Eng502 Short Handouts Notes Final Term File 3 Compiled by Sir Zahid

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ENG502 SHORT HANDOUTS

NOTES FINAL TERM


Lesson 31 to 45
(ENG502) Introduction to Linguistics
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Lesson-31
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS I
Topic 176: Definition

What is the example of a small favor in discourse analysis?

The phrase "Do me a favor" with a small pause.


How do big favors differ in discourse?

Big favors involve longer expressions, such as "Could you do me a favor" with
extended pauses.
What do interesting observations in discourse analysis focus on?

Observations focus on how language is used, including aspects like pauses and
language interpretation.
What questions does discourse analysis address?

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Questions include how we make sense of what we read, recognize well-
constructed texts, understand speakers beyond literal meaning, and engage in
conversations.
Topic 177: The Origins of Discourse Analysis

Who first employed the term "discourse analysis"?

Zelling Harris first used the term to describe a method for analyzing connected
speech or writing beyond a single sentence.
How is "discourse" typically defined?

"Discourse" is defined as language beyond the sentence, focusing on the study of


language in texts and conversation.
What is the capability of language-users in understanding fragments in
newspaper headlines?

Language-users can understand the relationship between fragments, even in


headlines like "Trains collide; two die."
Topic 178: Critical Discourse Analysis

What does Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) study?

CDA studies written and spoken texts to reveal sources of power, dominance,
inequality, and bias in social, political, and historical contexts.
According to Fairclough (1993), how does CDA explore relationships?

CDA explores relationships between discursive practices, events, texts, and


broader social and cultural structures.
Topic 179: Interpreting Discourse

What is Discourse Analysis focused on in conversation?

It analyzes language 'beyond the sentence,' emphasizing the interpretation of what


speakers do in conversation.

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How do language-users interpret texts that break grammatical rules?

Rather than rejecting them, users try to make sense of such texts based on their
linguistic knowledge and interpretation skills.
Topic 180: Cohesion

What is cohesion in discourse?

Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that gives
it meaning.
Provide examples of cohesive ties in a given text.

Examples include maintaining reference (father-he, my-I), connections between


phrases, and common elements of meaning (money, time).
Why is cohesive structure important in determining well-written texts?

Cohesive structure, including appropriate ties, is crucial in judging whether


something is well written or not.
Topic 181: Coherence

What is coherence in discourse?


Coherence is the concept of everything fitting together well beyond the text,
existing in people's understanding based on personal experiences.

Lesson-32
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS II

Topic 182: Discourse Typology: Spoken and Written, Formal and Informal

How does language teaching categorize discourse?

Language teaching divides discourse into two major categories: spoken and
written.

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What are the subcategories under spoken and written discourse?

Subcategories include speaking and listening for spoken discourse and reading
and writing for written discourse.
How is spoken discourse different from written discourse?

Spoken discourse is less planned and more open to intervention, while written
discourse, especially formal, is often more structured.
Topic 183: Discourse and the Sentence

What is the fundamental distinction in discourse structure?

Discourse is categorized into formal and informal, where formal discourse is


planned, and informal is often spontaneous.
How is discourse different from sentences?

Discourse is language used for communication, incorporating well-formed


sentences but not limited to them.
What does discourse analysis aim to find in terms of coherence?

Discourse analysis seeks to find what gives coherence to language in


communication.
Topic 184: Discourse as Process

How is conversation described in discourse analysis?

Conversation is seen as a discourse constructed and negotiated between


participants, involving preestablished patterns, pauses, intonations, and filler
words.
What role do conventions play in discourse?

Conventions in discourse, such as turn-taking and established formulae, help


participants orientate to the interaction and make sense of it.
Topic 185: Discourse as Dialogue

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According to developmental perspectives, what comes first, dialogue or
monologue?

Developmentally, dialogue comes first, preceding monologue in both the


evolution of language and individual human development.
What are some examples of early communicative skills related to dialogue?

Turn-taking and interaction, evident even in parent-infant "conversations," are


among the first communicative skills.
Topic 186: Information Structure in Discourse

What is the bi-partite structure of a clause in information structure?

A clause has a bi-partite structure, dividing information into given and new
information.
How is the ordering of information determined in discourse?

The sender's hypotheses about what the receiver knows or doesn't know dictate
the ordering of information in discourse.
Topic 187: Knowledge in Discourse: Schemata

Why is knowledge important in discourse production and comprehension?

Knowledge is crucial in discourse to predict and comprehend content; it involves


mental representations known as 'knowledge schemata.'
How do knowledge schemata operate in discourse processing?

Knowledge schemata are mental representations used to predict the content of a


situation described in discourse, activated by key words or context.

Lesson-33
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS III

Topic 188: Conversation as Discourse Type

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How is conversation defined in discourse analysis?

Conversation is less formal talk that occurs primarily for participants' benefit,
characterized by short turns and a small number of participants.
What are some defining criteria for talk to be considered as conversation?

Criteria include being non-task-driven, having suspended unequal power,


involving a small number of participants, having short turns, and being primarily
for participants rather than an outside audience.
Topic 189: Conversation Analysis

What does Conversation Analysis (CA) aim to discover?

CA seeks to find order in apparent chaos in conversation, analyzing how people


participate and make sense of interaction.
What is the basis of a conversation, according to ethno-methodologists?

A conversation is based on turn-taking, and ethno-methodologists study how


people handle conversation, focusing on the bottom-up approach.
Topic 190: Turn-taking

Why is turn-taking important in conversation?

Turn-taking is crucial for the orderly development of discourse, involving


knowing when to take a turn and how long pauses between turns should be.
What are some non-linguistic factors in efficient turn-taking?

Factors include eye contact, body position, movement, gaze, intonation, volume,
relative status, and the role of speakers.
Topic 191: Conversational Principles: Cooperative

According to Paul Grice, what are the four maxims under the Cooperative
Principle?

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The maxims are being true (quality), being brief (quantity), being relevant
(relevance), and being clear (manner).
How do receivers interpret language based on these maxims?

Receivers use the maxims to reason from the literal, semantic meaning to the
pragmatic meaning and infer the sender's intentions.
Topic 192: Flouting the Cooperative Principle

What is flouting the Cooperative Principle?

Flouting involves deliberate violations of the maxims, such as through metaphor,


irony, sarcasm, or hyperbole.
Give examples of figures of speech that involve flouting the Cooperative
Principle.

Metaphor, irony, sarcasm, and exaggeration like "I have millions of books in my
college library."
Topic 193: Conversational Principles: Politeness

What are the maxims formulated by Robin Lakoff under the Politeness
Principle?

The maxims are "Don't impose," "Give options," and "Make your receiver feel
good."
How are the principles of politeness and truth sometimes conflicting?

Politeness and truth can be in conflict, especially in situations like giving


compliments or responding to questions about appearance.

Lesson-34
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Topic 194: Introduction

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What is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and its relation to educational
research?
CDA is a problem-oriented and trans-disciplinary set of theories and methods
widely used in educational research. It analyzes the ways in which texts, talk, and
other interactions in learning are constructed. Both CDA and educational research
share a commitment to addressing problems through various theoretical
perspectives and are socially committed paradigms.
Topic 195: A Brief History of the ‘CDA Group’

When did the CDA group emerge, and who were some key scholars?

The CDA group emerged in the early 1990s, with a symposium in Amsterdam in
January 1991. Key scholars included Dijk, Norman Fairclough, Gunther, and
others.
What characterizes CDA as a school or paradigm?

CDA is problem-oriented, interdisciplinary, and eclectic. It aims to demystify


ideologies and power through systematic investigation of semiotic data and is
characterized by a commitment to addressing power and inequality.
Topic 196: Considering ‘Critical’ in Critical Discourse Analysis

How is power defined in critical discourse studies?

Power is defined in terms of negative uses articulated through discourses, leading


to domination and oppression. Critical Discourse Studies offers an analysis of the
effects and outcomes of power.
What does Critical Social Theory (CST) provide as a foundation for CDA?

CST rejects naturalism, rationality, neutrality, and individualism. It critiques and


resists domination, aiming to create a society free of oppression, drawing on
various disciplines such as philosophy, literature, cultural studies, and feminist
studies.
Topic 197: Considering ‘Discourse’ in Critical Discourse Analysis

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How is meaning made in discourse according to systemic functional
linguistics?
A: Systemic functional linguistics emphasizes choice and privileges language
users as agents making decisions about the social functions of their language use.
Discourses both construct and represent the social world and are constitutive,
dialectical, and dialogic.
Topic 198: Considering ‘Analysis’ in Critical Discourse Analysis

What characterizes the methods of analysis in Critical Discourse Analysis?

There are diverse approaches and methods within CDA, often connected to a
coherent theory of the social world and language. Analysts apply theoretical
frames to research topics, and methods vary, including fieldwork, text collection,
linguistic focus, context analysis, micro-level or global issue emphasis.
Name influential traditions and scholars in critical approaches to discourse
analysis.

A: James Gee, Norman Fairclough, and Gunther Kress are influential scholars,
each embracing methodological hybridity and drawing from a wide range of
scholarship.
Topic-199: Different Approaches to CDA

What is James Gee’s approach to discourse analysis?

James Gee's integrated approach analyzes spoken and written language to enact
social and cultural perspectives and identities. He presents both a theory of
language-in-use and a research method.
What is Norman Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework in CDA?

Fairclough's framework involves analyzing language texts, discourse practices


(text production, distribution, and consumption), and discursive events as
instances of sociocultural practice.
How does Gunther Kress contribute to critical linguistics and CDA?

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Kress uses a social semiotic approach to contemporary communication,
emphasizing meaning, social context, and multimodality. He explores how
meanings are made in both outward and inner interpretations of signs.
How do these approaches provide tools for understanding social events and
practices?

Gee, Fairclough, and Kress offer tools for understanding social events and
practices that researchers can apply contextually, designing new ones as needed
for their work.

Lesson-35
APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Topic-200: Introduction

What is applied linguistics, and what questions does it address?

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that identifies, investigates, and


offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. It addresses questions such
as language skills for children, language maintenance or shift, foreign language
learning, language change, and language use in legal contexts.
How has applied linguistics evolved since the late 1950s?

A: Applied linguistics has maintained a socially-accountable role since the late


1950s. It expanded in the 1960s to include language assessment, policy, and
second language acquisition. In the 1970s, it became problem-driven, solving real-
world language problems. In the 1990s, it broadened to include critical studies and
multilingualism.
Topic-201: Scope

What are some areas within the scope of applied linguistics?


The scope of applied linguistics covers various areas, including language and
education (first and additional language education), clinical linguistics, language
testing, workplace communication, language planning, forensic linguistics,

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literary stylistics, critical discourse analysis, translation and interpretation,
information design, and lexicography.
Topic-202: Major Branches

Name some major branches or academic fields related to applied linguistics.


Major branches related to applied linguistics include bilingualism,
multilingualism, conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics,
language planning and policy, and pragmatics.
Topic-203: Linguistics Applied

What is the historical distinction between "Linguistics Applied" and


"Applied Linguistics"?

In the 1970s, "Linguistics Applied" assumed that insights from theoretical


linguistics were applied directly. In the 1980s, "Applied Linguistics" aimed to
establish itself as a complete discipline, contributing to theory and maintaining an
equal relationship with theoretical linguistics.
According to Widdowson, what is the distinction between Applied Linguistics
and Linguistics Applied?

Widdowson proposes that Applied Linguistics is a mediating activity that


reformulates real-world problems by accommodating linguistic accounts with
other perspectives. In Linguistics Applied, the assumption is that problems can be
directly reformulated using concepts and terms derived from linguistic inquiry
itself.

Lesson-36
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS I

Topic-204: Introduction

What does psycholinguistics study, and where is the ability to use language
located?

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Psycholinguistics studies the psychological and neurobiological factors enabling
humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language. The ability to use
language is located in the brain.
Topic-205: Neurolinguistics

Define Neurolinguistics.
A: Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the
brain, focusing on the psychological and neurobiological processes underlying
language acquisition, use, comprehension, and production.
Topic-206: Language Areas in Brain

Describe the general locations in the brain related to language functions.


Specific language functions are associated with areas above the left ear. Autopsies
of brains with known language disabilities have identified these areas,
contributing to the understanding of language processing.
Topic-207: Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area

What is Broca's area, and what is its role in language processing?

Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe, is linked to speech production. Damage
to Broca's area results in difficulty producing speech. This supports the idea that
language ability is located in the left hemisphere.
Explain Wernicke's area and its role in language comprehension.

Wernicke's area, in the cortex of the dominant temporal lobe, is associated with
language comprehension. Damage leads to Wernicke's aphasia, characterized by
fluent but incomprehensible speech. This supports the left hemisphere's crucial
role in understanding speech.
Topic-208: The Motor Cortex and the Arcuate Fasciculus

Define the motor cortex and its relevance to language processing.

The motor cortex is the part of the cerebral cortex that initiates voluntary muscular
activity. It controls articulatory muscles, and the part near Broca's area manages
face, jaw, tongue, and larynx movement, essential for speech.

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What is the arcuate fasciculus, and what role does it play in language
processing?

The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers connecting caudal temporal


cortex, inferior parietal cortex, and frontal lobe. It forms a crucial connection
between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas, contributing to language processing.
Topic-209: The Localization View

What does the localization view propose regarding language processing in the
brain?
The localization view suggests specific aspects of language ability have specific
locations in the brain. It envisions a pattern involving Wernicke’s area
comprehending a word, transferring it via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca’s area
for preparation, and then signaling the motor cortex for articulation. However, this
is a metaphorical representation as our understanding evolves.

Lesson-37
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS II

Topic-210: Tongue Tips and Slips

What is the 'tip of the tongue phenomenon,' and what information do


speakers generally have during this experience?

The 'tip of the tongue phenomenon' occurs when a person knows a word but
struggles to recall it. Speakers typically have an accurate phonological outline, can
get the initial sound correct, and often know the number of syllables in the word.
What are 'malapropisms,' and can you provide examples?

'Malapropisms' are errors in speech where words are mistakenly substituted with
similar-sounding ones. Examples include "fire distinguisher" instead of
'extinguisher' and "transcendental medication" instead of 'meditation.'
Topic-211: Slips of the Ear

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How do malapropisms originate?
Malapropisms can originate as slips of the ear, where the brain misinterprets
auditory signals, leading to humorous errors in speech.
Topic-212: Aphasia

Define aphasia and identify the most common causes.


Aphasia is an impairment of language function due to localized brain damage,
often caused by a stroke. Traumatic head injuries can produce similar effects,
ranging from mild to severe language difficulties.
Topic-213: Types of Aphasia

Describe Broca’s Aphasia and Agrammatic Aphasia.

Broca’s Aphasia is characterized by reduced speech, distorted articulation, and


slow, effortful speech. Agrammatic Aphasia involves speech consisting mainly of
lexical morphemes with frequent omissions of functional morphemes and
inflections.
Explain Wernicke’s Aphasia and Conduction Aphasia.

Wernicke’s Aphasia features difficulties in auditory comprehension, producing


fluent but nonsensical speech. Conduction Aphasia, associated with damage to the
arcuate fasciculus, involves mispronunciation of words but fluent speech with
pauses.
Topic-214: Dichotic Listening

What is the dichotic listening test, and how does it demonstrate


lateralization?
The dichotic listening test shows left hemisphere dominance for syllable and word
processing. It demonstrates lateralization by presenting non-verbal sounds to
either ear, with the right ear advantage for recognizing non-linguistic sounds
processed faster by the left hemisphere.
Topic-215: The Critical Period

Define the 'critical period' in language acquisition.

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The 'critical period' is a phase during childhood when the human brain is most
receptive to language input and learning. It lasts from birth until puberty, and if a
child does not acquire language during this period, it becomes challenging to learn
later on.

Lesson-38
SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Topic-216: Introduction

What is sociolinguistics, and how does it relate to the study of language?


Sociolinguistics is the study of the effects of various aspects of society, including
cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language use. It explores how
language varies based on social backgrounds and specific speech situations,
incorporating variables like ethnicity, religion, status, gender, education level, and
age.
Topic-217: The Standard Language and Vernacular Language

Define a standard language and provide examples of different varieties of


English.

A standard language is a variety used in governments, media, schools, and


international communication. Examples include British English, North American
English, Australian English, and Indian English.
What distinguishes a vernacular language, and how is it used?

A vernacular language is the native, colloquial language of a specific population,


used by ordinary people in a region. It differs from standard or literary varieties
and is spoken by the local population.
Topic-218: Accent and Dialect (Dialectology)

Explain the concepts of accent and dialect. How are they different?

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An accent refers to a unique manner of pronunciation identifying an individual's
or group's regional or social origin. Dialect includes pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary features. While accent focuses on pronunciation, dialect encompasses
broader linguistic aspects.
Provide examples of dialectical differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammar.

Differences include pronunciation (e.g., "whit" for "what," "aboot" for "about"),
vocabulary (e.g., "ken" for "know," "havering" for "talking"), and grammatical
(e.g., "dinnae" for "don't").
Topic-219: Pidgin and Creole

What is a pidgin, and how does it differ from a creole?

A pidgin is a simplified language developed for practical purposes, often in trade


between people with different native languages. When a pidgin evolves to become
the first language of a community, it's termed a creole.
Provide examples of English pidgins and creoles.

Examples of English pidgins include Tok Pisin. Creoles include Hawai'i Creole
English, Jamaican English Creole, and Sierra Leone Krio.
Topic-220: Diglossia and Polyglossia

Define diglossia and provide an example.

Diglossia involves two distinct language varieties coexisting within a speech


community, with each having specific functions. An example is the coexistence of
standard French and Haitian Creole French in Haiti.
What is polyglossia, and how does it differ from diglossia?

Polyglossia involves the coexistence of two or more languages or varieties within


a speech community. It contrasts with diglossia by allowing more than two
linguistic varieties.
Topic-221: Language and Culture

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Explain the relationship between language and culture.
A: Language and culture are interconnected, with language serving as a symbolic
system shaping values, perceptions, and identities. Language expresses cultural
reality and embodies shared beliefs and behaviors within a social group.
According to Kramsch, how does language contribute to cultural
transmission?
Language is a tool for cultural transmission, providing a system for categorizing
the world. It expresses, embodies, and symbolizes cultural reality, allowing
individuals to develop awareness of their knowledge and culture through
discourse.

Lesson-39
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION I

Topic-222: Acquisition and Stages of Acquisition

Describe the remarkable aspects of first language acquisition in children.


First language acquisition is notable for its rapidity, occurring without overt
instruction. It is facilitated by an innate predisposition in infants for language
acquisition. The child must be physically capable of producing and perceiving
sound signals and also have opportunities to interact with others through language.
Topic-223: Cooing and Babbling

Explain cooing and babbling as early stages of language development.

Cooing involves vowel-like sounds, particularly high vowels, around four months.
Babbling, occurring between six to eight months, includes various vowels and
consonants, evolving into recognizable patterns and combinations by nine to ten
months. Parents often interpret babbling as early attempts at social interaction.
What is the significance of babbling in the language development of a child?

Babbling provides infants with social experiences related to speech, even if


incoherent. It helps in the development of language perception and lays the
foundation for more advanced language skills.

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Topic-224: The One-Word Stage

Describe the characteristics of the one-word stage in language development.

Between twelve and eighteen months, children produce single-unit utterances for
everyday objects. These utterances, often referred to as holophrastic, may serve as
phrases or sentences, although they are single terms.
How does holophrastic speech function during the one-word stage?

Holophrastic speech involves a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence. It


is used to name objects, and children may extend its use by associating it with
absent individuals or objects, showing early signs of complex phrase formation.
Topic-225: The Two-Word Stage

When does the two-word stage begin, and what characterizes it?

The two-word stage typically begins around eighteen to twenty months, and
children's vocabulary extends beyond fifty words. During this stage, children
combine two distinct words, and the interpretation depends on the context.
How does the adult interpretation of two-word combinations depend on
context?

Adults interpret two-word combinations based on the context of their utterance,


whether it's expressing possession, making a request, or stating a fact. The child's
vocabulary expands rapidly during this stage.
Topic-226: Telegraphic Speech

Describe the characteristics of telegraphic speech in language development.

Between two and two-and-a-half years old, children enter a stage marked by
multiple-word speech. Utterances become more complex, with variations in word
forms and the appearance of grammatical inflections and prepositions.
What changes occur in the child's language development by the age of three?

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By the age of three, the child's vocabulary has expanded significantly,
pronunciation becomes more adult-like, and grammatical features continue to
emerge. Increased physical activity accompanies this stage.
Topic-227: Summary/Discussion

Summarize the impact of social-class differences on language acquisition in


children.
Studies by Hart and Risley suggest significant differences in vocabulary exposure
between privileged and underprivileged families. Children from privileged
backgrounds hear 30 million more words by the age of three. This emphasizes the
lasting effects of cultural and socio-economic disparities on language learning.
What are some criticisms or alternative perspectives regarding studies on
language acquisition and social-class differences?
Critics argue about the sample size and suggest considering other factors.
However, the research highlights concerns about the linguistic environment and
socio-economic status effects on children's language development.

Lesson-40
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION II

Topic-228: The Acquisition Process

Describe the child's role in first language acquisition.

Children actively construct language by processing what is said to them, creating


possible ways of language use. Their linguistic production involves trying out
constructions and testing their effectiveness, rather than mere imitation of adult
speech.
Provide examples illustrating that children do not merely imitate adult
speech.

Children generate expressions not commonly used by adults. For instance, they
may use unconventional expressions like "Woodstock me" or employ irregular
verb forms such as "holded" instead of "held."

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Topic-229: Developing Morphology

What morphemes does a child typically start using around two-and-a-half


years old?

Around two-and-a-half years old, children start incorporating inflectional


morphemes, such as the -ing form (e.g., "cat sitting") and the -s form for plurals
(e.g., "boys" and "cats").
Explain the phenomenon of overgeneralization in language development.

Overgeneralization occurs when a child applies a rule too broadly. For instance,
using -s to form plurals leads to overgeneralizations like "foots" and "mans."
Topic-230: Developing Syntax

Describe the three stages in the development of questions in children's speech.

Stage 1 (18-26 months): Simple Wh-forms or rising intonation.


Stage 2 (22-30 months): More complex expressions with continued use of rising
intonation.
Stage 3 (24-40 months): Incorporation of proper movement of auxiliary in English
questions.
Explain how the child's syntax develops during the third stage.

The third stage sees improved formation of Wh-questions, including proper


inversion. The child also starts using other forms of the verb "to be," like "are"
and "was."
Topic-231: Forming Questions

What are examples of questions formed in the first stage of question


development?

Examples include simple questions with Wh-forms like "Where kitty?" or


questions formed with rising intonation like "Sit chair?"
Provide examples demonstrating more complex questions in the second stage.

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Examples include questions like "What book name?" or "Why you smiling?"
where more Wh-forms are used.
Illustrate questions formed in the third stage.
Questions in the third stage show proper movement of auxiliaries in English
questions, like "Can I have a piece?" or "What did you do?"
Topic-232: Forming Negatives

Explain the strategies used by a child in the first stage to form negatives.
In the first stage, the child uses simple strategies like putting "No" or "Not" at the
beginning of the sentence, as in "no mitten" or "not a teddy bear."
Describe the incorporation of other auxiliary forms in the third stage of
forming negatives.
The third stage involves using additional auxiliary forms like "didn’t" and
"won’t." Late acquisition includes the negative form "isn’t," leading to continued
use of Stage 2 forms.
Topic-233: Developing Semantics

How does a child's semantics develop during the holophrastic stage?


During the holophrastic stage, children may use words in a broad sense, leading
to overextension. For example, "bow-wow" initially referring to a dog extends to
various objects with shiny bits.

Explain the concept of overextension in semantic development.


Overextension is when a child extends the meaning of a word based on similarities
of shape, sound, size, and other characteristics. For instance, using "ball" for
various round objects beyond its typical meaning.
When does the process of narrowing down word application typically occur?
After overextension, a gradual process of narrowing down word application
occurs as the child learns more words.
What is an interesting feature of the child's treatment of lexical relations in
semantics?
In terms of hyponymy, the child tends to use the middle-level term (e.g., "dog"
instead of "animal") initially. This may be connected to adults' similar tendencies
when talking to young children.

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At what age is it assumed that the child has completed the major part of basic
language acquisition?
By the age of five, it is generally assumed that the child has completed the primary
stages of language acquisition.

Despite the assumed completion of basic language acquisition, why might


learning a second language be challenging?
Learning a second language might be challenging despite the ease of first language
acquisition because the process involves different cognitive and social factors, and
it typically starts later in life.

Lesson-41:
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION/LEARNING

Topic-234: Second Language Acquisition and Learning

What is the distinction between learning in a "foreign language" setting and


learning in a "second language" setting?

In either case, individuals are attempting to learn another language. The term
"second language learning" is used more generally to describe both situations,
whether it's English as a foreign language (EFL) or English as a second language
(ESL).
Define the terms "acquisition" and "learning" in the context of language
development.

"Acquisition" refers to the gradual development of language ability through


natural use in communicative situations, while "learning" is a more conscious
process involving the accumulation of knowledge, such as vocabulary and
grammar, often in an institutional setting.
Topic-235: Acquisition Barriers

Why is learning a second language fundamentally different from first


language acquisition?

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Second language learners often encounter the language during their teenage or
adult years, with limited exposure compared to constant interaction in childhood.
Factors like insufficient time, focus, and incentives undermine learning attempts.
Achieving native-like proficiency, especially in pronunciation, is challenging for
adults.
What is the significance of the critical period for language acquisition?

The critical period, around puberty, suggests that it becomes very difficult to fully
acquire another language after this stage. The optimum age for learning is
considered to be between ten to sixteen, when inherent language flexibility has
not been completely lost.
Topic-236: Affective Factors

How can self-consciousness and lack of empathy act as barriers to second


language acquisition during the proposed optimum age?

Teenagers, being more self-conscious, might face difficulties in producing


different sounds due to unwillingness or embarrassment. Lack of empathy with
another culture can inhibit the learning process. Negative emotions or experiences,
termed affective factors, can create barriers to acquisition.
How do children and adults differ in overcoming affective factors in language
acquisition?

Children seem less constrained by affective factors and quickly overcome


inhibitions. Adults can also overcome inhibitions, but negative feelings or
experiences are more likely to hinder their learning.
Topic-237: Focus on Method

Provide an overview of different language learning approaches and methods.

Traditional methods include the Grammar–Translation Method, emphasizing


memorization and written language. The Audio Lingual Method, popular in the
mid-20th century, focused on spoken language through systematic presentation

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 23


and repetition. More recent communicative approaches emphasize language
functions over forms.
How does the "Focus on the Learner" represent a shift in language learning?

This shift involves moving from teacher-centric and method-focused approaches


to learner-centric ones. Tolerating errors is a radical change, considering errors as
part of the natural learning process rather than hindrances.
Topic-238: Focus on the Learner

How does the acceptance of errors in L2 learners differ from traditional


views?

Traditionally, errors were viewed negatively and had to be avoided. Modern


approaches accept errors as part of the natural learning process, providing clues to
active learning progress.
Explain the concept of "Transfer" in the context of second language learning.

Transfer involves using sounds, expressions, or structures from the learner's native
language (L1) when performing in the second language (L2). It can be positive if
the L1 and L2 share similar features and negative if they differ significantly.
What is "Interlanguage," and how does it manifest in second language
learners?

Interlanguage is the language produced by second language learners that contains


errors unrelated to the forms of either the native language (L1) or the second
language (L2). It includes stages where learners may produce ungrammatical
forms similar to how children acquiring their L1 may do.
Topic-239: Communicative Competence

Define "Communicative Competence" and its components.


Communicative competence involves the general ability to use language
accurately, appropriately, and flexibly. Its components include grammatical
competence (accurate use of words and structures), sociolinguistic competence
(appropriate language use in different social contexts), and strategic competence
(organizing a message effectively and compensating for difficulties).

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 24


Lesson-42:
HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

Topic-240: Introduction

What is historical linguistics, and how is it related to philology and diachronic


linguistics?
Historical linguistics investigates features of older languages and their
development into modern languages. It is also known as philology or diachronic
linguistics. In the 19th century, philology dominated language study, resulting in
the creation of language "family trees" showcasing language relationships.
Principal concerns include describing language changes, reconstructing language
pre-history, developing theories on language change, studying speech community
history, and exploring word etymology.
Topic-241: The Family Tree Model

How did scholars like Jones contribute to the development of language family
trees?
Scholars like Jones, observing commonalities in Sanskrit and other languages, led
to the discovery of language ancestors. The Proto-Indo-European language family
emerged, and scholars traced modern languages' lineage, establishing thirty
language families with over 6,000 individual languages.
Topic-242: Grimm’s Law

What is Grimm's Law, and how did it contribute to historical linguistics?


Grimm's Law, proposed by Grimm in 1822, identifies systematic consonant
correspondences between Germanic languages and Indo-European languages. For
example, Latin "pedem" corresponds to English "foot" and German "Fuss." The
law involves chain shifts, and asterisks indicate reconstructed, unattested sounds.
Topic-243: The Comparative Method

Explain the Comparative Method and its role in demonstrating genetic


relatedness between languages.

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 25


The Comparative Method, developed from 1820-1870, demonstrates genetic
relatedness by systematically correlating words across languages based on
phonological and morphological structures. It identifies related words not only in
form but also in meaning, considering semantic changes and the evolution of
words over time.
Topic-244: The Wave Model

What is the Wave Model in historical linguistics, and why has it gained
popularity?
The Wave Model, proposed by Johannes Schmidt, presents language change as
concentric circles spreading like waves. The circles represent stable dialects
innovated for socio-political reasons. This model has gained popularity as an
alternative to the Tree model for its ability to address the shortcomings of the latter.
Topic-245: Language Change

What does language change encompass, and how is it studied?


Language change involves variation over time in phonological, morphological,
semantic, and syntactic features. Historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics
study language change. External influences, such as borrowed words, contribute
to change. Examples of sound changes from Middle to Modern English include
[h] in "hlud" becoming "loud" and metathesis changes like "acsian" to "ask."
Syntactic changes, such as word order variations, and semantic changes, like word
broadening or narrowing, are also observed.

Lesson-42:
HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

Topic-240: Introduction

What is historical linguistics, and how is it related to philology and diachronic


linguistics?
A: Historical linguistics investigates features of older languages and their
development into modern languages. It is also known as philology or diachronic
linguistics. In the 19th century, philology dominated language study, resulting in

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 26


the creation of language "family trees" showcasing language relationships.
Principal concerns include describing language changes, reconstructing language
pre-history, developing theories on language change, studying speech community
history, and exploring word etymology.
Topic-241: The Family Tree Model

How did scholars like Jones contribute to the development of language family
trees?
Scholars like Jones, observing commonalities in Sanskrit and other languages, led
to the discovery of language ancestors. The Proto-Indo-European language family
emerged, and scholars traced modern languages' lineage, establishing thirty
language families with over 6,000 individual languages.
Topic-242: Grimm’s Law

What is Grimm's Law, and how did it contribute to historical linguistics?


Grimm's Law, proposed by Grimm in 1822, identifies systematic consonant
correspondences between Germanic languages and Indo-European languages. For
example, Latin "pedem" corresponds to English "foot" and German "Fuss." The
law involves chain shifts, and asterisks indicate reconstructed, unattested sounds.
Topic-243: The Comparative Method

Explain the Comparative Method and its role in demonstrating genetic


relatedness between languages.
The Comparative Method, developed from 1820-1870, demonstrates genetic
relatedness by systematically correlating words across languages based on
phonological and morphological structures. It identifies related words not only in
form but also in meaning, considering semantic changes and the evolution of
words over time.
Topic-244: The Wave Model

What is the Wave Model in historical linguistics, and why has it gained
popularity?
The Wave Model, proposed by Johannes Schmidt, presents language change as
concentric circles spreading like waves. The circles represent stable dialects

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 27


innovated for socio-political reasons. This model has gained popularity as an
alternative to the Tree model for its ability to address the shortcomings of the latter.
Topic-245: Language Change

What does language change encompass, and how is it studied?


Language change involves variation over time in phonological, morphological,
semantic, and syntactic features. Historical linguistics and evolutionary linguistics
study language change. External influences, such as borrowed words, contribute
to change. Examples of sound changes from Middle to Modern English include
[h] in "hlud" becoming "loud" and metathesis changes like "acsian" to "ask."
Syntactic changes, such as word order variations, and semantic changes, like word
broadening or narrowing, are also observed.

Lesson-43:
COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS
Topic-246: What is Computational Linguistics?

What is the objective of computational linguistics, and how does it relate to


human language use?
Computational linguistics aims to develop computational machinery for agents
(human or artificial, like computer programs) to exhibit various linguistic
behaviors. Computers, lacking inherent intelligence, derive linguistic capabilities
from written programs. The connection between language and
thinking/intelligence emphasizes the importance of computational linguistics,
involving linguists, computer scientists, AI experts, mathematicians, logicians,
philosophers, cognitive scientists, psychologists, anthropologists, and
neuroscientists.
Topic-247: Processes and Methods of CL

How has computational linguistics evolved in terms of theoretical and


practical research, and what were the early concerns in applications like MT
and QA?
Early computational linguistics (mid-1950s to 1970) was theory-neutral, focusing
on practical applications like machine translation (MT) and question-answering

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 28


(QA). Issues in MT included lexical structure, sublanguages for specific domains,
and language transduction. In QA, emphasis was on characterizing question
patterns and their relationship to answer forms. Post-1970, efforts focused on
encoding linguistic and world knowledge more comprehensibly and modularly.
Topic-248: Morphological Processing

Explain the role of computational morphology, and what tasks does it involve,
such as tokenization and morphological analysis/synthesis?
Computational morphology deals with processing words in written (graphemic)
and spoken (phonemic) forms. Automatic morphological analyzers break down
words into stems and affixes. Tokenization, identifying separate words, is the
initial step. Morphological analysis involves recognizing word forms, and a
simple stemming algorithm may be used to strip suffixes.
Topic-249: Syntactic Processing
How does a computer characterize the grammatical structure of a sentence,
and what challenges exist in syntactic parsing?
Syntactic parsers analyze sentence grammatical structures. The Toy grammar,
using context-free grammars, categorizes sentence elements. Parsing involves
constructing parse trees, and top-down parsers build trees from the top down.
Syntactic ambiguity, as seen in sentences like "I can fish," poses challenges in
generating accurate parse trees.
Topic-250: Semantic Processing

How does a computer understand the meaning of an utterance, and what


challenges arise in word-sense disambiguation?
Semantic processing involves understanding word meanings in context. Word-
sense disambiguators use neighboring words and context rules to identify the
intended meaning. A word's syntactic and semantic properties are stored in the
digital lexicon. Computational semantics focuses on representing semantic
functions and rules for assembling larger phrase semantics from smaller ones.
Topic-251: Application of CL

How has computational linguistics impacted society, and what applications


has it made possible?

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 29


Computational linguistics has contributed to multilingual word processing,
spelling correction, and grammar checking. The increase in online information,
coupled with the speed of computers, has made search engines highly effective.
Speech-enabled applications, used in flight information and hotel reservations,
have gained prominence. Computational linguistic methods find applications in
information extraction, speech recognition, speech synthesis, and machine
translation, offering various technological opportunities.

Lesson-44:
LEXICOGRAPHY

Topic-252: The Dictionary: Definition and History

What are the key features of a prototypical dictionary, and what purposes
does it serve?
A prototypical dictionary, whether in book or e-dictionary form, has an inter-
structure establishing links between components and is alphabetically structured.
It serves as a reference book, records a language's lexicon, provides quick
information retrieval, and acts as a guardian of language purity. Dictionaries can
be categorized as general or specialized, with the oldest known dictionary dating
back to 2600 BC in Akkadian or Babylonian on clay tablets.
Topic-253: Source Materials for Dictionaries

What are the primary sources of words for English dictionaries, and what are
the two basic methods by which a language increases its vocabulary?
English vocabulary sources are diverse due to historical influences. The
substratum is Anglo-Saxon, with an overlay of Latinate vocabulary. Germanic
tribes also contributed. Vocabulary increases through the use of available material
and importing words from other languages. New words belong to word classes,
primarily nouns. Different ways of forming words include compounding,
derivatives, acronyms, and loanwords. Lexicographers use primary (archives,
corpus) and secondary (fieldwork, other dictionaries, encyclopedia, etc.) sources.
Topic-254: Uses and Users of Dictionaries

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 30


How have lexicologists and lexicographers evolved their approach to
designing dictionaries, and what factors influence user behavior?
Since 1960, dictionaries are designed for specific user groups to address their
needs. Dictionaries are tools for problem-solving in language use, not just
repositories of facts. Research on user habits involves self-evaluation
questionnaires. Dictionaries are most used for reading tasks, primarily to
understand the meaning of unknown words. User behavior varies based on factors
like age, mother tongue, language proficiency, educational level, and skill in
dictionary use.
Topic-255: Corpora for Lexicography

What role does a corpus play in lexicography, and what factors determine the
adequacy of a corpus?
A corpus, an electronic collection of texts, is essential in lexicography to provide
evidence of language choices. The adequacy of a corpus depends on its size,
diversity, and the skill of those assembling it. It forms the core of a dictionary
project, and lexicographers must formulate policies on its use.
Topic-256: Developments in Electronic Dictionary Design
What characterizes an electronic dictionary, and how have digital media
opportunities been explored in dictionary design?
An electronic dictionary exists in digital form, accessible through various media
like handheld devices, apps, software, and E-readers. CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs
often accompany printed dictionaries. Early electronic dictionaries mirrored
printed versions but offered enhanced search functions. Digital media led to new
opportunities like interactive features, extensive databases, and API/SDK tools for
language-based functions.
Topic-257: Linguistic Corpora and the Compilation of Dictionaries

How has computer technology impacted the compilation of corpora, and


what advantages do corpus-based electronic dictionaries offer over printed
dictionaries?
Computer technology has provided massive storage and processing power for
corpus designers. Major English dictionaries are now compiled from electronic
corpora, offering exhaustiveness, authenticity, and reliability. Unlike manually
compiled printed dictionaries, electronic versions directly obtain detailed

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 31


information, including lexical, contextual, etymological, phonological, and
morphological aspects, from corpora. Language corpora contribute to multilingual
and bilingual dictionaries, machine-readable dictionaries, and lexical resources.
Historical and diachronic corpora play a crucial role in lexicology, offering
insights into historical semantics and lexicology.

Lesson-45:
LATEST TRENDS OF RESEARCH IN LINGUISTICS

Topic-258: What is Linguistic Research or Research in Linguistics?

When did linguistics become a regular discipline in European universities,


and how has the field developed since then?

Linguistics became a regular discipline in European universities around the 1960s.


Since then, it has undergone significant development, with various specializations
offered in linguistic branches across universities worldwide.
Who influenced a key strand of linguistic research, and what was the focus of
their study?
Noam Chomsky (1965) influenced a key strand of linguistic research. The focus
was on studying "underlying linguistic competence," delving into the rules that
govern the production of grammatical sentences. Chomsky emphasized the
abstract system, considering actual utterances disorderly and chaotic.
How did the field of linguistics evolve in response to challenges to Chomsky's
theories?

Hymes (1972) introduced the term "communicative competence" in contrast to


Chomsky's "linguistic competence." This shift marked an interdisciplinary
approach, embracing socio- and psycholinguistics. The study and analysis of
discourse have also emerged as significant areas in contemporary linguistics.
Topic-259: Research Trends in Applied Linguistics

What has been the main thrust of research in Second Language Acquisition
(SLA) and applied linguistics, and how has the focus evolved over time?

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 32


Research in SLA and applied linguistics initially focused on establishing universal
aspects of language learning processes. In the 1970s, attention turned to learner
variables, categorizing them into personality, cognitive, and affective factors.
Questions arose about why individuals with normal faculties succeed in acquiring
their first language but exhibit varying degrees of success in mastering a second
language.
What are some interdisciplinary fields related to linguistics, and how are they
contributing to research?

Neurolinguistics explores neural mechanisms controlling language


comprehension, production, and acquisition. Forensic linguistics applies linguistic
knowledge to law, crime investigation, and judicial procedures. The use of causal
modeling in applied linguistics research is highlighted as promising and of high
qualitative importance.
Topic-260: Current Trends in Linguistic Research Methodology

What did Lazarton (2000) investigate regarding research methodology and


statistical analysis in Applied Linguistics?
Lazarton analyzed research articles published in four Applied Linguistics journals
(1991-1997) to examine trends in research methodology. Almost 88% of articles
were quantitative studies, using statistical methods like ANOVA. She
recommended a combination of qualitative and quantitative research for future
studies.
Topic-261: Research Trends in Linguistics in China

How did Young, Lichun, and Jun (2001) compare research trends in China
with those in the West in Applied Linguistics?
The study analyzed contents of four Chinese and Western Applied Linguistics
journals, focusing on research methodologies. China showed a dominance of non-
empirical studies with a gradual decrease, while the West preferred qualitative and
empirical research. China experienced a significant shift in research trends
between the first and second decades of the study period.
Topic-262: Research Trends in Linguistics in Japan

COMPILED BY SIR ZAHID 33


According to Izui (1962), what were the dominant theories and research
methodologies in Japanese linguistics?
Izui found no significant difference between linguistic theories and research
methods in Japan and the world. Most research in Japan was influenced by
Saussure's thought, and the Mathematical Society of Linguistics in Japan played
a significant role in managing linguistic facts mathematically.
Topic-263: Trends of Linguistics in India

What were the findings of Jha's (2003) study on current trends in linguistics
in India?
Jha highlighted over a thousand languages in India, with progress in information
technology aiding linguistic purposes. Organizations in India work on creating
and analyzing corpora, integrating language technology into curricula, and
developing various speech-related programs. Funding issues, particularly from
private sector organizations, were noted.

Topic-264: Recent Progress in Applied Linguistics


How has applied linguistics developed, and what are the key theories
contributing to its progress?
Applied linguistics has developed into an interdisciplinary subject with cognitive
theory and social constructivist theory playing pivotal roles. Cognitive theory
emphasizes learners' subjectivity and creativity, while social constructivist theory
underscores the importance of social environments and cultural knowledge. The
field's human socialization process is explored through these theories, with a focus
on language as a crucial part of the social semantic system.

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