Industrial Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the
Protection of Literary and Artistic Work in 1886. Both treaties are now administered
by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). WIPO was established in
1960 as an agency of United Nations (UN). It is dedicated to ensure that the rights
of creators or owners of intellectual property are protected worldwide and the
inventors and authors are recognised and rewarded by their creation. The logo of
WIPO and its Indian counterparts is given in Figure 11.7.
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are similar to any other
property right like right over land, house, etc. IPR refers to
the exclusive right given to a person over the creation of
his/her mind, for a period of time. IPR enables people to
earn recognition and financial benefit from what they invent
or create. IPR owners can disclose their creations in
exchange for money. The company which receives the rights,
markets and sells this innovation to the society. In this way
the IPR owner, the company and the society benefit from Fig. 11.7: Logo of WIPO
the creation. IPR is encouraged by UN and almost all
countries worldwide with the intention of encouraging innovations.

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Each country has its own IPR registration system which is applicable to that country.
WIPO serves as an international registration system for trademark, industrial design,
etc. which is applicable to its member countries.
Intellectual property is divided into two categories - industrial property and
copyright.
A. Industrial property
Industrial property right applies to industry, commerce and
agricultural products. It protects patents to inventions,
trademarks, industrial designs and geographical indications.
In India, industrial property rights can be registered with
Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks
Fig. 11.8: Logo of IP under Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Logo of
India
Intellectual Property India is given in Figure 11.8.
Patents: A patent is the exclusive rights granted for an invention. An invention means
a new product or process (procedure) involving an inventive step, and capable of
industrial application. It is the legal right obtained by an inventor for exclusive control
over the production and sale of his/her mechanical or scientific invention for a limited
period of time. To be patentable, an invention must:
• relate to a process or product
• be new
• involve an inventive step
• be capable of industrial use
• not be developed with the intention to harm others
Patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used,
distributed or sold without the patent owner's
consent. A patent provides the right to the patent
owner to decide how the invention can be used by
others. The owner can sell the right to the invention to
someone else, who will then become the new owner of
the patent. The term of every patent in India is 20 years
from the date of filing of patent application. Once a
patent expires, the protection ends and an invention
can be used by the public freely. The details of the first
patent filed for a zipper is given in Figure 11.9.
Trademark: A trademark is a distinctive sign that Fig. 11.9: The first patent for
identifies certain goods or services produced or zipper

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provided by an individual or a company. A trademark can be a name, logo, symbol,

etc. that can be used to recognise a product or service. It provides protection to the
owner of the trademark by ensuring the exclusive
right to use it to identify goods or services. It helps
consumers to identify and purchase a product or
service. A trademark must be registered. The initial
term of registration is for 10 years. Thereafter it can
be renewed. In order to determine whether any
person or company is using a particular trademark, a
trademark search can be conducted through the
trademark registry maintained by Controller General
of Patents Designs and Trademarks (http://
ipindiaonline.gov.in). The effect of a trademark Fig. 11.10: Popular Indian
registration is limited to that country. Some popular trademarks
trademarks in India are given in Figure 11.10.
Industrial designs: An industrial design refers to the
ornamental or aesthetic aspects of an article. A design
may consist of three-dimensional features such as the
shape, surface of an article or two-dimensional
features, such as patterns, lines or colour. An
industrial design right protects the visual design of
objects that are not purely functional. Industrial
designs are applied to a wide variety of industrial
products and handicrafts like medical instruments,
watches, jewellery, vehicles, textile designs, etc. The
registered designs of Coca-
Fig. 11.11: Popular industrial
designs Cola bottle and iPhone are
given in Figure 11.11.
Geographical indications: Geographical indications are
signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin
and possess qualities or a reputation that are due to that
place of origin. Agricultural products typically have
qualities that derive from their place of production and are
influenced by factors like climate and soil. Place of origin
may be a village or town, a region or a country. Some of
the popular products with geographical indications related
to Kerala are Aranmula Kannadi and Palakkadan Matta Fig. 11.12: Geographical
Rice (Figure 11.12). indications related to Kerala

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B. Copyright
A copyright is a legal right given to the creators for an original work, usually for a
limited period of time. Copyright applies to a wide range of creative, intellectual or
artistic forms of works which include books, music, painting, sculpture, films,
advertisement and computer software. This covers rights for reproduction,
communication to the public, adaptation and translation of the work.
In India, the Copyright Act, 1957 came into effect from January 1958. This Act has
been amended five times. Some of the important amendments to the Copyright Act
in 2012 are extension of copyright protection in the digital environment, liabilities
of Internet Service Providers, ensuring right to receive royalties for music composers
and exception of copyrights for physically disabled to access any work.
Under Indian Copyright Act, a work is automatically protected by copyright when
it is created. The general rule is that the copyright lasts
for 60 years after the death of the last surviving author.
Registration of copyright gives a legal status to a
creative work . This makes it an intellectual property,
giving exclusive legal right over the creation. It should
be noted that it is not necessary to register to get the
copyright. Copyright registrations in India are handled
by the Copyright Office under the Ministry of Human Fig. 11.13: Logo of Copyright
Resource Development. The logo of Indian Copyright Office, India
Office is given in Figure 11.13.
Table 11.2 shows the different symbols used INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
to specify the registration status of intellectual
property. Registered trademark ®
The copyright holders of a work can authorise Unregistered trademark ™
or prohibit
Copyright ©
• its reproduction in all forms, including
print form and sound recording; Sound-recording copyright !
• its public performance and communi- Table 11.2: Symbols used for intellectual
property
cation to the public;
• its broadcasting;
• its translation into other languages;
• its adaptation, such as from a novel to a screenplay for a film.
Creators often sell the rights of their works to individuals or companies for financial
benefit.
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Computer software (source code, databases, websites, etc.) can be copyrighted as a

literary work. Even though computer software is protected under copyright,
nowadays they are increasingly getting patented. This is because software development
is considered as an industry and patents provide better protection when compared
to copyright. It should be noted that the criteria required for obtaining patent
protection is more stringent.
Table 11.3 displays the rights and the related intellectual property. The differences
in the registration of intellectual property rights are shown in Table 11.4.
Intellect Property Right
Idea Invention/innovation Patent
Idea Quality + identity Trademark
Idea Appearance Design
Goods Geographical origin Geographical Indication
Idea Expression Copyright
Table 11.3: Rights related to intellectual property

Patent Trademark Copyright

Refers to Product, Process Name, Logo, Creative, intellectual or artistic
Symbols forms of work
Registration Required Required Automatic, can be registered
Duration 20 years 10 years Until 60 years after the death
of the last surviving author
Renewable No Yes
Table 11.4: Differences in the registration of rights for intellectual property
11.5.2 Infringement
Unauthorised use of intellectual property rights such as patents, copyrights and
trademarks are called intellectual property infringement. It may be a violation of
civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property, jurisdiction
(countries) and the nature of the action.
Patent infringement is caused by using or selling a patented invention without
permission from the patent holder. Many countries allow using patented inventions
for research purpose. The legal dispute between Apple and Samsung over their
mobile phone technologies is an example of patent infringement.
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical to
a trademark owned by another party, where both the parties use it for similar
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products or services. It is better to register the trademarks to get the legal advantages.
An example of trademark infringement is the legal suit where a small company
manufactured toffees under the trademark 'HORLIKS'. This violated the trademark
rights enjoyed by 'HORLICKS'.
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or adaptating a work
without permission from the copyright holder. It is often called piracy. Software
piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of software. Music piracy is the
copying and distributing of a piece of music without the consent of the composer,
artist or the copyright holding music company. Enforcement of copyright is generally
the responsibility of the copyright holder.

Know your progress

1. Creation of the mind is known as ________.
2. Expand WIPO.
3. Intellectual property rights are categorised into ________ and
________.
4. Patents are exclusive rights given to ________.
5. ________ is a sign used to recognise a product or service.
6. What is industrial design?
7. What is the importance of geographical indicators?

11.5.3 Cyber space

Cyber space is a virtual environment created by computer systems connected to
the Internet. It is the term used to refer to a simulated world, where we can do many
things at one place. Let us now discuss various instances where cyberspace has
influenced our lives.
Formerly, communication was mainly dependent on postal service. Nowadays e-
mail has gained wide acceptance and legal validity for communication. In the
Department of Higher Secondary Education (DHSE), all communications to higher
secondary schools related to admissions, examinations, National Service Scheme,
administration, etc. are done through website/e-mail. Today, Internet has become a
popular medium for communication among common people.
In December 2012, a girl student was subjected to inhuman physical torture in a
moving bus in a metro city in India. After a few days the girl succumbed to her
injuries. This incident invoked protests among people from various walks of life.
Social media like facebook, twitter, etc. became a platform for the protest. These
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people organised a movement in support of the girl through messages over the
social media. Thousands of people gathered in the streets of Delhi with lighted
candles as a protest. Taking this incident into account, this incident the Loksabha
passed 'The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013', which strictly deals with sexual
assault cases. Such movements organised over social media, show its influence on
society.
People purchase mobile phones, shoes, apparels, etc. by visiting showrooms. Today,
many people prefer to purchase these goods online from e-commerce websites.
The e-commerce sites provide catalogs which display different search options like
price range, brands, etc. about the product. This make shopping easier, from the
comfort of home and saves time too. e-Commerce requires payments through credit
cards, debit cards, Internet banking, etc. Nowadays more and more people are
attracted to online buying and selling. Figure 11.14 shows e-Commerce websites.

Fig. 11.14 : Sample e-commerce websites

Almost all banks offer Internet banking facilities to its customers. Through this facility
we can transfer funds, pay telephone bills, electricity bills, payments for online
purchases, train tickets, cinema
tickets, etc. This saves a lot of time
and effort when compared to
performing these activities by
actually visiting the respective
offices. Hence banking is also a
popular service over Internet. An
Internet banking website is
displayed in Figure 11.15. Fig. 11.15 : An Internet banking website

With the passage of time, more services are going online. Many people spend a
considerable amount of time surfing the Internet to avail of various services in the
web. Internet is often referred to as cyberspace. Figure 11.16 shows a symbolic
representation of cyberspace.

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Cyberspace is an unreal world in which communi-

cation over computer networks occurs. It is an
information superhighway where individuals gather
information, interact, exchange ideas, provide social
support, conduct business, play games, engage in
discussions and so on.
Cyberspace is a space where social interactions
Fig. 11.16 : Symbolic
dominate. Some people consider cyberspace as an representation of cyberspace
uncontrolled and unregulated electronic space where
anyone is free to do anything as they wish and express themselves freely. Such acts
of people affect badly or influence negatively many others. Hence, when an individual
works on the Internet, they have to follow some rules and ethics which are beneficial
to all users.
This unregulated space also provides room for criminals. Since activities like
communication, financial transactions, etc. in the cyberspace increase day by day, it
has opened a new medium for criminal activities. Today cyberspace security has
become a serious concern.

'Cyberspace' is a term coined by William Gibson, a

Canadian science fiction writer, in his short story
'Burning Chrome' (1982). He used it to represent a world
where events or transactions that are not in real world
occur. He believed that cyberspace is a consensual hallucination.
According to Gibson, consensual hallucination is the nature of
existence within cyberspace.

11.5.4 Cyber Crimes

We know that the Internet has opened new opportunities in entertainment, business,
communication education, sports, etc. At the same time, it is a reality that some
people use the Internet for committing illegal activities.
The increasing use of the Internet through smart phones and tablets for online
banking and other financial transactions has increased the risk. Rising Internet
penetration and online banking provides opportunities for cyber criminals to target
online financial transactions, using malicious software (malware) or through illegal
hacking. The statistics of cyber crime committed in the recent years according to
National Crime Records Bureau is given in the graph shown in Figure 11.17. This
graph shows the significant rise of cyber crimes in India through the years.

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Cyber Crime is defined as a criminal

activity in which computers or
computer networks are used as a tool,
target or a place of criminal activity.
The victims of cyber crime lose
money, reputation and face mental
trauma.
Fig. 11.17 : Cyber crime statistics in India
An important aspect of cybercrime
is its nonlocal character. A crime can occur in jurisdictions separated by vast distances.
That is an attacker may operate from a country and attack a destination in some
other country. So the investigating team and the judiciary of different countries
must keep hand in hand. Due to the anonymous nature of the Internet, it is possible
for people to engage in a variety of criminal activities. People commit cyber crimes
knowingly or unknowingly.
Cyber crimes include phishing, hacking, denial of service attacks, etc. which we
learned in Chapter 9 of Class XI. Computer crime mainly consists of unauthorised
access to computer systems, credit card frauds, illegal downloading, child
pornography, cyber terrorism, creation and/or distribution of viruses, spam and
so on.
Cyber crimes can be basically divided into 3 major categories: They are cyber crimes
against individuals, against property and against government.
A. Cyber crimes against individuals
The popularity of broadband Internet increased the dependence of Internet for
daily activities. This increased the risk of online crimes. An act of a person in
cyberspace that causes physical or mental trouble to an individual is referred as
cyber crime. Harassment, assuming someone’s identity, impersonation and violation
of privacy are some examples of cyber crimes.
i. Identity theft: Identity theft occurs when someone uses another person's
identifying information, like their name, credit card number, etc. without their
permission to commit fraud or other crimes. It is a form of stealing a person's
identity, by which someone pretends to be someone else, to gain access to resources
like bank account, social media accounts, etc. This is done with the intention of
transferring money from the victim's bank account, payments for purchases, defaming
the person through social media, etc. This is done with the intention of obtaining
credit from financial institutions or gaining benefits in that persons name.

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Before transferring money from bank

accounts, the thief may change the mailing
address of the account so that the victim
will not be able to realize that money is
withdrawn. The stolen personal
information may be used to open new
accounts, open new credit card accounts,
to apply for a mobile phone connection
and more.
ii. Harassment: Posting humiliating comments focusing on gender, race, religion,
nationality at specific individuals in chat rooms, social media, e-mail, etc. is
harassment. The use of vulgar or indecent language, threatening any illegal or
immoral act through a computer or a computer network is considered as harassment.
The use of the Internet, to harass someone is called cyber stalking. We might have
read about statements from celebrities that the facebook accounts in their names
are fake. This is because such accounts may contain pictures or posts with defaming
content. These profiles might be created using the photographs and personal
information of the celebrity by people with criminal intentions. There are people
who defame others by sending humiliating e-mails, facebook posts, etc. All these
amount to harassment. Common characteristics of cyber stalking include threats,
false accusations, monitoring, identity theft and data destruction or manipulation.
Cyber stalking also includes sexual or other exploitation of minors. It can destroy
friendships, careers, self-image and confidence.
iii. Impersonation and cheating: Impersonation is an act of pretending to be
another person for the purpose of harming the victim. There are people who utilise
the anonymity of the Internet to commit impersonation online.
Sometimes we may receive e-mails seeking help for transferring large amounts of
money from a distant country to India. Usually, the sender states that this money is
in the form of an asset (land, gold, etc.) that is to be sold. To dispose the asset and
complete the legal formalities, the sender requires some amount of money. The
mail requests us to share a portion of the expenses and offers us up to 50% of the
value of the asset. After receiving the cheque or money order, the sender tells that
due to some complications more money is required. In this way the victim may lose
large amounts. We often receive similar mails with a different story. Mailing scams
like this are examples of Internet fraud/cheating.
Similar crimes occur in online auction also. In some cases, individuals announce
products for sale on Internet auction sites. They demand money before the delivery
of the item and never carryout their order.
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iv. Violation of privacy: Violation of privacy is the intrusion into the personal life
of another, without a valid reason. This gives the person whose privacy has been
invaded, the right to file a lawsuit for damages against the person/organisation that
intruded. It consists of distributing private information like personal data,
photography, workplace monitoring videos, etc.
You might have heard of issues regarding the use of hidden cameras, mobile cameras,
etc. to capture images of women in public places. Photography of any person (men
or women) without his/her permission amounts to violation of privacy. Posting
images of others in social media, transferring them to others through e-mail/copying,
etc. without their permission are considered as violation of privacy.
v. Dissemination of obscene material: The Internet has provided a medium for
the facilitation of crimes like pornography. The distribution and posting of obscene
material is one of the important cyber crimes today. Pornography on Internet may
take various forms. It may include hosting website containing prohibited materials,
use of computers for producing obscene material, downloading obscene materials
through the Internet, etc. These obscene content may misguide adolescents.
Most of the cyber crimes occur without the knowledge of the victim, whereas in
some others, the victim also takes part in crime to become rich easily. It should be
noted that various types of preventive mechanisms have been installed to avoid
such crimes. e-mail service providers use spam filter that filters unwanted mails.
Different types of authentication mechanisms that exist for online financial
transactions prevent fraud to a certain extent. Above all, an individual has to be
careful while using the Internet.
B. Cyber crimes against property
Cyber crimes against all forms of property like credit cards, intellectual property,
etc. are termed as cyber crime against property. These crimes include hacking, piracy,
computer vandalism (destruction of others property), unauthorised intrusion
through cyberspace, unauthorised possession of information stored in computers,
etc. Some classifications of cyber crimes against property are given below.
i. Credit card fraud: Credit card fraud involves an unauthorised usage of another
person's credit card information for the purpose of payments for purchases or
transferring funds from it. There are instances where the web servers of large
organisations are hacked and credit card information of a large number of people
is stolen by Internet thieves. They use this information to make payments or they
sell this information to other fraudsters over Internet for a small price.

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 11. Trends and Issues in ICT

ii. Intellectual property theft: The infringement of IPR's come under this category.
Violation of copyright, patent, trademark, etc. are intrusions against property.
Recently, an Indian IT company developed a
software for correcting errors in program code.
One of the employees of this company copied
this software in a CD and tried to sell it to a
competitor for a big price. This led to huge
financial and property loss to the company.
This is considered as theft of intellectual
property. Software piracy is also a crime under
cyber law.
Nowadays intellectual property theft has become common. Information about any
topic is now freely available on the Internet. Copying of an other person's language,
thoughts, ideas or expressions and presenting them as one's own original work is
called plagiarism. There are stringent copyright laws available in India which protect
the intellectual property rights. Plagiarism can be easily detected through various tools
available online.
iii. Internet time theft: Today almost all modems/routers have wireless Internet
facility. They provide sharing of Internet at homes, schools, business establishments,
etc. If this is not properly secured using passwords, other people may use our Internet.
The usage of the Internet time by unauthorised persons, without the permission of
the person who pays for it is called Internet time theft. This leads to loss of Internet
time and money. Above this, others may use our Internet account for committing
crimes, for which we may also be held responsible.
The different types of attacks like viruses, worms, man in the middle attack, etc.,
discussed in Chapter 9 of Class XI also fall under cyber crimes against property.
C. Cyber crimes against government
Increasing popularity of e-governance has made governments vulnerable to cyber
attacks. The various governmental computer networks and websites are vulnerable
to risks and threats of cyber crimes. The different categories of cyber attacks against
government are cyber terrorism, website defacement and e-governance denial attack.
i. Cyber terrorism: Cyber terrorism is a cyber attack against sensitive computer
networks like nuclear power plants, air traffic controls, gas line controls, telecom,
etc. These types of attacks against governments are increasing globally. Cyber
terrorism focuses on the use of the Internet by anti nationals to affect a nation's
economic and technological infrastructure.
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In 2010, a computer virus called tuxnet was

used to carry out an invisible attack on Iran's
secret nuclear programme. This virus was
aimed at disabling Iran's Uranium enrichment
programme. This virus infected a large
number of nuclear controls and gave false
instructions leading to nuclear malfunctions
and break down.
Cyber terrorism may prove to be very costly to a country. Therefore governments
provide very powerful security mechanisms for their servers.
ii. Website defacement: This is a common cyber attack against a government.
Defacement of websites includes hacking of government websites and posting
derogatory comments about a government in those websites.
iii. Attacks against e-governance websites: These types of attacks deny a particular
online government service. This is done using a Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack which we discussed in Chapter 9 of Class XI. In another case the
website may be hacked and controlled by the hackers. They gain access to website
administration through content management system and destroy the data. This causes
huge loss to the government.
Cyber terrorism has increased in the modern world because of the anonymous nature
of cyberspace. The availability of a variety of targets that affect a large number of
people, and the fact that attacks can be conducted from a distance have increased
terrorism through cyberspace.

11.5.5 Cyber ethics

The available statistics shows that the volume of cyber crimes is increasing rapidly
all over the world. Internet crime has many faces and is committed in diverse ways.
Awareness is the first step in protecting ourselves, our family and our business. We
should ensure that our actions in the cyberspace do not harm others. We should
also remember that our actions over the Internet are being monitored by several
others.
Suggestions given below can be considered as ethical practices over the Internet.
• Use anti-virus, firewall, and spam blocking software for your PC.
• Ensure security of websites (https and padlock) while conducting online cash
transactions.
• Do not respond or act on e-mails sent from unknown sources.

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• Use unique and complex passwords for accounts and change your passwords
on a regular basis. (Should have a minimum of 8 characters, contain alphabets,
numbers and special characters)
• Do not select the check boxes or click OK button before reading the contents
of any agreement/message.
• Avoid the use of unauthorised software.
• Do not hide your identity and fool others.
• Do not use bad or rude language in social media and e-mails.
• Remove the check mark against 'Remember me' before logging into your
account using computers other than your personal ones.

• Conduct an awareness program about various cyber crimes.

• Prepare a chart listing how we can protect ourselves in cyber
Let us do space.

Know your progress

1. What do you mean by cyberspace?
2. Criminal activity using computer, mobile phone and Internet is
termed as __________.
3. What is cyber crime against a person?
4. Cyber terrorism is a type of cyber crime against __________.
5. Stealing one's information such as username and password is
__________.

11.5.6 Cyber laws

The term cyber law in general refers to the legal and regulatory aspects of the Internet.
Cyber law can be defined as a law governing the use of computers and Internet.
We have already discussed that there are different kinds of cyber crimes. Criminal
activities such as theft, fraud, forgery and defamation are traditional in nature and are
subject to the Indian Penal Code. The abuse of computers (cyber crime) has become
wide spread in India which is addressed by the Information Technology Act, 2000
and IT Act Amendment Bill 2008.
Cyber law is important because it touches almost all aspects of transactions and
activities using Internet. Whether we realise it or not, every action and every reaction
in cyberspace has some legal perspectives.
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11.5.7 Information Technology Act 2000 (Amended in 2008)

The Information Technology Act, 2000 is India's legislation regulating the use of
computer, servers, computer networks, data and information in electronic format.
The legislation has touched various aspects related to authentication, digital signature,
cyber crime and liability of network service provider. The acts aim to provide legal
recognition for transactions carried out by means of electronic data interchange and
other means of electronic communication. IT Act allows using alternatives to paper
based communication and facilitates electronic filing of documents with government
agencies. It gives legal acceptance for electronic communication. It also addresses
offenses and disputes in the cyberspace and provides justice to victims of cyber
crimes.
IT Act aims to provide legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India. This Act was
developed to promote IT industry, regulate e-commerce, facilitate e-governance and
prevent cyber crimes. It promotes security practices within India that would serve the
country in a global context. Under the Act certain violations are treated as serious
crimes and offenders are liable to penal actions. Therefore, it is important to
understand the various perspectives of the IT Act, 2000 and what it offers.
In May 2000, the Indian Parliament passed the Information Technology Bill and it is
known as the Information Technology Act, 2000. The Act was amended by the
Information Technology Amendment Bill 2008, which was passed in December
2008. This amendment accommodates further development of IT and related security
concerns, since IT Act 2000 was passed. Compensation has to be given to affected
persons if damage is done to the computer system or computer network by the
introduction of virus, denial of service, etc. Sections 65-74 of the Act specifically
deals with cyber crimes.
SOME COMMON OFFENCES AND THEIR PUNISHMENTS
NOTED IN IT ACT 2000 AND IT AMENDMENT 2008

Section Offences Punishments

65 Tampering with computer Imprisonment up to three years, or with fine
source code which may extend up to two lakh rupees,
or with both.
66 Computer related offences Imprisonment for a term which may extend
to two three years or with fine which may
extend to five lakh rupees or with both.
66B Punishment for dishonestly Imprisonment for a term which may extend
receiving stolen computer to three years or with fine which may
resource or communication extend to rupees one lakh or with both.
device.
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Section Offences Punishments

66C Punishment for identity Imprisonment for a term which may extend
theft. to three years and shall also be liable to
fine which may extend to rupees one lakh.
66D Punishment for cheating Imprisonment for a term which may extend
by personation by using to three years and shall also be liable to
computer resource. fine which may extend to one lakh rupees.
66E Punishment for violation Imprisonment which may extend to three
of privacy. years or with fine not exceeding two lakh
rupees, or with both.
66F Punishment for cyber Imprisonment which may extend to
terrorism. imprisonment for life.
67 Punishment for publishing Imprisonment for a term which may extend
or transmitting obscene to two to three years and with fine which
material in electronic form. may extend to five lakh rupees.
In the event of a second or subsequent
conviction with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to five years and also
with fine which may extend to ten lakh
rupees.
67A Punishment for publishing Imprisonment for a term which may extend
or transmitting of material to five years and with fine which
containing sexually explicit mayextend to ten lakh rupees.
act, etc. in electronic form.
67B Punishment for publishing Imprisonment for a term which may extend
or transmitting of material to five years and with a fine which may
depicting children in extend to ten lakh rupees.
sexually explicit act, etc. in In the event of second or subsequent
electronic form. conviction with imprisonment for a term
which may extend to seven years and also
with fine which may extend to ten lakh
rupees.
Punishment for sending offensive messages through online communication
service like e-mail, social media, SMS, etc. will be according to the sections in
Indian Penal Code (IPC).

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11.5.8 Cyber Forensics

The increase in computer crimes affects our daily lives and national security. Internet
and digital technologies bring us a lot of convenience. But at the same time they
also provide criminals more chance to commit crimes. Traditional law enforcement
tools and methodologies do not successfully address the detection, investigation
and prosecution of cyber crime.
Forensics is the process of using scientific knowledge for identifying, collecting,
preserving, analyzing and presenting evidence to the courts. Cyber forensics can be
defined as the discipline that combines elements of law and computer science to
collect and analyze data from computer systems, networks, communication systems
and storage devices in a way that is admissible as evidence in a court of law. The
goal of computer forensics is to analyse data in a way that preserves the integrity of
the evidence collected so that it can be used effectively in a legal case.
11.5.9 Infomania
Information is considered as the key to success. It has to be collected, managed and
processed well. But what happens if a person gets overloaded with information?
Infomania is the state of getting exhausted with excess information. It occurs due
to accumulation of information from many sources like Internet, e-mail and cell
phones, but cannot be processed. While collecting information, its quality and
relevance are also to be considered. Infomania is the excessive enthusiasm for
acquiring knowledge. This may result in neglecting the more important things like
duties, family, etc. We may see people browsing for information during dinner. It is
now treated as a psychological problem. Constantly checking e-mails, social
networking sites, online news, etc. are the symptoms of infomania. Many people do
this to keep themselves up to date with the fear of being out of the group.
Studies prove that people addicted to infomania lose concentration and sleep.
Excessive use of technology reduces intelligence. Some people give high priority
to respond to incoming messages through mail and social media. These people
may skip or interrupt their important family or professional engagements to answer
an e-mail or a social media post.
To get away from such situations, users must learn to log off social media, online
news and discussion groups while they are at work or spending time with family.

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Know your progress

1. The year in which IT Act came into existence in India is
_________.
2. What is the purpose of IT Act?
3. What do you mean by cyber forensics?
4. _________ is the excessive enthusiasm for acquiring knowledge.

Let us conclude

The convergence of a mobile phone and a computer has shifted the focus from
desktops to mobile computing devices. These devices are always connected to the
Internet and therefore mobile communication technology has gained importance.
The mobile communication technology has evolved through generations from 1G
to 4G, the prime focus being speed. This also has led to the development of features
like SMS, MMS, GPS, etc. Android is one of the popular mobile operating systems,
developed by Google based on Linux kernel. The advances in the development of
this OS are in such a way that it will soon replace desktop operating systems and could
be used in devices like television, washing machines, etc. A person can do a variety
of jobs through cyberspace. Due to its anonymous nature, cyber space has become
a venue for criminals. Crimes can be against a person, property or government. The
best way to be safe is to be aware of the traps in the Internet. The rights of the creator
or owner of music, software, artistic works, inventions, etc. are protected by
Intellectual Property Rights. There are cyber laws which provide the framework for
a secure environment in cyberspace. India has a robust IT Act. It addresses the
different crimes committed using computers, Internet and mobile phones. Cyber
forensics has emerged as a part of legal proceedings of almost all civil and criminal
cases. Any crime committed using IT infrastructure leaves a digital evidence that
makes it easily detectable. While using Internet, ensure that our actions do not harm
others. The term Infomania is used for addressing the problems created by
information overloading.
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1. What is mobile computing?
2. Explain generations in mobile communication?
3. Compare GSM and CDMA standards.
4. Write short notes on SMS.
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5. Differentialte GPRS and EDGE?

6. _________ is a standard way to send and receive message with multimedia
content using mobile phone.
7. Expand GPS?
8. What is a smart card? How is it useful?
9. Explain the features of Android OS.
10. What is cyberspace?
11. Why is cyberspace called a virtual world?
12. Phishing is an example of _________.
13. Explain different categories of cyber crimes in detail.
14. “Awareness is the best way to protect ourselves in cyberspace”. Comment.
15. How do trademark and industrial design differ?
16. What is copyright? How does it differ from patent?
17. Explain the exclusive right given to the owner by IPR?
18. What is piracy?
19. What do you meant by infringement?
20. Why is a cyber law important?
21. “Non-local nature of cyber crime creates problems to the investigators”.
Explain.
22. “Infomania has became a psychological problem”. Write your opinion.
23. What do you mean by big data in business? Explain big data analytics.
24. What do you mean by business logistics?
25. How does RFID improve the way business is done?

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References
and Issues in ICT

References

Stroustrup, B. (2013). The C++ Programming Language. New Delhi : Addison-

Wesley Professional
Lafore, R. (2009). Object-Oriented Programming in C++. Chennai : Sams
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Balagurusamy, E. (2008). Object Oriented Programming with C++. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Education
Powel, T. A. (2010). The Complete Reference : HTML & XHTML. New Delhi:
OSborne/Tata MC Graw-Hill
Lloyd, I. (2008). The Ultimate HTML Reference. Melbourne : Sitepoint
Holzner, S. (2000). HTML Black Book. New Delhi : DreamTech Press
Frain, B. (2012). Responsive Web Design with HTML5 and CSS3. Mumbai :
Packt Publishing
Powel, T. A. & Schenider, F. (2008). The Complete Reference JavaScript. New
Delhi : Tata McGraw-Hill
Zakas, N. C. (2012). Professional JavaScript for Web Developers. Birmingham :
Wrox
The Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008 : The Gazette of
India, No.13, Feb 5, 2009
National Crime Records Bureau. www.ncrb.gov.in, Accessed on 31st March
2015
Leon, A. (2010). Enterprise Resource Planning. New Delhi : Tata McGraw
- Hill

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