Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Elasticity: It is the property of the materials to regain their original shape and size after the
removal of applied forces.
Stress: When a force is applied on a body, a restoring force is
developed in the body. The restoring force per unit area is known as stress (T). This restoring
force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force. If F is the force applied
and A is the area of cross section of the body, then

T=F/A Unit is N/m2

Strain: The ratio of the change in dimension (d) to original dimension (D) is called strain.

Types of stresses and strains

1. (a) Longitudinal stress (Tensile stress, Linear stress):
It is the stretching force acting per unit area on solid long its length.
Consider a body in the form of wire having length L and
cross sectional area a. One end of which is fixed and a force (F)
is applied along the length at the other end as in figure. Then
stress is given by
Longitudinal stress = F / a
(b) Longitudinal strain (Tensile / linear):
When force applied to one end of the wire, it under goes
extension as shown in figure. The strain is given by
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 ℎ 𝒙
Longitudinal strain = =𝑳
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 ℎ

2. (a) Compressive stress (Volume stress):

It is force per unit area acting normally all over the body
uniformly.
When a force is applied normally and uniformly to the entire
surface of a body, it produces a volume strain. The applied force
per unit area is pressure (P). If F is the applied force uniformly and
normally on a surface of area a then the stress is given by
Compressive stress = F/a
(b) Compressive strain (volume strain):
If uniform force is applied all over the surface of a body then the
body undergoes a change in its volume. If V is the original volume
and v is the change in volume then strain is given by
Volume strain = v/V

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

3. (a) Shear stress (Tangential stress):

It is the force acting tangentially per unit area on the surface of a body. Consider a rectangular
solid cube whose lower face DCRS is fixed and a tangential force F is applied at the upper
end as shown in the diagram. Due the tangential force the layers of the cube which are parallel
to the applied force slide one over the other such that, the point A shifts to A’, B shifts to B, P
to P’ and Q to Q’. The ABCD and PQRS have turned by an angle θ. The body experiences a
turning effect and changes its shape. This is called shearing. This angle θ is called as shear
angle or shear strain. The force F is applied to the upper surface APQB having area a.
Shear stress = F/a
(b) Shear strain:
The deforming parameter in case of
shearing, the shearing angle itself is a measure
of the ratio of change in dimensions to original
dimensions.
In the figure the shearing angle θ can be written
as
𝑃𝑃′ 𝑥
𝜃= =
𝑃𝑆 𝐿

𝑥
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿

Hooke’s law:
“The stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit”
Stress α Strain
Stress = E strain
E= stress/strain Where E is elastic constant / elastic modulus
Stress – Strain diagram:
The stress versus strain plot for metallic wire or a rod is as shown in figure. OP is the
portion of linearity where stress is directly proportional to strain i.e the Hooke’s law is valid in
this region. But the body continues to exhibit perfect elastic property even upto point Q i.e in this
region P to Q Stress is not proportional to strain but the body still returns to its original
dimension when the load is removed, the point P is proportional limit and Q is called as yield
point or elastic limit.
If the load is increased further, the stress developed exceeds the yield strength and strain
increases rapidly. The portion of the curve between Q and X shows this. When the load is
removed, say at some point R, the body does not regain its original dimension. The material is
said to have a permanent set. The deformation is said to be plastic deformation. The point X on
the graph is the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Beyond this point, additional strain is

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

produced even by a reduced applied force and

fracture occurs at point S. If the ultimate strength
and fracture points X and S are close, the material
is said to be brittle. If they are far apart, the
material is said to be ductile. As stated earlier, the
stress-strain behavior varies from material to
material. For example, rubber can be pulled to
several times its original length and still returns to
its original shape, whereas it is different for the
metallic wire. The region between the point Q and
S is divided as strain hardening and strain
softening. Some materials become hard
undergoing strain and follow the curve QX. On
the other hand some materials become soft, these
processes are called as strain hardening and
softening.

Elastic body:
If a body is deformed under stress within elastic limit and if it returns to its original form without
any trace of deformation after removal of the stress then the body is called as perfectly elastic
body.
There are nobodies in nature which are perfectly elastic but one can manufacture the
more efficient elastic bodies by alloying the materials. For example 0.5% of phosphor is added to
bronze to increase its stiffness and wear resistance. Quartz (glass) is exposed to oxyhydrogen to
make it perfectly elastic. The high elastic nature materials are called as elastomers. For example
various kinds of polymers i.e, natural rubber, synthetic rubber, nitril rubber etc are elastomers.
These produce the strain several times than the original size and after releasing the stress, they
return to the original size. Technically steel considered more elastic than rubber because steel
returns quickly to its original form than compared to rubber.
Plastic body:
If a body is deformed under stress, the deformed shape and size remains in the body even after
removal of stress then the body is called as plastic body. Ex: Wax.
Plasticity begins where elasticity ends during the stretching. After the elastic limit (Point
Q) plastic range starts, brittle materials undergo fracture early, while ductile materials show
extended range in elastic limit. When a force is applied on a body the crystal planes slips inside
the material then the crystal gets shifted permanently. This deformation is irreversible and this
happens in the plastic range.
Plastic is classified in two types (1) Thermoplastic and (2) Thermosetting plastic.

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

(1) Thermoplastics are polymers composed of long chain molecules and deform elastically
by a combination of displacement of atoms and molecules. These can be melted and
recycled to use again. Ex: Nylon, polysterene, acrylic etc.
(2) Thermosetting plastics can be melted and molded only once. The manufacturing is
irreversible and can not be recycled. Attempt to melt them results in crack or degradation.
Ex: resins, bakelite, melamine etc.

Importance of elasticity in engineering applications

1. By knowing the elastic properties of the material one can exactly choose the material for
the designing instrument or machine.
2. In the construction of various structures like bridges, columns, pillars, beams, etc.
Knowledge of the strength of the materials used in the construction is of prime
importance
3. The stiffness of a structure is of principal importance in many engineering applications,
so the modulus of elasticity is often one of the primary properties considered when
selecting a material. A high modulus of elasticity is sought when bending is undesirable,
while a low modulus of elasticity is required when flexibility is needed.
4. Engineers consider the value of shear modulus when selecting materials for shafts, which
are rods that are subjected to twisting torques.

Effect of stress, temperature, annealing and impurity

Some of the elastic materials when subjected to continuous stress for longer duration it
undergoes slowly deformation and the material bends permanently this is called as creep. For
example, heavy object placed on shelf tends to creep. Further plastic deformation takes place by
slipping of crystallographic planes inside materials. It may lead to fracture in the material.
Effect of creep due to high temperature is an important factor in designing the boilers,
turbines, jet engines etc. At temperatures significantly higher than the room temperature, metals
no longer exhibit strain hardening. Increase in temperature generally decreases the elastic
property. Elastic properties of Invar steel are not much affected by any change in temperature.
Annealing is a type of heat treatment. Heat treatment is used to alter the physical and
mechanical properties of metals or alloys without changing its shape. Annealing is heating the
material and cooling slowly, by which the material gets strength, hardness and toughness. This
helps to improve elasticity and increase ductility.
Addition of impurities to metal results in either increase or decrease of elasticity. It
depends on the type of impurity added. If the impurity enables the movement of dislocation, it
causes cracks and thus reduces the strength. If impurity makes the crystal to hold tightly then it
improves the elastic property.

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Strain Hardening and Strain softening

Strain hardening: Certain materials become hard when
stress is given and released. i.e it is the process of making
a metal harder by plastic deformation.
Let a material be deformed beyond the yield point
(elastic limit). So that it is in the plastic range. Let it
unloaded gradually from some point R. It is curve of
unloading follows a path (dashed line) parallel to the
curve corresponding to loading (line OP). This curve
meets the strain axis at T when the unloading is complete.
But it shows a residual plastic strain OT = ε which
remains in the deformed material as permanent set. Now
once again let this deformed material be given stress and separate graph is plotted with origin O’.
This time surprisingly the linear curve does not end to corresponding point P but continues
further upto point U. This shows that a plastic deformed material gets higher elastic limit and
hence strength. This effect is called as strain-hardening.
Strain softening: For certain materials such as concrete or
soil, the stress-strain curve will be typically as shown in
the figure. The curve decreases soon after the elastic
region. Decrease in the curve indicates that there is
softening effect of the material over this range. This effect
is called strain softening.

Three elastic moduli

1. Young’s Modulus (Y):

The ratio of the longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain within the elastic limit is
called young’s modulus.
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

𝐹 𝑎 𝐹𝐿
𝑌= =
𝑥 𝐿 𝑎𝑥
SI Unit : N/m2
2. Bulk Modulus (K):
The ratio of compressive stress to the volume strain without change in the shape of the
body within elastic limit is bulk modulus.
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐾 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

3. Rigidity modulus (n):

The ratio of tangential stress to the shear strain is called rigidity modulus.
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Unit: N/m2

Longitudinal strain coefficient α:

The longitudinal strain produced per unit stress is called as longitudinal strain coefficient.

𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐿
𝛼= =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇
Where T is applied stress
𝑥
𝛼=
𝐿𝑇
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 = 𝛼𝐿𝑇

Lateral strain coefficient β:

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

The lateral strain produced per unit stress is called lateral strain coefficient β.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑 𝐷
𝛽= =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇

𝑑
𝛽=
𝐷𝑇
Poisson’s ratio (σ):
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑑 𝐷
𝜎= =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝐿

𝐿𝑑
𝜎=
𝑥𝐷
There is no unit for Poisson’s ratio.
Additionally

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Relation between Shearing strain, longitudinal strain and compression strain:

Consider a cube in which DS is fixed and tangential stress is applied to its upper face
along AP, so that A moves to A’ and P to P’. Let θ be the shear angle. Now the diagonal AS of
cube is compressed to A’S and PD is stretched to a length P’D.
Let PX is drawn perpendicular to P’D and A’Y perpendicular to AS
then DP= DX and A’S = YS
here P’X is the extension in original length PD
AY is compression in an original length AS

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Relation between Y, n and σ

Consider a cube in which DS is fixed and tangential stress is applied to its upper face
along AP, so that A moves to A’ and P to P’. Let θ be the shear angle. Now the diagonal AS of
cube is compressed to A’S and PD is stretched to a length P’D. (Note: draw & refer earlier
diagram i.e rectangle APSD)
Let PX is drawn perpendicular to P’D and A’Y perpendicular to AS
then DP= DX and A’S = YS
Extension produced = T•DP•α = Caused because of longitudinal strain
= T•DP•β = Caused because of lateral strain
Total extension = T•DP•α + T•DP•β

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Relation between K, Y and σ

Let cube of unit length, breadth and height, let Tx, Ty and Tz are stresses acting along X, Y and
Z axes respectively.

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Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Bending of Beams
A body of uniform cross section whose length is large compared to its other dimensions is called
a beam.
Different types of beams and their engineering applications
1. Simple beam: It is a bar resting upon supports at its ends and it is the kind most
commonly in use.
2. Continuous beam: It is a bar resting upon more than two supports.
3. Cantiliver beam: It is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.
4. Fixed beam: A beam fixed at its both ends is called a fixed beam.

Applications:
Beams are used
1. In the construction of buildings, bridges and plaforms.
2. In the fabrication of trolley ways.
3. In the chassis/frame of vehicles
4. In the elevators. Etc

Neutral surface / plane and neutral axis:

The beam is made up of many parallel layers (filaments) arranged closely to each other. For
representation let us consider the planes AB, CD and EF. If a beam is loaded then successive
layers will bend that is all the layers undergo strain as shown in the figure. A filament like AB of

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

an upper layer will be elongated to A’B’ and all the lower layers like EF will be contracted to
E’F’. But there will always be a particular layer which will not change their length i.e layer CD.
Such layers are called as neutral surface (plane) and the line along the filament is called neutral
axis.
Neutral Surface (Neutral plane) is that layer of uniform beam which does not undergo
anychange in its dimensions when the beam is subjected to bending within elastic limit.
Neutral axis is a longitudinal line along which neutral surface exists.

Bending Moment of Beam

Let the beam is made up of a number of parallel layers such as AB, CD and EF as shown
in figure. When load is attached all the layers above neutral plane CD will be elongated i.e A’B’
and layers below neutral plane will be contracted i.e E’F’. The neutral axis CD does not change.
Let R be the radius of circle so that
By trigonometry CD = Rθ

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 Engineering Physics Module – II : Elastic properties of materials:

Formulae:

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 Cantilever
A cantilever is a structural element that protrudes horizontally from a support (usually a wall
or column) without any additional support on its free end. It is essentially a beam anchored at
one end and free at the other. Cantilevers are commonly used in various engineering and
architectural applications, including bridges, buildings, and even diving boards.

Key features of a cantilever

 Supported only at one end.
 Experiences bending and shear forces.
 The unsupported end is known as the "free end."
 Cantilevers are used to create overhangs, balconies, and extensions in buildings, as well as
in bridges where the main span is supported by cantilevered arms.

Applications

 Bridges: Cantilever bridges are a type of bridge that uses cantilevered arms to support the
bridge deck.
 Diving Boards: Diving boards are a classic example of cantilevered structures. They
allow individuals to jump into swimming pools with a spring-like effect.
 Shelving Systems: Wall-mounted cantilevered shelves are a space-saving solution for
storage in homes, offices, and retail spaces. They provide a visually pleasing and
functional way to display items while maximizing floor space.
 Cantilevered Staircases: In modern architecture, cantilevered staircases are often used to
create visually stunning and open interior spaces. These staircases appear to float in mid-
air, adding a sense of elegance and sophistication to buildings.
 Cantilevered Balconies: Cantilevered balconies extend from the side of a building,
providing outdoor space for residents or offering panoramic views. They are common in
urban apartment buildings and modern architectural designs.
 Cantilevered Signage: In commercial and retail settings, cantilevered signs and billboards
are often used to display advertisements or directional information.
 Cantilevered Walkways: In parks, gardens, or even industrial facilities, cantilevered
walkways are used to provide elevated pathways over uneven terrain or bodies of water.
These walkways offer both functionality and aesthetic appeal.
 I-Girder
An I-girder, also known as an I-beam or a W-beam, is a type of structural steel or reinforced
concrete beam that is shaped like the letter "I" when viewed in cross-section. It consists of a
horizontal top flange, a vertical web, and a horizontal bottom flange as shown in figure. I-
girders are commonly used in bridge construction, building frames, and other applications
where long-span structural support is required.

Key features of an I-girder

 The "I" shape provides excellent strength-to-weight ratio.
 The top and bottom flanges resist bending forces, while the vertical web resists shear
forces.
 I-girders are versatile and can be used in various configurations to support different types
of loads.
 They are often used in pairs or as part of a larger framework.
 Architectural Overhangs: Cantilevers are frequently used in architecture to create
overhangs in buildings. These overhangs provide shading, protect against weather
elements, and add aesthetic appeal to the structure. Examples include balconies, awnings,
and cantilevered roofs.

Applications

 Bridge Construction: I-girders are a common choice for bridge construction. They are
used to support bridge decks and span various distances, from small overpasses to large
highway and railway bridges. The girders are often placed side by side to form the bridge's
superstructure.
 Industrial Structures: In industrial facilities, I-girders are employed to create strong and
durable support structures for heavy equipment, overhead cranes, conveyor systems, and
mezzanines. Their load-bearing capacity makes them ideal for such applications.
 Highway Guardrails: In highway construction, I-girders are used as the horizontal
components of guardrail systems. They help absorb the impact of vehicles, preventing
them from veering off the road and enhancing safety.
 Pile Caps: I-girders are used to create pile caps in deep foundation systems, such as those
used in the construction of bridges and large buildings. These caps distribute the load from
bridge piers or building columns to the foundation piles.
 Transmission Towers: I-girders are used in the construction of transmission towers for
power lines. They form the main support structures that hold power lines at a suitable
height, ensuring the safe and efficient transmission of electricity.
 Crane Runways: I-girders serve as the supporting structures for overhead cranes. They
are installed horizontally and provide a stable track for the movement of cranes within
industrial facilities, shipyards, and construction sites.
 Railroad Tracks: In railway construction, I-girders are used as railroad ties or sleepers,
providing support for railway tracks. They are essential for maintaining track stability and
ensuring the safe passage of trains.
 Mining Operations: In mining applications, I-girders are used for various purposes,
including as support beams in underground mines and as structural components in mining
equipment.

Different Elastic Materials

Elastic materials are those that can undergo deformation under the application of an external
force but return to their original shape and size once the force is removed. Some common
elastic materials include:

1. Rubber: Natural and synthetic rubber materials are highly elastic and can stretch
significantly when subjected to an applied force. They are widely used in applications like
tires, seals, and elastic bands.
2. Steel: Steel is known for its high elasticity and strength. It is commonly used in structural
applications where both strength and elasticity are essential.
3. Silicone: Silicone materials exhibit excellent elasticity and flexibility. They are often used
in medical devices, kitchenware, and various sealing applications.
4. Elastomers: Elastomers are a class of polymers known for their exceptional elasticity.
Materials like polyurethane and neoprene fall into this category and are used in a wide
range of applications, including gaskets, seals, and industrial belts.
5. Foam: Foam materials, such as polyurethane foam, exhibit elastic behavior and are used
in cushioning, insulation, and packaging applications.

Fundamentals of Fracture
Fracture in materials refers to the process by which a material breaks or fails when subjected
to an applied load or stress. There are two primary modes of fracture:

Ductile Fracture: Ductile fracture is characterized by significant plastic deformation before

failure. When a ductile material is subjected to increasing stress, it undergoes plastic
deformation, which means it can permanently change shape. Necking is a common
characteristic of ductile fracture, where the material narrows significantly before final
rupture. Ductile fracture often provides warning signs, such as visible deformation, before
complete failure occurs. This characteristic makes it a more desirable mode of fracture in
many engineering applications because it allows for the redistribution of stresses and
provides some safety margin.

Brittle Fracture: Brittle fracture, in contrast, occurs with little or no plastic deformation.
Brittle materials fail suddenly and without significant warning. There is minimal energy
absorption before fracture, and the failure surface is generally smooth. Brittle fracture is often
characterized by the propagation of cracks through the material. Materials like glass and
ceramics are prone to brittle fracture. It is generally less desirable in engineering applications
where safety and predictability are critical.

Stress Concentration and Concentration Factor

Stress concentration occurs in a material when there is an abrupt change in the shape or
geometry of a component, leading to an increase in stress at that point. The concentration
factor (Kt) is a dimensionless parameter that quantifies the increase in stress due to stress
concentration. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress at the point of interest (usually
a notch or crack) to the nominal stress in the material when no stress concentration is present.

The concentration factor (Kt) is calculated using the following formula:

Kt = σm / σn

Where σm s the maximum stress at the point of interest, and σn is the nominal stress in the
material without any stress concentration

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue in materials refers to the process of damage accumulation and eventual failure under
repeated or cyclic loading, even when the applied stress levels are below the material's yield
or ultimate strength. Fatigue is particularly relevant in engineering and design, as it can lead
to catastrophic failures in structures and components over time. Factors affecting fatigue can
be broadly categorized into surface effects, design effects, and environmental effects.

Surface Effects
 Surface Finish: The surface finish of a material significantly impacts its fatigue life.
Rough surfaces or surface imperfections can act as stress concentrators, leading to
localized stress concentrations and crack initiation. Smoother surfaces with reduced
defects can help mitigate fatigue.
 Residual Stress: Residual stresses, which exist within a material due to manufacturing
processes like welding or heat treatment, can affect fatigue life. These stresses can interact
with applied cyclic stresses and promote crack initiation and growth.

Design Effects
 Stress Concentrations: Geometric features like sharp corners, notches, holes, and
changes in cross-section can create stress concentrations. These regions experience higher
 stress levels during cyclic loading, making them prone to fatigue initiation. Engineers
should design components to minimize stress concentration factors.
 Load Spectrum: The magnitude, frequency, and variation of applied loads have a
significant impact on fatigue life. Higher stress amplitudes and more frequent cycling can
accelerate fatigue damage. Designing components to withstand expected loading
conditions is essential.
 Material Selection: The choice of material can affect fatigue resistance. Different
materials have varying fatigue properties, including endurance limits and fatigue strength.
Engineers must select materials suitable for the specific application's cyclic loading
requirements.
 Component Geometry: The overall geometry of a component, including its shape and
size, can influence fatigue behavior. Designing components with proper fillets, radii, and
gradual transitions can reduce stress concentrations and improve fatigue life.
 Surface Treatments: Some surface treatments, such as shot peening or carburizing, can
enhance the fatigue resistance of materials by introducing compressive residual stresses
and modifying the material's microstructure.

Environmental Effects
 Corrosion: Exposure to corrosive environments can significantly reduce fatigue life.
Corrosion can weaken a material and create crack initiation sites. Protective coatings,
corrosion-resistant materials, or environmental control measures can mitigate this effect.
 Temperature: Temperature fluctuations can influence material properties, including its
fatigue behavior. Thermal cycling can lead to differential expansion and contraction,
potentially promoting crack formation. High-temperature environments may also affect
the fatigue resistance of materials.
 Chemical Exposure: Exposure to certain chemicals can affect material properties and
promote corrosion or degradation. Understanding the chemical environment is crucial in
assessing fatigue life.
 Humidity: Moisture in the environment can lead to stress corrosion cracking, particularly
in certain alloys. Controlling humidity levels or selecting materials resistant to this effect
is important.