APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR CSE STREAM BCHES102/202

MODULE-I
SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS
Sensors: Introduction, working principle and applications of Conductometric sensors, electrochemical
sensors. Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors. Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO).
Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals, surfactants, hydrocarbons. Electrochemical gas sensors for
Sox and NOx. Disposable sensors in the detection of biomolecules and pesticides.
Energy Systems: Introduction to batteries, construction, working and applications of Lithium ion and
Sodium ion batteries. Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s). Principle, Properties and
Applications.
Self-learning: Types of electrochemical sensor, Gas sensor O2 sensor, Biosensor Glucose sensors. (8 hours)
INTRODUCTION
Developments in Science and Technology during last century has resulted accelerated growth in emissions
of anthropogenic pollutants in to environment contributing to increasing incidences of chronic diseases.
Toxic gases, metals, pesticides, and other dangerous chemicals have spread throughout our environment.
Therefore, monitoring of composition of air, water and soil has become an area of intense interest. In health
sector, for diagnosis and health monitoring, it is required to determine clinically important chemicals present
in body fluids. For various industrial and agricultural applications qualitative detection and quantitative
analysis of chemical species is the major requirement. These demands have led to the development of many
important analytical approaches. These techniques are not suitable for routine and online analysis. Therefore
there is a growing demand to develop new instruments. Techniques, and procedures so as to make analysis
convenient, fast, reliable, and selective. To meet these demands, chemical sensors of various types have been
intensively developed. These sensors have number of advantages over other classical methods of analysis
like low cost, less time of analysis, portability of the device, sample non-destruction, and accuracy of results.
Chemical sensors find numerous applications like in home safety, food freshness, medical diagnosis, and
environmental protection and are therefore likely to have a positive impact on our lives in the near future.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF A SENSOR
A chemical sensor is a device that is capable of giving real time analytical information about a test
sample. It interacts with a specific chemical or biological analyte, detects it and produces the signal
proportional to its quantity. Analyte is the target species which is being detected and measured using a sensor.
Main basic components of a sensor are:
Receptor
Receptor is a chemical or biological recognition element which is capable of interacting with analyte
3specifically and selectively.
It produces a signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in potential, conductivity, current,
mass, heat, pH, Colour etc.
If the receptor is of biological origin (e.g., DNA, antibodies, and enzymes). The device is referred to as a
biosensor.
If the receptor is of chemical origin, the device is referred to as a chemical sensor.
Transducer
Transducer is used to convert the signal created by the receptor-analyte interaction into a readable value or
measurable form physical quantity.
In most chemical sensors. The sensing element and the transducer are packaged together, in direct spatial
contact, in the same unit.
Electrical signal and display
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The electronic system analyzes the signal given by the transducer, helps in signal amplification and converts
the signal from analog to digital form. These amplified signals are then displayed. Signal can be displayed
in various forms such as numeric value, graph, image etc..

There are several types of sensors available depending on type of transducer is used like electrochemical
sensors, Conductometric sensors, Thermometric sensors, and Optical sensors etc.
ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS
Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical reaction between analyte and electrode surface into
a useful signal are known as electrochemical sensors.
Electrochemical sensors use electrodes as the transducer component. Transducer of an electro chemical
sensor consists of working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter electrode, and reference electrode.
Electrochemical sensor consists of a transducer element covered by a recognition element. The
recognition element interacts with target analyte and signal is generated. Electrochemical transducers
transform the chemical changes into electrical signals. The electric signals are related to the concentration
of analyte. Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit. Current must flow to make a
measurement. Since we need a closed loop there should be at least two electrodes. These sensors are
often called an electrochemical cell.

Applications of Electrochemical sensors

1. The oxygen sensor is used for detection of dissolved oxygen in water boiler and to monitor dissolved
oxygen concentration in metal melts, glasses and in hydrogen fuel.
2. They are used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gas. Warfare agents etc.
3. They are used in water analysis and environmental monitoring, like measurement of toxic metal
concentration in water, detection of oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur, CO, pH of water etc.
4. They are used in diagnostic and health-care applications, like in situ monitoring of glucose serum
uric acid, blood Ca2+, Fe2+, Acetylcholine etc.
5. They are used in soil parameter analysis, evaluation, and in agriculture applications.

Types of electrochemical sensors

There are mainly three types of electrochemical sensors.
Potentiometric sensor
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In this sensor, change in potential during the chemical interaction between receptor and analyte is measured
using combination of an indicator electrode and a reference electrode. Commonly. Platinum is used an inert
indicator electrode whereas saturated calomel electrode is used as a reference electrode. Indicator electrode
is used to measure change in potential due to redox reaction occurring on the surface of the electrode. Using
an ion-selective electrode as an indicator electrode, concentration of particular ion can be measured with
good selectivity. pH glass electrode is an example for this class of electrode. In potentiometric sensor,
measurement is taken at zero current.

Thermometric sensor
Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the interaction between analyte
and receptor.
Thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the temperature or potential.
Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature
transducer.
Analyte (reactant) is fed in to the reactor. The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst or enzyme capable
of catalyzing the reaction, liberating heat energy.
Heat liberated is quantified by means of a temperature transducer. The change in temperature is converted to
the output voltage by transducer which is amplified and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
In order to convert change in temperature into an electric signal, two main kinds of transducers namely
resistive transducer and thermocouple are used.
Applications of a thermometric sensor
Thermal bio sensors are based on the temperature change induced by a simple enzymatic reaction.
They are used in the determination of metabolites, bioprocess monitoring, and environmental control. An
example is the determination of glucose using the glucose oxidase-catalyzed reaction.
Thermometric chemical sensors are used for determination of combustible gases that react with oxygen at
the surface of a suitable catalyst.
Conductometric sensor
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in sample solution
between two electrodes.
Electrode used in conductivity sensor is called as conductivity cell. It is used to measure the change in
electrolytic conductance of the solution during replacement of ions of a particular conductivity by ions of
different conductivity. It is made of two platinum foils with unit cross sectional area and unit distance
between them. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called as specific conductance.
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There will be change in specific conductance of solution when there is change in number of ions or type of
ion. This change is measured using Conductivity cell. Specific conductance (k) is given by,
I I
k  X
R a where l/a, is known as cell constant and ‘R’ is the resistance of the solution. The conductivity
cell is dipped in the electrolytic solution taken in a beaker and it is connected to a conductance measuring
device called as conductivity meter. This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and
transducers converts this chemical change into electrical signal.
Applications of Conductometric sensors
1. Conductometric sensor can be used to monitor any chemical which can change the electrolytic
conductance of solution on chemical reaction.
2. It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.
3. It is used to check the amount of ionic impurities in water samples.
4. It is used in measuring acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
5. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring, biotechnology and
agriculture related applications.

OPTICAL SENSORS
Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays into electrical
signals. Example: Colorimetric Sensors
Principle and working: When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain
quantity of light is absorbed by the analyte solution and it is observed by a sensor and transducer converts
intensity of absorbed light into electrical signal. The change in intensity at certain wavelength within
visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using special instrumentation.
In a simple optical sensor used to measure absorption of light, main components used are a light source,
a wavelength selector, a photodetector, and a display of the output

A monochromatic light is made to pass through colored analyte solution where certain quantity of light is
absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte. The change in the intensity of light is detected by
photodetector (sensing). The type of interaction depends on the wavelength of the probing radiation and on
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the structure of the molecules in the analyte. The intensity of the radiation emanating from the analyte carries
information on the concentration of the analyte. It is measured by the optoelectronic instrumentation.
The amount of absorbance is governed by Beer-lamberts law.
Applications of optical sensors
1. Optical sensors can be used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with
electromagnetic radiation.
2. Optical sensors have been developed for a number of different types of chemical and biochemical
molecules and ions. For example, ions in solution (e.g., pH. metal ions, and anions), gases (e.g., CO2, O2,
NH3, SO2, NO2, NO, etc.), vapors (e.g., moisture, volatile organic compounds, etc.), and molecules (e.g.,
glucose, pesticides, DNA, bacteria, etc.) can be determined using optical sensors.
3. Optical sensors find important and varied uses in environmental, biotechnological, food, pharmaceutical,
medical, and related applications.
4. Optical fiber based bio-sensors are used in screening of drugs, detection of food-borne pathogens, detection
of explosives and environmental monitoring.
Sensors for the measurement of dissolved oxygen (do)
Molecular oxygen is slightly soluble in water. Only about 8 mg of oxygen is soluble in 1 liter of water. This
oxygen present in water in dissolved form is called as Dissolved oxygen. It is an important water quality
parameter. Because aquatic living beings depend upon this dissolved oxygen for their survival. Concentration
of dissolved oxygen in boiler feed water plays an important role in corrosion of water boiler. In many
industries, monitoring concentration of dissolved oxygen in metal melts and other materials is highly
essential. Since, measurement of dissolved oxygen by classical titration procedure is tedious, sensors for
dissolved oxygen measurement plays an important role.
Two types of sensors are commonly used for measurement of dissolved oxygen:
Optical sensor.
Electrochemical sensor.
1. Optical for measurement of dissolved oxygen
Main components of an optical DO sensor are semipermeable membrane, sensing element, light-emitting
diode (LED) and photodetector. The sensing element contains a luminescent dye that is immobilized on a
gel matrix.
When this dye is exposed to blue light, it moves to excited state and while returning back to ground state, it
emits light with known intensity. When the dissolved oxygen crosses the semipermeable membrane, and
interacts with the dye, it reduces the intensity of light emitted by dye. The intensity of light emitted by the
dye is inversely proportional to DO concentration. Therefore, DO can be measured by measuring decrease
in intensity of light emitted by luminescent dye using a photodetector.
Optical DO sensors require more power and take two to four times longer to acquire a reading than an
electrochemical DO sensor. These sensors are also heavily dependent on temperature.
Electrochemical Sensor for measurement of dissolved oxygen
In an electrochemical DO sensor, two electrodes used are of dissimilar metals. Zinc or Lead is used as anode
and silver metal is used as inert cathode. The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode
should be more than 0.5 V to reduce dissolved oxygen without an external applied potential. The electrolyte
solution used is sodium chloride, or any other inert electrolyte.
When the electrode assembly is dipped in water to measure its DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating
electrons.
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2 Zn  2Zn 2   4e 
At cathode, DO undegoes reduction . Ag cathod iscathode is inert, it only passes oxygen for reduction
O 2  2H 2 O  4e   4OH 
Overall reaction is
Zn 2   O 2  2H 2 O  2Zn(OH) 2
The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen
in the water sample.

Electrochemical sensors for the pharmaceuticals

Introduction: Pharmaceuticals are basically organic compounds, which are used extensively by human
beings as a solution for various health issues. After usage they are excreted or washed off their hosts and
enter into the environment through effluents of waste water. Even though use of pharmaceuticals for various
health conditions are well understood and documented, there is limited knowledge about their unintended
effects in the environment. Majority of these are complex organic molecules with lower bio- degradability.
Therefore, it is necessary to use sensors for the detection of pharmaceuticals to monitor their concentration
and know their toxic effects. Several electrochemical sensors are available for the detection of
pharmaceuticals in lower concentration. These sensors are fast, low-cost, and sensitive and use disposable
strips. These sensors can be used for on the spot analysis. One example is the electrochemical Sensor used
for detection of Diclofenac.
Electrochemical sensor for detection of diclofenac
Diclofenac with chemical name 2-(2-((2,6-dichlorophenyl) amino) phenyl) acetic acid, is one of the most
frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic effects.
It is safe in prescribed dose, but may cause adverse effects at higher doses. Due to wide usage and poor
biodegradability, it can have serious effects on the ecosystem. Electrochemical sensor can be used to detect
diclofenac in lower concentrations.
Components of disposable screen printed Carbon paste electrode for diclofenac detection (Three electrode
sensor) Working electrode: Carbon Paste with MWCNT or Graphene, Counter Electrode: Carbon Paste with
MWCNT or Graphene, Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl, Process: Screen Printing Technique on PVC
substrate. Insulating ink was printed on the remaining PVC surface.

Working: The electrochemical oxidation of DCF on carbon-based sensor at pH 7.0 is reversible reaction.
Oxidation of Diclofenac occurs at carbon electrode to release e-, to form radical intermediates and followed
by hydrolysis of radical intermediate species. The products formed are 2,6- dichloro aniline and 2-2(-
hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid. Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow. The intensity of this current
is a function of the number of oxidized / reduced molecules. Products: 2,2 Hydroxy-Phenyl-Acetic Acid and
2,6 Dichloro Aniline
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Electrochemical sensors for hydrocarbons

Introduction: Detection of hydrocarbon pollutants, mainly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is
essential to monitor their toxicity and carcinogenic risk. After entering the body, some PAHs are metabolized
into 1-hydroxypyrene which is commonly found in urine sample. Therefore, concentration of 1-
hydroxypyrene is used as a biomarker to evaluate PAH exposure levels in the human body. Its concentration
in urine, quantitatively reflect the extent of recent exposure to PAHs.
Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Hydrocarbon: 1- Hydroxypyrene (Screen Printed Sensor)
Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO (Composite)
Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl Operating Voltage: +0.7 to −0.5 V
(PAMAM: Dendrimer polyamidoamine
Cr-MOF: Chromium-centered metal–organic framework GO: Grapheme Oxide)
Working
When this electrode is used to detect the sample containing 1-Hydroxypyrene (water sample) the following
changes takes place. At the electrode surface electro-oxidation takes place to yield several hydroxylated
species and then hydroquinone by losing 2e− and 2H+

Reactions on the electrode cause the current to flow.

The quantity of this current is a function of the number of oxidized / reduced molecules.
Current produced is directly proportional to the concentration 1-Hydroxypyrene.

Electrochemical gas sensor

Electrochemical gas sensor is used in monitoring of concentration of gaseous analytes. They are used mainly
to monitor the concentration of air pollutants, detection of leakage of chemicals in industries, and in defense,
military and space applications. Schematic representation of a typical gas sensor is given below:
The following are the main components of an electrochemical sensor:
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1. Filter: The filter is used to prevent unwanted contaminants, mainly particulate matter from entering
in to sensor.
2. Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to regulate the gas flow into the sensor. It selectivity
allows only the analyte gas to pass and also acts as a barrier to prevent leakage of the electrolyte from
the interior of the sensor. Hydrophobic porous membranes are used with aqueous electrolytes. These
pores are not wetted by the aqueous solution but allow the transport of dissolved gases to the
electrode-electrolyte interface. The sensitivity and response time of the sensor mainly depends on the
nature of membrane, its pore size and thickness.
3. Electrodes: Two or three electrode system is used based on the requirement. Working or sensing
electrode, counter electrode, and reference electrodes are used.
4. Electrolyte: Electrolyte used should be a good ionic conductor, and chemically and physically stable
under operation conditions of sensor. Main role of the electrolyte is to transport charge within the
sensor, contact all electrodes effectively, solubilize the reactants and products for efficient transport.

Working principle of an electrochemical gas sensor.

The following steps are involved in the working of a typical electrochemical gas sensor:
1. The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte on to the
surface of sensing Electrode.
2. Adsorption of analyte gas molecule on the surface of sensing electrode.
3. Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, ‘liberating electrons. Transfer of liberated
electrons from anode to cathode through external circuit. The surface of sensing electrode is the active
part of the electrode. It is modified by coating with appropriate catalysts which can selectively interact
with analyte gas and carry out its chemical change.
4. Desorption of the products from the electrode surface.
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas phase.
ELECTROCHEMICAL GAS SENSORS FOR SOX AND NOX
Electrochemical sensors are used to measure the concentration of gases like NO2. NO, and SO. In principle,
any gaseous compound which can undergo redox reaction on the surface of electrode can be measured with
an electrochemical sensor. Design of the sensor for each gas can be unique but the components (membranes,
electrolytes, and electrodes) and working principle is same as discussed in previous section.
But, receptor coated on surface of sensing electrode (working electrode) is different for each gas. Reaction
that occurs on surface of the electrode is also different for each case.
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Detection of NO in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following

electrochemical reduction reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au, Pt/Nafion sensing electrode with
10 M H₂SO, is used as electrolyte.
NO₂+2H+2e → NO+H₂O
Detection of NO in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the following
electrochemical oxidation reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au/NASICON-NaNO2 is used as
sensing electrode and electrolyte.
NO + 2 H₂O → NO3 + 4 H+ + 3e- Detection of SO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is
based on the following electrochemical oxidation reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au/Nafion
sensing electrode with 0.5 M H2SO4 is used as electrolyte.
SO₂+2H2O →SO2 + 4H+ + 2e-
BIOSENSOR
Introduction: Biosensors are devices that are used to detect and measure bioanalytes. They are used in
qualitative and quantitative analysis of biomolecules, biological structures, microorganisms etc. Number of
biosensors are used in healthcare, food, industrial and environmental various fields for the detection of
various bio analytes like glucose, cholesterol, ethanol, creatinine etc. They are playing a crucial role in
screening of diseases, monitoring of human health, quality of food, water, and air.
Working of a Biosensor
Main component of a biosensor is a receptor which can selectively interact with bioanalyte and produce a
signal corresponding to the interaction. Receptor contains immobilized biomaterials like enzymes,
antibodies, nucleic acids, hormones, organelles on its surface. Signal produced is detected and transformed
to appropriate physical, chemical or electrical signal form by a transducer.
Biosensors provide excellent sensitivity and selectivity, continuous reliability and portability. Therefore, they
are identified as superior analytical tools. The desired biomolecules such as enzyme, hormones, antibodies
etc. are immobilized via physisorption/chemisorption, which will cause an intimate contact with the
transducer. The analyte of interest will selectively bind with the biomaterial that produces the measurable
electronic response.
DISPOSABLE SENSOR
Portable sensors used for on-the-spot analysis using a disposable strip with receptor and electrodes printed
on it, is called as disposable sensor. These strips can be inserted into the portable systems and used for on-
site sample analysis.
Advantages of disposable sensors:
• They transduce physical, chemical, or biological changes in their environment to an analytical signal.
• Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
• They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
• It provide digitized chemical and biological information.
• Prevents the contamination of samples.
Detection of Ascorbic acid using disposable electrochemical sensor
L-Ascorbic acid (AA) or ascorbate, commonly known as vitamin C, is an important water-soluble vitamin
derived from green vegetables, fruits, and other dietary supplements. AA improves the immune system. It
enables collagen synthesis, which is needed to maintain healthy bones, teeth, skins, cartilages, enhances
antibody levels and acts as an antioxidant; reduces necrosis
At the same time
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Abnormal AA levels in bodily fluids have been reported to cause cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Extended use of AA could cause urinary oxalate calculus, increase
infertility in a woman, and affect embryo development. Excessive AA use has been reported to cause
diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, headache, insomnia, gastric irritation, renal problems, loss of food taste, and
vomiting.
Disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes sensor (CNT with gold nanoparticles) for biomolecule
detection- Ascorbic acid
It comprises three disposable electrodes: one working electrode, one auxiliary or counter electrode, and one
reference electrode.
All electrodes have been manufactured by silkscreen printing with conductive material ink on a plastic
polyester (PET) sheet. The active surfaces of the counter electrode and working electrode have been printed
with a conductive ink of C (MWCNT) and modified with gold nanoparticles. Active surface of the reference
electrode has been printed with an Ag/AgCl ink.
Working: The electrochemical sensor can catalyze the two-electron electro catalytic oxidation and hydrogen
dissociation of AA to L-dehydroascorbic acid in the presence of oxygen in solution. The carboxyl MWCNTs
act as electron transfer mediators promoting the electron transfer between AA molecules and the matrix
interface Increases the electro catalytic oxidation of AA during electrochemical detection and transduce their
presence into measurable signals. The electric current or voltage produced is proportional to the
concentration of the ascorbic acid.

What is a disposable sensor? Describe the use of disposable sensor in detection of pesticide, glyphosate.
Portable sensors used for on-the-spot analysis using a disposable strip with receptor and electrodes printed
on it, is called as disposable sensor.
These strips can be inserted into the portable systems and used for on-site sample analysis. Glyphosate [N-
(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is an organophosphorus pesticide. Its residues are present in large amounts in
agricultural products and entering in to ecosystem in large quantity. Glyphosate is classified as a potential
carcinogen to humans.
Glycine oxidase can catalyze the oxidative deamination of various amines and cleave the CN bond in
glyphosate. The glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen- printed carbon electrode can be used as
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sensing (working) electrode in glyphosate disposable biosensor. It oxidizes glyphosate into

amidomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and glyoxylate. Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the
change in potential of the oxidation process.

GLUCOSE SENSORS
The glucose sensor is one of the most widely used biosensor for monitoring blood sugar levels in diabetic
patients. Blood glucose sensors account for 85% of the current world market for biosensors and are the most
widely studied and commercialized of all biosensors. In this sensor, Glucose oxidase (GOx) is immobilized
on the electrode to measure the glucose level in blood. A disposable single-use glucose sensor that can be
used effectively, with a high degree of reliability and fast response measurement. is very desirable. These
needs, however, require the biosensor to be highly uniform and reproducible, and still be manufactured at a
modest cost. Blood glucose monitoring is achieved in several ways. The traditional method of testing the
blood glucose involves pricking the finger with a lancet (a small, sharp needle), putting a drop of blood on a
test strip and then placing the strip into a meter that displays the blood glucose level. Meters vary in features,
readability, portability, speed, size and cost. Some of the most recent developed meters allow the patient to
test sites other than the fingertip, including sites such as the upper arm, forearm, base of the thumb and thigh.
Working principle of a Glucose sensor
Even though, many methods of transductions are available for a Glucose biosensor, because of the sensitivity,
reproducibility and inexpensive manufacture. Electrochemical method is the most widely used method. The
most commonly employed electrochemical method is amperometry, which relies on the application of a fixed
potential between two electrodes and the measurement of the resultant current flow.
Clark oxygen electrode is the amperometric cell used in glucose biosensor. It is a three electrode cell,
composed of a reference electrode, typically Ag/AgCl electrode, a working electrode, which is usually made
of a noble metal or carbon and a counter or GOx is an FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) enzyme, which
very specifically oxidises B D-glucose. It oxidizes Glucose to Glucolactone and accepts electrons and gets
reduced.
Glucose +GO, (FAD) Glucolactone + GO, (FADH2)
Reduced, deactivated enzyme consumes oxygen from the electrolyte, transfers electrons to it and reduces it
to hydrogen peroxide. Thus, the amount of oxygen consumed proportional to concentration of glucose. The
concentration of glucose can be measured from decrease in oxygen concentration.
GO, (FADH2) +0₂ → GO, (FAD) + H₂O₂
Glucose concentration can also be measured from the amount of hydrogen peroxide formed. Hydrogen
peroxide is oxidized amperometrically at fixed voltage of 0.7 V and current generated is measured. Measured
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current is proportional to concentration of glucose.

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APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR CSE STREAM BCHES102/202

Galvanic cell: Galvanic cell is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy through a
spontaneous redox reaction.
Battery: It is a device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or both.
Classification Battery:
Primary batteries: In primary batteries, a chemical reaction proceeds spontaneously and the free energy
change of the reaction is converted into electrical energy. The production of electrical energy at the expense
of the free energy of the cell reaction is called “discharging of the cell” and once the reactants are exhausted,
production of electrical energy also stops. These are non-rechargeable batteries. Example- Zn-MnO2 dry cell.
Secondary batteries: These are rechargeable batteries by passing external electric current. These batteries
behave like a galvanic cell during discharge where as they act as electrolytic cell while charging. Hence these
are also called accumulators or storage batteries. Example Lead-acid battery
Operation of a battery during discharging and charging:
Discharge: During discharge, oxidation takes place at the anode and reduction takes place at the cathode.
The reaction is a spontaneous reaction. Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
Example: Lead-acid battery, discharging:
At anode Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e-

At cathode PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O

At anode: electrons are released to the external circuit.
At cathode: electrons from the external circuit are consumed.
Charging: During charging, reverse reactions take place. The reverse reactions are non-spontaneous
reactions. The battery is connected to an external D.C power supply. Electrical energy is converted in to
chemical energy.
Example: The reverse of the above reactions occur during charging.
Lithium Ion Battery
The battery in which lithium ions are used instead of lithium metal and movement of lithium ion through
electrolyte takes place from one electrode to another electrode. Such batteries are called lithium ion batteries.
Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)
Construction:
The anode: Li atoms inserted into Graphite carbon and a binder coated on a copper foil.
The cathode: lithium- metal oxide (Li-MO2), where M is commonly Co/Mn. binder and coated in an
Aluminium foil.
Electrolyte: A lithium salt such as LiPF6 dissolved in binary organic solvent mixture such as ethylene
carbonate-dimethyl carbonate.
Cell representation:
LixC6 | LiX, Polypropylene | Li(1 - x)CoO2
Working:
During discharging of battery.
At anode, Lithium atoms present in graphite layer (one Li atom is present for every 6 C atom) are oxidized,
liberating electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external circuit to cathode and lithium ions flow
through the organic electrolyte towards cathode.
At cathode, lithium ions are reduced to lithium atoms and are inserted in to the layered structure of metal
oxide.
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At Anode : Li x C 6  6C  xLi   xe 
At Cathode : Li (1 x) CoO 2  xLi   xe   LiCoO 2
Overall Reaction : Li (1 x) CoO 2  Li x C 6  LiCoO  6C
Uses: Cellular phones, Portable CD player, Note PC, DVC/DSC/DVD/Portable LCD TV etc. MD player,
Semiconductor-driven audio etc and portable electric vehicles.
Definition: A sodium-ion (Na-ion) battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions as charge
carriers. Na-ion batteries are similar in design and construction to Li-ion batteries, but they use sodium
compounds in place of lithium.
Construction and working of Sodium- ion battery:
Anode: Hard carbons or intercalation compounds.
Cathode: layered transition metal oxides (NaxMO2), where M = Cr, Co, Fe, Ni and Mn.
Electrolyte: Aqueous solution (such as Na2SO4 solution) /non-aqueous solution (e.g. salts in propylene
carbonate)
Separator: The electrodes are separated by some porous material which allow ionic flow between them and
are immersed in an electrolyte
Sodium-ion batteries contain sodium-based electrodes and (typically) liquid electrolytes with dissociated
sodium salts in solvents. When these batteries are charging, sodium ions travel from the cathode into the
anode, and the electrons travel through the external circuit.
Discharging reverses the process, with sodium ions traveling from the anode and reintegrating in the cathode,
while the electrons travel through the external circuit. The typical cell voltage of a sodium-ion battery is 2.3–
2.5V.
Na X C 6  Na1X MO 2  NaMO 2  C 6
Application: Mainly for large-scale electric storage applications.
Advantages:
• Na is inexpensive, more abundant than Li by 2-3 orders of magnitude. Therefore cost of production
of SIB is lower than Lithium ion battery.
• Processing of sodium is more environmentally benign than lithium.
• Sodium is less explosive and more safer than lithium.

Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs)

A semiconductor device which convert sunlight into direct current is called solar cell or PV cell.
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Sensors and Energy Systems (Module I) Department of Chemistry

APPLIED CHEMISTRY FOR CSE STREAM BCHES102/202

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic
material.
Construction of QDSSC- Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cell.

Working Electrode: Fluorinated Tin Oxide substrate is taken and coated with mesoporous wide band gap
semiconducting TiO2.
TiO2 is coated with quantum dots such as CdS by CBD method.
TiO2 act as electron conductors (or acceptors) and transport layers. CdS facilitates the charge separation.
Counter Electrode: A platinum and carbon based materials are coated on a brass substrate.
Counter electrode is acting as cathode and it transfers electrons from external circuit to electrolyte and
catalyze the reduction reaction of the oxidized electrolyte at the electrolyte/ counter electrode interface.
Electrolyte: Polysulfide is used as electrolyte ((S2-/Sx2-) It is a redox electrolyte or hole conductor.
Redox electrolyte significantly influence both stability and efficiency of QDSSC.
It is a medium which transfer charges between counter electrode and photo anode for the regeneration of
oxidized quantum dots.
Sensitizer: CdS is a sensitizer, it is a Quantum dot nano crystal made of semiconductor materials.
Working of QDSSC
• Upon light irradiation the photosensitizer is photo excited.
• The excited electron of QD are injected into the conduction band of TiO2.
• The electrons penetrate through nano crystalline TiO2 film to the back contact of the conducting
substrate and flow through an external circuit to the counter electrode.
• At the counter electrode the oxidized (S2-/Sx2- component of the redox couple in the electrolyte is
reduced.
The oxidized form of the sensitizer (QD) are finally regenerated by the reduced component of the redox
couple in the electrolyte.
Properties of QDs
• Quantum dots has narrow band gap.
• It exhibits tunable band gap.
• Strong light absorption and
• High multiple electron generation.
Application
1. QDSSC is mainly used to harness solar energy.
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Sensors and Energy Systems (Module I) Department of Chemistry