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legicor554SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
MODULE - 1
INTRODUCTION AND ASSEMBLERS
1.1 Introduction:
The Software is set of instructions or programs written to carry out certain task on
digital computers. It is classified into system software and application software. System
software consists of a variety of programs that support the operation of a computer. Application
software focuses on an application or problem to be solved. System software consists of a
variety of programs that support the operation of a computer.
Examples for system software are Operating system, compiler, assembler, macro
processor, loader or linker, debugger, text editor, database management systems (some of
them) and, software engineering tools. These software’s make it possible for the user to focus
on an application or other problem to be solved, without needing to know the details of how
the machine works internally.
1.2 System Software and Machine Architecture:
One characteristic in which most system software differs from application software is machine
dependency.
System software supports operation and use of computer. Application software
provides solution to a problem. Assembler translates mnemonic instructions into machine
code. The instruction formats, addressing modes etc., are of direct concern in assembler design.
Similarly,
Compilers must generate machine language code, taking into account such hardware
characteristics as the number and type of registers and the machine instructions available.
Operating systems are directly concerned with the management of nearly all of the resources
of a computing system.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
There are aspects of system software that do not directly depend upon the type of
computing system, general design and logic of an assembler, general design and logic of a
compiler and code optimization techniques, which are independent of target machines.
Likewise, the process of linking together independently assembled subprograms does not
usually depend on the computer being used.
1.3 The Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC):
Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC) is a hypothetical computer that includes the
hardware features most often found on real machines. There are two versions of SIC, they are,
standard model (SIC), and, extension version (SIC/XE) (extra equipment or extra expensive).
1.3.1 SIC Machine Architecture:
We discuss here the SIC machine architecture with respect to its Memory and
Registers, Data Formats, Instruction Formats, Addressing Modes, Instruction Set, Input and
Output
• Memory:
There are 215 bytes in the computer memory, that is 32,768 bytes. It uses Little Endian
format to store the numbers, 3 consecutive bytes form a word , each location in memory
contains 8-bit bytes.
• Registers:
There are five registers, each 24 bits in length. Their mnemonic, number and use are
given in the following table.
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Mnemonic Number Use
A 0 Accumulator; used for arithmetic operations
X 1 Index register; used for addressing
L 2 Linkage register; JSUB
PC 8 Program counter
SW 9 Status word, including CC
• Data Formats:
Integers are stored as 24-bit binary numbers. 2’s complement representation is used for
negative values, characters are stored using their 8-bit ASCII codes.No floating-point hardware
on the standard version of SIC.
• Instruction Formats:
Opcode(8) x Address (15)
All machine instructions on the standard version of SIC have the 24-bit format as
shown above
• Addressing Modes:
Mode Indication Target address calculation
Direct x=0 TA = address
Indexed x=1 TA = address + (x)
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There are two addressing modes available, which are as shown in the above table.
Parentheses are used to indicate the contents of a register or a memory location.
• Instruction Set :
1. SIC provides, load and store instructions (LDA, LDX, STA, STX, etc.). Integer
arithmetic operations: (ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, etc.).
2. All arithmetic operations involve register A and a word in memory, with the result
being left in the register. Two instructions are provided for subroutine linkage.
3. COMP compares the value in register A with a word in memory, this instruction sets a
condition code CC to indicate the result. There are conditional jump instructions: (JLT,
JEQ, JGT), these instructions test the setting of CC and jump accordingly.
4. JSUB jumps to the subroutine placing the return address in register L, RSUB returns
by jumping to the address contained in register L.
• Input and Output:
Input and Output are performed by transferring 1 byte at a time to or from the rightmost
8 bits of register A (accumulator). The Test Device (TD) instruction tests whether the
addressed device is ready to send or receive a byte of data. Read Data (RD), Write Data (WD)
are used for reading or writing the data.
• Data movement and Storage Definition
LDA, STA, LDL, STL, LDX, STX ( A- Accumulator, L – Linkage Register, X–
Index Register), all uses3-byte word. LDCH, STCH associated with characters uses 1-byte.
There are no memory-memory move instructions.
Storage definitions are
• WORD - ONE-WORD CONSTANT
• RESW - ONE-WORD VARIABLE
• BYTE - ONE-BYTE CONSTANT
• RESB - ONE-BYTE VARIABLE
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1.3.2Example Programs (SIC):
Example 1: Simple data and
character movement operation
LDA FIVE
STA ALPHA
LDCH CHARZ
STCH C1
ALPHA RESW 1
FIVE WORD 5
CHARZ BYTE C’Z’
C1 RESB 1
Example 2: Arithmetic operations
LDA ALPHA
ADD INCR
SUB ONE
STA BETA
……..
……..
……..
ONE WORD 1
ALPHA RESW 1
BEETA RESW 1
INCR RESW 1
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Example 3: Looping and Indexing operation
LDXZERO ; X=0
MOVECH LDCH STR1, X ; LOAD A FROM STR1
STCH STR2, X ; STORE A TO STR2
TIX ELEVEN ; ADD 1 TO X, TEST
JLT MOVECH
STR1 BYTE C ‘HELLO WORLD’
STR2 RESB 11
ZERO WORD 0
ELEVEN WORD 11
Example 4: Input and Output operation
INLOOP TD INDEV : TEST INPUT DEVICE
JEQ INLOOP : LOOP UNTIL DEVICE IS READY
RD INDEV : READ ONE BYTE INTO A
STCH DATA : STORE A TO DATA
OUTLP TD OUTDEV : TEST OUTPUT DEVICE
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JEQ OUTLP : LOOP UNTIL DEVICE IS READY
LDCH DATA : LOAD DATA INTO A
WD OUTDEV : WRITE A TO OUTPUT DEVICE
INDEV BYTE X ‘F5’ : INPUT DEVICE NUMBER
OUTDEV BYTE X ‘08’ : OUTPUT DEVICE NUMBER
DATA RESB 1: ONE-BYTE VARIABLE
Example 5: To transfer two hundred bytes of data from input device to memory
LDX ZERO
CLOOP TD INDEV
JEQ CLOOP
RD INDEV
STCH RECORD, X
TIX B200
JLT CLOOP
INDEV BYTE X ‘F5’
RECORD RESB 200
ZERO WORD 0
B200 WORD 200
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1.3.3SIC/XE Machine Architecture:
• Memory
Maximum memory available on a SIC/XE system is 1 Megabyte (220 bytes).
• Registers
Additional B, S, T, and F registers are provided by SIC/XE, in addition to the
registers of SIC.
Mnemonic Number Special use
B 3 Base register
S 4 General working register
T 5 General working register
F 6 Floating-point accumulator (48 bits)
• Floating-point data type:
(e-1024)
There is a 48-bit floating-point data type, F*2
1 11 36
s exponent fraction
• Instruction Formats:
The new set of instruction formats fro SIC/XE machine architecture are as follows.
• Format 1 (1 byte): contains only operation code (straight from table).
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• Format 2 (2 bytes): first eight bits for operation code, next four for register 1 and
following four for register 2. The numbers for the registers go according to the numbers
indicated at the registers section (ie, register T is replaced by hex 5, F is replaced by
hex 6).
• Format 3 (3 bytes): First 6 bits contain operation code, next 6 bits contain flags, last 12
bits contain displacement for the address of the operand. Operation code uses only 6
bits, thus the second hex digit will be affected by the values of the first two flags (n and
i). The flags, in order, are: n, i, x, b, p, and e. Its functionality is explained in the next
section. The last flag e indicates the instruction format (0 for 3 and 1 for 4).
• Format 4 (4 bytes): same as format 3 with an extra 2 hex digits (8 bits) for addresses
that require more than 12 bits to be represented.
Format 1 (1 byte)
op
Format 2 (2 bytes)
8 4 4
op r1 r2
Formats 1 and 2 are instructions do not reference memory at all
Format 3 (3 bytes)
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 12
op n i x b p e disp
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Format 4 (4 bytes)
6 1 1 1 1 1 1 20
op n i x b p e address
• Addressing modes & Flag Bits
Five possible addressing modes plus the combinations are as follows.
1. Direct (x, b, and p all set to 0): operand address goes as it is. n and i are both set to the
same value, either 0 or 1. While in general that value is 1, if set to 0 for format 3 we
can assume that the rest of the flags (x, b, p, and e) are used as a part of the address of
the operand, to make the format compatible to the SIC format.
2. Relative (either b or p equal to 1 and the other one to 0): the address of the operand
should be added to the current value stored at the B register (if b = 1) or to the value
stored at the PC register (if p = 1)
3. Immediate(i = 1, n = 0): The operand value is already enclosed on the instruction (ie.
lies on the last 12/20 bits of the instruction)
4. Indirect(i = 0, n = 1): The operand value points to an address that holds the address
for the operand value.
5. Indexed (x = 1): value to be added to the value stored at the register x to obtain real
address of the operand. This can be combined with any of the previous modes except
immediate.
The various flag bits used in the above formats have the following meanings
e - > e = 0 means format 3, e = 1 means format 4
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Bits x,b,p : Used to calculate the target address using relative, direct, and indexed addressing
Modes.
Bits i and n: Says, how to use the target address
b and p - both set to 0, disp field from format 3 instruction is taken to be the target address.
For a format 4 bits b and p are normally set to 0, 20 bit address is the target address
x - x is set to 1, X register value is added for target address calculation
i=1, n=0 Immediate addressing, TA: TA is used as the operand value, no memory reference
i=0, n=1 Indirect addressing, ((TA)): The word at the TA is fetched. Value of TA is taken as
the address of the operand value
i=0, n=0 or i=1, n=1 Simple addressing, (TA):TA is taken as the address of the operand value
Two new relative addressing modes are available for use with instructions assembled using
format 3.
Mode Indication Target address calculation
TA=(B)+ disp
Base relative b=1,p=0
(0disp 4095)
Program-counter TA=(PC)+ disp
b=0,p=1
relative (-2048disp 2047)
• Instruction Set:
SIC/XE provides all of the instructions that are available on the standard version. In
addition we have, Instructions to load and store the new registers LDB, STB, etc, Floating-
point arithmetic operations, ADDF, SUBF, MULF, DIVF, Register move instruction : RMO,
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Register-to-register arithmetic operations, ADDR, SUBR, MULR, DIVR and, Supervisor call
instruction : SVC.
• Input and Output:
There are I/O channels that can be used to perform input and output while the CPU is
executing other instructions. Allows overlap of computing and I/O, resulting in more efficient
system operation. The instructions SIO, TIO, and HIO are used to start, test and halt the
operation of I/O channels.
Example Programs (SIC/XE)
Example 1: Simple data and character movement operation
LDA #5
STA ALPHA
LDA #90
STCH C1
ALPHA RESW 1
C1 RESB 1
Example 2: Arithmetic operations
LDS INCR
LDA ALPHA
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ADD S,A
SUB #1
STA BETA
………….
…………..
ALPHA RESW 1
BETA RESW 1
INCR RESW 1
Example 3: Looping and Indexing operation
LDT #11
LDX#0 : X=0
MOVECH LDCH STR1, X : LOAD A FROM STR1
STCH STR2, X : STORE A TO STR2
TIXR T : ADD 1 TO X, TEST (T)
JLT MOVECH Go
……….
……….
………
STR1 BYTE C ‘HELLO WORLD’
STR2 RESB 11
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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. Bring out the differences b/w System software and Application software.( 5)
2. Give the SIC machine architecture with all options? (10)
3. Suppose alpha is an array of 100 words. Write a sequence of instructions for SIC\XE
to set all 100 elements to 0. (6)
4. Write a sequence of instructions for SIC to clear a 20 byte string to all blanks.(6)
5. Give the machine architecture of SIC/XE? (10)
6. With an example, explain simple I/O operation of SIC/XE? (5)
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2.1 Basic Assembler Functions:
The basic assembler functions are:
• Translating mnemonic language code to its equivalent object code.
• Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels.
SOURCE ASSEMBLER OBJECT CODE
PROGRAM
• The design of assembler can be to perform the following:
– Scanning (tokenizing)
– Parsing (validating the instructions)
– Creating the symbol table
– Resolving the forward references
– Converting into the machine language
• SIC Assembler Directive:
– START: Specify name & starting address.
– END: End of the program, specify the first execution instruction.
– BYTE, WORD, RESB, RESW
– End of record: a null char(00)
End of file: a zero length record
• The design of assembler in other words:
– Convert mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalents
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
– Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses
– Decide the proper instruction format Convert the data constants to internal machine
representations
– Write the object program and the assembly listing
So for the design of the assembler we need to concentrate on the machine architecture of the
SIC/XE machine. We need to identify the algorithms and the various data structures to be used.
According to the above required steps for assembling the assembler also has to handle
assembler directives, these do not generate the object code but directs the assembler to perform
certain operation. These directives are:
The assembler design can be done:
• Single pass assembler
• Multi-pass assembler
Single-pass Assembler:
In this case the whole process of scanning, parsing, and object code conversion is done
in single pass. The only problem with this method is resolving forward reference. This is shown
with an example below:
10 1000 FIRST STL RETADR 141033
--
--
--
--
95 1033 RETADR RESW 1
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In the above example in line number 10 the instruction STL will store the linkage register
with the contents of RETADR. But during the processing of this instruction the value of this
symbol is not known as it is defined at the line number 95. Since I single-pass assembler the
scanning, parsing and object code conversion happens simultaneously. The instruction is
fetched; it is scanned for tokens, parsed for syntax and semantic validity. If it valid then it has
to be converted to its equivalent object code. For this the object code is generated for the
opcode STL and the value for the symbol RETADR need to be added, which is not available.
Due to this reason usually the design is done in two passes. So a multi-pass assembler
resolves the forward references and then converts into the object code. Hence the process of
the multi-pass assembler can be as follows:
Pass-1
• Assign addresses to all the statements
• Save the addresses assigned to all labels to be used in Pass-2
• Perform some processing of assembler directives such as RESW, RESB to find the
length of data areas for assigning the address values.
• Defines the symbols in the symbol table(generate the symbol table)
Pass-2
• Assemble the instructions (translating operation codes and looking up addresses).
• Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD etc.
• Perform the processing of the assembler directives not done during pass-1.
• Write the object program and assembler listing.
Assembler Design:
The most important things which need to be concentrated is the generation of Symbol
table and resolving forward references.
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• Symbol Table:
– This is created during pass 1
– All the labels of the instructions are symbols
– Table has entry for symbol name, address value.
• Forward reference:
– Symbols that are defined in the later part of the program are called forward
referencing.
– There will not be any address value for such symbols in the symbol table in pass
1.
Example Program:
The example program considered here has a main module, two subroutines
• Purpose of example program
- Reads records from input device (code F1)
- Copies them to output device (code 05)
- At the end of the file, writes EOF on the output device, then RSUB to the
operating system
• Data transfer (RD, WD)
-A buffer is used to store record
-Buffering is necessary for different I/O rates
-The end of each record is marked with a null character (00)16
-The end of the file is indicated by a zero-length record
• Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)
-RDREC, WRREC
-Save link register first before nested jump
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The first column shows the line number for that instruction, second column shows the
addresses allocated to each instruction. The third column indicates the labels given to the
statement, and is followed by the instruction consisting of opcode and operand. The last
column gives the equivalent object code.
The object code later will be loaded into memory for execution. The simple object
program we use contains three types of records:
• Header record
- Col. 1 H
- Col. 2~7 Program name
- Col. 8~13 Starting address of object program (hex)
- Col. 14~19 Length of object program in bytes (hex)
• Text record
- Col. 1 T
- Col. 2~7 Starting address for object code in this record (hex)
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- Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex)
- Col. 10~69 Object code, represented in hex (2 col. per byte)
• End record
- Col.1 E
- Col.2~7 Address of first executable instruction in object program (hex) “^” is only for
separation only
2.1.1 Simple SIC Assembler
The program below is shown with the object code generated. The column named LOC gives
the machine addresses of each part of the assembled program (assuming the program is starting
at location 1000). The translation of the source program to the object program requires us to
accomplish the following functions:
1. Convert the mnemonic operation codes to their machine language equivalent.
2. Convert symbolic operands to their equivalent machine addresses.
3. Build the machine instructions in the proper format.
4. Convert the data constants specified in the source program into their internal
machine representations in the proper format.
5. Write the object program and assembly listing.
All these steps except the second can be performed by sequential processing of the source
program, one line at a time. Consider the instruction
10 1000 LDA ALPHA 00-----
This instruction contains the forward reference, i.e. the symbol ALPHA is used is not
yet defined. If the program is processed ( scanning and parsing and object code conversion) is
done line-by-line, we will be unable to resolve the address of this symbol. Due to this problem
most of the assemblers are designed to process the program in two passes.
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In addition to the translation to object program, the assembler has to take care of
handling assembler directive. These directives do not have object conversion but gives
direction to the assembler to perform some function. Examples of directives are the statements
like BYTE and WORD, which directs the assembler to reserve memory locations without
generating data values. The other directives are START which indicates the beginning of the
program and END indicating the end of the program.
The assembled program will be loaded into memory for execution. The simple object
program contains three types of records: Header record, Text record and end record. The header
record contains the starting address and length. Text record contains the translated instructions
and data of the program, together with an indication of the addresses where these are to be
loaded. The end record marks the end of the object program and specifies the address where
the execution is to begin.
The format of each record is as given below.
Header record:
Col 1 H
Col. 2-7 Program name
Col 8-13 Starting address of object program (hexadecimal)
Col 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (hexadecimal)
Text record:
Col. 1 T
Col 2-7. Starting address for object code in this record (hexadecimal)
Col 8-9 Length off object code in this record in bytes (hexadecimal)
Col 10-69 Object code, represented in hexadecimal (2 columns per byte of
object code)
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End record:
Col. 1 E
Col 2-7 Address of first executable instruction in object program
(hexadecimal)
The assembler can be designed either as a single pass assembler or as a two pass
assembler. The general description of both passes is as given below:
• Pass 1 (define symbols)
– Assign addresses to all statements in the program
– Save the addresses assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2
– Perform assembler directives, including those for address assignment, such as
BYTE and RESW
• Pass 2 (assemble instructions and generate object program)
– Assemble instructions (generate opcode and look up addresses)
– Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD
– Perform processing of assembler directives not done during Pass 1
– Write the object program and the assemblylisting
2.1.2. Algorithms and Data structure
The simple assembler uses two major internal data structures: the operation Code
Table (OPTAB) and the Symbol Table (SYMTAB).
OPTAB:
• It is used to lookup mnemonic operation codes and translates them to their machine
language equivalents. In more complex assemblers the table also contains information
about instruction format and length.
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• In pass 1 the OPTAB is used to look up and validate the operation code in the source
program. In pass 2, it is used to translate the operation codes to machine language. In
simple SIC machine this process can be performed in either in pass 1 or in pass 2. But
for machine like SIC/XE that has instructions of different lengths, we must search
OPTAB in the first pass to find the instruction length for incrementing
LOCCTR.
• In pass 2 we take the information from OPTAB to tell us which instruction format to
use in assembling the instruction, and any peculiarities of the object code instruction.
• OPTAB is usually organized as a hash table, with mnemonic operation code as the
key. The hash table organization is particularly appropriate, since it provides fast
retrieval with a minimum of searching. Most of the cases the OPTAB is a static table-
that is, entries are not normally added to or deleted from it. In such cases it is possible
to design a special hashing function or other data structure to give optimum
performance for the particular set of keys being stored.
SYMTAB:
• This table includes the name and value for each label in the source program, together
with flags to indicate the error conditions (e.g., if a symbol is defined in two different
places).
• During Pass 1: labels are entered into the symbol table along with their assigned address
value as they are encountered. All the symbols address value should get resolved at the
pass 1.
• During Pass 2: Symbols used as operands are looked up the symbol table to obtain the
address value to be inserted in the assembled instructions.
• SYMTAB is usually organized as a hash table for efficiency of insertion and retrieval.
Since entries are rarely deleted, efficiency of deletion is the important criteria for
optimization.
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• Both pass 1 and pass 2 require reading the source program. Apart from this an
intermediate file is created by pass 1 that contains each source statement together with
its assigned address, error indicators, etc. This file is one of the inputs to the pass 2.
• A copy of the source program is also an input to the pass 2, which is used to retain the
operations that may be performed during pass 1 (such as scanning the operation field
for symbols and addressing flags), so that these need not be performed during pass 2.
Similarly, pointers into OPTAB and SYMTAB is retained for each operation code and
symbol used. This avoids need to repeat many of the table-searching operations.
LOCCTR:
Apart from the SYMTAB and OPTAB, this is another important variable which helps in the
assignment of the addresses. LOCCTR is initialized to the beginning address mentioned in the
START statement of the program. After each statement is processed, the length of the
assembled instruction is added to the LOCCTR to make it point to the next instruction.
Whenever a label is encountered in an instruction the LOCCTR value gives the address to be
associated with that label.
The Algorithm for Pass 1:
Begin
read first input line
if OPCODE = ‘START’ then begin
save #[Operand] as starting addr
initialize LOCCTR to starting address
write line to intermediate file
read next line
end( if START)
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else
initialize LOCCTR to 0
While OPCODE != ‘END’ do
begin
if this is not a comment line then
begin
if there is a symbol in the LABEL field then
begin
search SYMTAB for LABEL
if found then
set error flag (duplicate symbol)
else
(if symbol)
search OPTAB for OPCODE
if found then
add 3 (instr length) to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = ‘WORD’ then
add 3 to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = ‘RESW’ then
add 3 * #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = ‘RESB’ then
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add #[OPERAND] to LOCCTR
else if OPCODE = ‘BYTE’ then
begin
find length of constant in bytes
add length to LOCCTR
end
else
set error flag (invalid operation code)
end (if not a comment)
write line to intermediate file
read next input line
end { while not END}
write last line to intermediate file
Save (LOCCTR – starting address) as program length
End {pass 1}
• The algorithm scans the first statement START and saves the operand field (the
address) as the starting address of the program. Initializes the LOCCTR value to this
address. This line is written to the intermediate line.
• If no operand is mentioned the LOCCTR is initialized to zero. If a label is encountered,
the symbol has to be entered in the symbol table along with its associated address value.
• If the symbol already exists that indicates an entry of the same symbol already exists.
So an error flag is set indicating a duplication of the symbol.
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• It next checks for the mnemonic code, it searches for this code in the OPTAB. If found
then the length of the instruction is added to the LOCCTR to make it point to the next
instruction.
• If the opcode is the directive WORD it adds a value 3 to the LOCCTR. If it is RESW,
it needs to add the number of data word to the LOCCTR. If it is BYTE it adds a value
one to the LOCCTR, if RESB it adds number of bytes.
• If it is END directive then it is the end of the program it finds the length of the program
by evaluating current LOCCTR – the starting address mentioned in the operand field
of the END directive. Each processed line is written to the intermediate file.
The Algorithm for Pass 2:
Begin
read 1st input line
if OPCODE = ‘START’ then
begin
write listing line
read next input line
end
write Header record to object program
initialize 1st Text record
while OPCODE != ‘END’ do
begin
if this is not comment line then
begin
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search OPTAB for OPCODE
if found then
begin
if there is a symbol in OPERAND field then
begin
search SYMTAB for OPERAND field then
if found then
begin
store symbol value as operand address
else
begin
store 0 as operand address
set error flag (undefined symbol)
end
end (if symbol)
else store 0 as operand address
assemble the object code instruction
else if OPCODE = ‘BYTE’ or ‘WORD” then
convert constant to object code
if object code doesn’t fit into current Text record then
begin
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Write text record to object code
initialize new Text record
end
add object code to Text record
end {if not comment}
write listing line
read next input line
end
write listing line
read next input line
write last listing line
End {Pass 2}
Here the first input line is read from the intermediate file. If the opcode is START, then this
line is directly written to the list file. A header record is written in the object program which
gives the starting address and the length of the program (which is calculated during pass 1).
Then the first text record is initialized. Comment lines are ignored. In the instruction, for the
opcode the OPTAB is searched to find the object code.
If a symbol is there in the operand field, the symbol table is searched to get the address
value for this which gets added to the object code of the opcode. If the address not found then
zero value is stored as operands address. An error flag is set indicating it as undefined. If
symbol itself is not found then store 0 as operand address and the object code instruction is
assembled.
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If the opcode is BYTE or WORD, then the constant value is converted to its equivalent
object code( for example, for character EOF, its equivalent hexadecimal value ‘454f46’ is
stored). If the object code cannot fit into the current text record, a new text record is created
and the rest of the instructions object code is listed. The text records are written to the object
program. Once the whole program is assemble and when the END directive is encountered,
the End record is written.
Design and Implementation Issues
Some of the features in the program depend on the architecture of the machine. If the program
is for SIC machine, then we have only limited instruction formats and hence limited addressing
modes. We have only single operand instructions. The operand is always a memory reference.
Anything to be fetched from memory requires more time. Hence the improved version of
SIC/XE machine provides more instruction formats and hence more addressing modes. The
moment we change the machine architecture the availability of number of instruction formats
and the addressing modes changes. Therefore the design usually requires considering two
things: Machine-dependent features and Machine-independent features.
MODULE -2
ASSEMBLERS AND MACRO
PROCESSOR
2.2. Machine-Dependent Assembler Features:
• Instruction formats and addressing modes
• Program relocation.
2.2.1 .Instruction formats and Addressing Modes
The instruction formats depend on the memory organization and the size of the memory.
In SIC machine the memory is byte addressable. Word size is 3 bytes. So the size of the
memory is 212 bytes. Accordingly it supports only one instruction format. It has only two
registers: register A and Index register. Therefore the addressing modes supported by this
architecture are direct, indirect, and indexed. Whereas the memory of a SIC/XE machine is
220 bytes (1 MB). This supports four different types of instruction types, they are:
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▪
1 byte instruction
▪
2 byte instruction
▪
3 byte instruction
▪
4 byte instruction
• Instructions can be:
– Instructions involving register to register
– Instructions with one operand in memory, the other in Accumulator (Single
operand instruction)
– Extended instruction format
• Addressing Modes are:
– Index Addressing(SIC): Opcode m, x
– Indirect Addressing: Opcode @m
– PC-relative: Opcode m
– Base relative: Opcode m
– Immediate addressing: Opcode #c
1. Translations for the Instruction involving Register-Register addressing mode:
During pass 1 the registers can be entered as part of the symbol table itself. The value for these
registers is their equivalent numeric codes. During pass2, these values are assembled along
with the mnemonics object code. If required a separate table can be created with the register
names and their equivalent numeric values.
2. Translation involving Register-Memory instructions:
In SIC/XE machine there are four instruction formats and five addressing modes. For formats
and addressing modes
Among the instruction formats, format -3 and format-4 instructions are Register-Memory
type of instruction. One of the operand is always in a register and the other operand is in the
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memory. The addressing mode tells us the way in which the operand from the memory is to be
fetched.
There are two ways: Program-counter relative and Base-relative. This addressing mode can
be represented by either using format-3 type or format-4 type of instruction format. In format-
3, the instruction has the opcode followed by a 12-bit displacement value in the address field.
Where as in format-4 the instruction contains the mnemonic code followed by a 20-bit
displacement value in the address field.
Program-Counter Relative:
In this usually format-3 instruction format is used. The instruction contains the opcode
followed by a 12-bit displacement value.
The range of displacement values are from 0 -2048. This displacement (should be small
enough to fit in a 12-bit field) value is added to the current contents of the program counter to
get the target address of the operand required by the instruction.
This is relative way of calculating the address of the operand relative to the program
counter. Hence the displacement of the operand is relative to the current program counter value.
The following example shows how the address is calculated:
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Base-Relative Addressing Mode:
In this mode the base register is used to mention the displacement value. Therefore the target
address is
TA = (base) + displacement value
• This addressing mode is used when the range of displacement value is not sufficient.
Hence the operand is not relative to the instruction as in PC-relative addressing mode.
Whenever this mode is used it is indicated by using a directive BASE.
• The moment the assembler encounters this directive the next instruction uses base-
relative addressing mode to calculate the target address of the operand.
• When NOBASE directive is used then it indicates the base register is no more used to
calculate the target address of the operand. Assembler first chooses PC-relative, when
the displacement field is not enough it uses Base-relative.
LDB #LENGTH (instruction)
BASE LENGTH (directive)
NOBASE
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For example:
12 0003 LDB #LENGTH 69202D
13 BASE LENGTH
::
100 0033 LENGTH RESW 1
105 0036 BUFFER RESB 4096
::
160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003
165 1051 TIXR T B850
In the above example the use of directive BASE indicates that Base-relative addressing
mode is to be used to calculate the target address. PC-relative is no longer used. The value of
the LENGTH is stored in the base register. If PC-relative is used then the target address
calculated is:
• The LDB instruction loads the value of length in the base register which 0033.
BASE directive explicitly tells the assembler that it has the value of LENGTH.
BUFFER is at location (0036)16
(B) = (0033)16
disp = 0036 – 0033 = (0003)16
20 000A LDA LENGTH 032026
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::
1751056 EXIT STX LENGTH 134000
Consider Line 175. If we use PC-relative
Disp = TA – (PC) = 0033 –1059 = EFDA
PC relative is no longer applicable, so we try to use BASE relative addressing mode.
Immediate Addressing Mode
In this mode no memory reference is involved. If immediate mode is used the target address
is the operand itself.
If the symbol is referred in the instruction as the immediate operand then it is immediate with
PC-relative mode as shown in the example below:
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Indirect and PC-relative mode:
In this type of instruction the symbol used in the instruction is the address of the location which
contains the address of the operand. The address of this is found using PC-relative addressing
mode. For example:
The instruction jumps the control to the address location RETADR which in turn has the
address of the operand. If address of RETADR is 0030, the target address is then 0003 as
calculated above.
2.2.2Program Relocation
Sometimes it is required to load and run several programs at the same time. The system must
be able to load these programs wherever there is place in the memory. Therefore the exact
starting is not known until the load time.
Absolute Program
In this the address is mentioned during assembling itself. This is called Absolute Assembly.
Consider the instruction:
55101B LDA THREE 00102D
• This statement says that the register A is loaded with the value stored at location
102D. Suppose it is decided to load and execute the program at location 2000
instead of location 1000.
• Then at address 102D the required value which needs to be loaded in the register A
is no more available. The address also gets changed relative to the displacement
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of the program. Hence we need to make some changes in the address portion of
the instruction so that we can load and execute the program at location 2000.
• Apart from the instruction which will undergo a change in their operand address
value as the program load address changes. There exist some parts in the program
which will remain same regardless of where the program is being loaded.
• Since assembler will not know actual location where the program will get loaded,
it cannot make the necessary changes in the addresses used in the program.
However, the assembler identifies for the loader those parts of the program which
need modification.
• An object program that has the information necessary to perform this kind of
modification is called the relocatable program.
• The above diagram shows the concept of relocation. Initially the program is loaded at
location 0000. The instruction JSUB is loaded at location 0006.
• The address field of this instruction contains 01036, which is the address of the
instruction labeled RDREC. The second figure shows that if the program is to be loaded
at new location 5000.
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• The address of the instruction JSUB gets modified to new location 6036. Likewise the
third figure shows that if the program is relocated at location 7420, the JSUB instruction
would need to be changed to 4B108456 that correspond to the new address of RDREC.
• The only part of the program that require modification at load time are those that
specify direct addresses. The rest of the instructions need not be modified. The
instructions which doesn’t require modification are the ones that is not a memory
address (immediate addressing) and PC-relative, Base-relative instructions.
• From the object program, it is not possible to distinguish the address and constant The
assembler must keep some information to tell the loader.The object program that
contains the modification record is called a relocatable program.
• For an address label, its address is assigned relative to the start of the program (START
0). The assembler produces a Modification recordto store the starting location and the
length of the address field to be modified. The command for the loader must also be a
part of the object program. The Modification has the following format:
Modification record
Col. 1 M
Col. 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be modified, relative to the
beginning of the program (Hex)
Col. 8-9 Length of the address field to be modified, in half-bytes (Hex)
One modification record is created for each address to be modified The length is stored in half-
bytes (4 bits) The starting location is the location of the byte containing the leftmost bits of the
address field to be modified. If the field contains an odd number of half-bytes, the starting
location begins in the middle of the first byte.
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In the above object code the red boxes indicate the addresses that need modifications. The
object code lines at the end are the descriptions of the modification records for those
instructions which need change if relocation occurs. M00000705 is the modification suggested
for the statement at location 0007 and requires modification 5-half bytes. Similarly the
remaining instructions indicate.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. What are the fundamental functions of assembler? With an example, give the list of
assembler directives?(6)
2. Explain the data structures used in Assemblers (8).
3. what is program relocation? Explain the problem associated with it and solutions? (6)
4. Give the format of the following (8)
a. Header record
b. Text record
c. End record
d. Modification record
5. Explain the function of each pass of an 2 pass assembler.(5)
6. Explain the following (8)
a. SYMTAB
b. LOCCTR
c. OPTAB
7. Give the algorithm for pass1 of an 2 pass assembler. (8)
8. Give the algorithm for pass2 of an 2 pass assembler (8)
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CHAPTER -3
Assembler-2
3.1 Machine-Independent Assembler features:
These are the features which do not depend on the architecture of the machine. These are:
▪
Literals
▪
Expressions
▪
Program blocks
▪
Control sections
3.1.1 Literals:
A literal is defined with a prefix = followed by a specification of the literal value.
Example:
45 001A ENDFIL LDA =C’EOF’ 032010
93 LTORG
002D * =C’EOF’ 454F46
The example above shows a 3-byte operand whose value is a character string EOF. The
object code for the instruction is also mentioned. It shows the relative displacement value of
the location where this value is stored. In the example the value is at location (002D) and hence
the displacement value is (010). As another example the given statement below shows a 1-byte
literal with the hexadecimal value ‘05’.
215 1062 WLOOP TD =X’05’ E32011
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It is important to understand the difference between a constant defined as a literal and
a constant defined as an immediate operand. In case of literals the assembler generates the
specified value as a constant at some other memory location In immediate mode the operand
value is assembled as part of the instruction itself. Example
55 0020 LDA #03 010003
All the literal operands used in a program are gathered together into one or more literal
pools. This is usually placed at the end of the program. The assembly listing of a program
containing literals usually includes a listing of this literal pool, which shows the assigned
addresses and the generated data values. In some cases it is placed at some other location in
the object program. An assembler directive LTORG is used. Whenever the LTORG is
encountered, it creates a literal pool that contains all the literal operands used since the
beginning of the program. The literal pool definition is done after LTORG is encountered. It
is better to place the literals close to the instructions.
A literal table is created for the literals which are used in the program. The literal table
contains the literal name, operand value and length. The literal table is usually created as a
hash table on the literal name.
Implementation of Literals:
During Pass-1:
The literal encountered is searched in the literal table. If the literal already exists, no
action is taken; if it is not present, the literal is added to the LITTAB and for the address value
it waits till it encounters LTORG for literal definition. When Pass 1 encounters a LTORG
statement or the end of the program, the assembler makes a scan of the literal table. At this
time each literal currently in the table is assigned an address. As addresses are assigned, the
location counter is updated to reflect the number of bytes occupied by each literal.
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During Pass-2:
The assembler searches the LITTAB for each literal encountered in the instruction and
replaces it with its equivalent value as if these values are generated by BYTE or WORD. If a
literal represents an address in the program, the assembler must generate a modification
relocation for, if it all it gets affected due to relocation. The following figure shows the
difference between the SYMTAB and LITTAB
3.1.2 Symbol-Defining Statements:
• EQU Statement:
Most assemblers provide an assembler directive that allows the programmer to define
symbols and specify their values. The directive used for this EQU (Equate). The general form
of the statement is
Symbol EQU value
This statement defines the given symbol (i.e., entering in the SYMTAB) and assigning to it the
value specified. The value can be a constant or an expression involving constants and any other
symbol which is already defined. One common usage is to define symbolic names that can be
used to improve readability in place of numeric values. For example
+LDT #4096
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This loads the register T with immediate value 4096, this does not clearly what exactly this
value indicates. If a statement is included as:
MAXLEN EQU 4096 and then
+LDT #MAXLEN
Then it clearly indicates that the value of MAXLEN is some maximum length value.
When the assembler encounters EQU statement, it enters the symbol MAXLEN along with its
value in the symbol table. During LDT the assembler searches the SYMTAB for its entry and
its equivalent value as the operand in the instruction. The object code generated is the same for
both the options discussed, but is easier to understand. If the maximum length is changed from
4096 to 1024, it is difficult to change if it is mentioned as an immediate value wherever
required in the instructions. We have to scan the whole program and make changes wherever
4096 is used. If we mention this value in the instruction through the symbol defined by EQU,
we may not have to search the whole program but change only the value of MAXLENGTH in
the EQU statement (only once).
Another common usage of EQU statement is for defining values for the general-
purpose registers. The assembler can use the mnemonics for register usage like a-register A ,
X – index register and so on. But there are some instructions which requires numbers in place
of names in the instructions. For example in the instruction RMO 0,1 instead of RMO A,X.
The programmer can assign the numerical values to these registers using EQU directive.
A EQU 0
X EQU 1 and so on
These statements will cause the symbols A, X, L… to be entered into the symbol table
with their respective values. An instruction RMO A, X would then be allowed. As another
usage if in a machine that has many general purpose registers named as R1, R2,…, some may
be used as base register, some may be used as accumulator. Their usage may change from one
program to another. In this case we can define these requirement using EQU statements.
BASE EQU R1
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INDEX EQU R2
COUNT EQU R3
One restriction with the usage of EQU is whatever symbol occurs in the right hand side of
the EQU should be predefined. For example, the following statement is not valid:
BETA EQU ALPHA
ALPHA RESW 1
As the symbol ALPHA is assigned to BETA before it is defined. The value of ALPHA is not
known.
• ORG Statement:
This directive can be used to indirectly assign values to the symbols. The directive is
usually called ORG (for origin). Its general format is:
ORG value
Where value is a constant or an expression involving constants and previously defined
symbols. When this statement is encountered during assembly of a program, the assembler
resets its location counter (LOCCTR) to the specified value. Since the values of symbols used
as labels are taken from LOCCTR, the ORG statement will affect the values of all labels
defined until the next ORG is encountered. ORG is used to control assignment storage in the
object program. Sometimes altering the values may result in incorrect assembly.
ORG can be useful in label definition. Suppose we need to define a symbol table with
the following structure:
SYMBOL 6 Bytes
VALUE 3 Bytes
FLAG 2 Bytes
The table looks like the one given below.
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The symbol field contains a 6-byte user-defined symbol; VALUE is a one-word
representation of the value assigned to the symbol; FLAG is a 2-byte field specifies symbol
type and other information. The space for the ttable can be reserved by the statement:
STAB RESB 1100
If we want to refer to the entries of the table using indexed addressing, place the offset
value of the desired entry from the beginning of the table in the index register. To refer to the
fields SYMBOL, VALUE, and FLAGS individually, we need to assign the values first as
shown below:
SYMBOL EQU STAB
VALUE EQU STAB+6
FLAGS EQU STAB+9
To retrieve the VALUE field from the table indicated by register X, we can write a statement:
LDA VALUE, X
The same thing can also be done using ORG statement in the following way:
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STAB RESB 1100
ORG STAB
SYMBOLRESB 6
VALUE RESW 1
FLAG RESB 2
ORG STAB+1100
The first statement allocates 1100 bytes of memory assigned to label STAB. In the
second statement the ORG statement initializes the location counter to the value of STAB.
Now the LOCCTR points to STAB. The next three lines assign appropriate memory storage to
each of SYMBOL, VALUE and FLAG symbols. The last ORG statement reinitializes the
LOCCTR to a new value after skipping the required number of memory for the table STAB
(i.e., STAB+1100).
While using ORG, the symbol occurring in the statement should be predefined as is
required in EQU statement. For example for the sequence of statements below:
ORG ALPHA
BYTE1 RESB 1
BYTE2 RESB 1
BYTE3 RESB 1
ORG
ALPHA RESB 1
The sequence could not be processed as the symbol used to assign the new location
counter value is not defined. In first pass, as the assembler would not know what value to
assign to ALPHA, the other symbol in the next lines also could not be defined in the symbol
table. This is a kind of problem of the forward reference.
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3.1.3 .Expressions:
Assemblers also allow use of expressions in place of operands in the instruction. Each
such expression must be evaluated to generate a single operand value or address. Assemblers
generally arithmetic expressions formed according to the normal rules using arithmetic
operators +, - *, /. Division is usually defined to produce an integer result. Individual terms
may be constants, user-defined symbols, or special terms. The only special term used is * ( the
current value of location counter) which indicates the value of the next unassigned memory
location. Thus the statement
BUFFEND EQU *
Assigns a value to BUFFEND, which is the address of the next byte following the
buffer area. Some values in the object program are relative to the beginning of the program
and some are absolute (independent of the program location, like constants). Hence,
expressions are classified as either absolute expression or relative expressions depending on
the type of value they produce.
• Absolute Expressions: The expression that uses only absolute terms is absolute
expression. Absolute expression may contain relative term provided the relative terms
occur in pairs with opposite signs for each pair. Example:
MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER
In the above instruction the difference in the expression gives a value that does not
depend on the location of the program and hence gives an absolute immaterial o the relocation
of the program. The expression can have only absolute terms. Example:
MAXLENEQU 1000
• Relative Expressions: All the relative terms except one can be paired as described in
“absolute”. The remaining unpaired relative term must have a positive sign. Example:
STAB EQU OPTAB + (BUFEND – BUFFER)
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• Handling the type of expressions: to find the type of expression, we must keep track
the type of symbols used. This can be achieved by defining the type in the symbol table
against each of the symbol as shown in the table below:
3.2 ASSEMBLER DESIGN OPTIONS
Here we are discussing
o The structure and logic of one-pass assembler. These assemblers are used when it is
necessary or desirable to avoid a second pass over the source program.
o Notion of a multi-pass assembler, an extension of two-pass assembler that allows
an assembler to handle forward references during symbol definition.
SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
3.2.1. One-Pass Assembler
The main problem in designing the assembler using single pass was to resolve forward
references. We can avoid to some extent the forward references by:
• Eliminating forward reference to data items, by defining all the storage
reservation statements at the beginning of the program rather at the end.
• Unfortunately, forward reference to labels on the instructions cannot be
avoided. (forward jumping)
• To provide some provision for handling forward references by prohibiting
forward references to data items.
There are two types of one-pass assemblers:
• One that produces object code directly in memory for immediate execution
(Load-and-go assemblers).
• The other type produces the usual kind of object code for later execution.
Load-and-Go Assembler
• Load-and-go assembler generates their object code in memory for
immediate execution.
• No object program is written out, no loader is needed.
• It is useful in a system with frequent program development and testing
o The efficiency of the assembly process is an important consideration.
• Programs are re-assembled nearly every time they are run; efficiency of the assembly
process is an important consideration.
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Forward Reference in One-Pass Assemblers: In load-and-Go assemblers when a forward
reference is encountered :
• Omits the operand address if the symbol has not yet been defined
• Enters this undefined symbol into SYMTAB and indicates that it is undefined
• Adds the address of this operand address to a list of forward references associated
with the SYMTAB entry
• When the definition for the symbol is encountered, scans the reference list and
inserts the address.
• At the end of the program, reports the error if there are still SYMTAB
entries indicated undefined symbols.
• For Load-and-Go assembler
o Search SYMTAB for the symbol named in the END statement and jumps
to this location to begin execution if there is no error
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After Scanning line 40 of the program:
40 2021 J` CLOOP 302012
The status is that upto this point the symbol RREC is referred once at location
2013, ENDFIL at 201F and WRREC at location 201C. None of these symbols are defined.
The figure shows that how the pending definitions along with their addresses are included
in the symbol table.
The status after scanning line 160, which has encountered the definition of RDREC and
ENDFIL is as given below:
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If One-Pass needs to generate object code:
• If the operand contains an undefined symbol, use 0 as the address and write the
Text record to the object program.
• Forward references are entered into lists as in the load-and-go assembler.
• When the definition of a symbol is encountered, the assembler generates another
Text record with the correct operand address of each entry in the reference list.
• When loaded, the incorrect address 0 will be updated by the latter Text record
containing the symbol definition.
Object Code Generated by One-Pass Assembler:
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3.2.2 Multi_Pass Assembler:
• For a two pass assembler, forward references in symbol definition are not allowed:
ALPHA EQU BETA
BETA EQU DELTA
DELTA RESW 1
o Symbol definition must be completed in pass 1.
• Prohibiting forward references in symbol definition is not a serious inconvenience.
o Forward references tend to create difficulty for a person reading the program.
Implementation Issues for Modified Two-Pass Assembler:
Implementation Isuues when forward referencing is encountered in Symbol Defining
statements :
• For a forward reference in symbol definition, we store in the
SYMTAB: o The symbol name
o The defining expression
o The number of undefined symbols in the defining expression
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• The undefined symbol (marked with a flag *) associated with a list of symbols depend
on this undefined symbol.
• When a symbol is defined, we can recursively evaluate the symbol
expressions depending on the newly defined symbol.
Multi-Pass Assembler Example Program
Multi-Pass Assembler : Example for forward reference in Symbol Defining Statements:
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS
1) Explain the following: Literals, Symbol defining statements, Expressions (8)
2) Explain program blocks with an example. (10)
3) Explain control section and program linking. (8)
4) Explain the following (8)
a) Define record
b) Refer record
c) Modification record(revised)
5) Explain one pass assembler. (6)
6) Explain multipass assembler. (8)
7) Write shortnotes on (8)
a) MASM assembler
b) SPARC assembler
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MODULE 3
LOADERS AND LINKERS
Introduction
The Source Program written in assembly language or high level language will be
converted to object program, which is in the machine language form for execution. This
conversion either from assembler or from compiler, contains translated instructions and data
values from the source program, or specifies addresses in primary memory where these items
are to be loaded for execution.
This contains the following three processes, and they are,
• Loading - which allocates memory location and brings the object program into
memory for execution - (Loader)
• Linking- which combines two or more separate object programs and supplies the
information needed to allow references between them - (Linker)
• Relocation - which modifies the object program so that it can be loaded at an address
different from the location originally specified - (Linking Loader)
4.1 Basic Loader Functions:
A loader is a system program that performs the loading function. It brings object program into
memory and starts its execution. The role of loader is as shown in the figure 4.1. Translator
may be assembler/complier, which generates the object program and later loaded to the
memory by the loader for execution. In figure 4.2 the translator is specifically an assembler,
which generates the object loaded, which becomes input to the loader. The figure4.3 shows the
role of both loader and linker.
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Source Object
Translator Object
Program Program
program
ready for
execution
Memory
Figure 4.1 : The Role of Loader
Source Object
Assembler Object
Program Program Loader
program
ready for
execution
Memory
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Figure 4.2: The Role of Loader with Assembler
Object
Source
Assembler
Program Linker
Program Object
program
Executable ready for
execution
Code
Loader
Memory
Figure 4.3: The Role of both Loader and Linker
Type of Loaders
The different types of loaders are, absolute loader, bootstrap loader, relocating loader
(relative loader), and, direct linking loader. The following sections discuss the functions and
design of all these types of loaders.
4.1.1Design of Absolute Loader:
The operation of absolute loader is very simple. The object code is loaded to specified locations
in the memory. At the end the loader jumps to the specified address to begin execution of the
loaded program. The role of absolute loader is as shown in the figure 4.4.
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The advantage of absolute loader is simple and efficient. But the disadvantages are, the need
for programmer to specify the actual address, and, difficult to use subroutine libraries.
1000
Object Absolute
Program Loader Object
program
ready for
execution
2000
Memory
Figure 4.4: The Role of Absolute Loader
The algorithm for this type of loader is given here. The object program and, the object
program loaded into memory by the absolute loader are also shown. Each byte of assembled
code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form. Easy to read by human
beings. Each byte of object code is stored as a single byte. Most machine store object programs
in a binary form, and we must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some
of the program bytes to be interpreted as control characters.
Begin
read Header record
verify program name and length
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read first Text record
while record type is <> ‘E’ do
begin
{if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation}
move object code to specified location in memory read next object
program record
end
jump to address specified in End record
end
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4.1.2 A Simple Bootstrap Loader
When a computer is first turned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called
bootstrap loader is executed. This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer
-- usually an operating system. The bootstrap itself begins at address 0. It loads the
OS starting address 0x80. No header record or control information, the object code is
consecutive bytes of memory.
The algorithm for the bootstrap loader is as follows
Begin
X=0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded
Loop
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AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII character
code to the value of the hexadecimal digit)
save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S
AGETC
combine the value to form one byte A (A+S)
store the value (in A) to the address in register X
XX+1
End
It uses a subroutine GETC, which is
GETC Aread one character
if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80
if A<48 then GETC
A A-48 (0x30)
if A<10 then return
A A-7
return
4.2. Machine-Dependent Loader Features
Absolute loader is simple and efficient, but the scheme has potential disadvantages One of
the most disadvantage is the programmer has to specify the actual starting address, from
where the program to be loaded. This does not create difficulty, if one program to run, but
not for several programs. Further it is difficult to use subroutine libraries efficiently.
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This needs the design and implementation of a more complex loader. The loader
must provide program relocation and linking, as well as simple loading functions.
4.2.1 Relocation
The concept of program relocation is, the execution of the object program using any part of
the available and sufficient memory. The object program is loaded into memory wherever there
is room for it. The actual starting address of the object program is not known until load time.
Relocation provides the efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when several
independent programs are to be run together. It also supports the use of subroutine libraries
efficiently. Loaders that allow for program relocation are called relocating loaders or relative
loaders.
Methods for specifying relocation
Use of modification record and, use of relocation bit, are the methods available for
specifying relocation. In the case of modification record, a modification record M is used in
the object program to specify any relocation. In the case of use of relocation bit, each
instruction is associated with one relocation bit and, these relocation bits in a Text record is
gathered into bit masks.
Modification records are used in complex machines and is also called Relocation and
Linkage Directory (RLD) specification. The format of the modification record (M) is as
follows. The object program with relocation by Modification records is also shown here.
Modification record
col 1: M
col 2-7: relocation address
col 8-9: length (halfbyte)
col 10: flag (+/-)
col 11-17: segment name
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HCOPY 000000 001077
T000000 1D17202D69202D48101036…4B105D3F2FEC032010
T00001D130F20160100030F200D4B10105D3E2003454F46
T001035 1DB410B400B44075101000…33200857C003B850
T0010531D3B2FEA1340004F0000F1..53C003DF2008B850
T00070073B2FEF4F000005
M00000705+COPY
M00001405+COPY
M00002705+COPY
E000000
The relocation bit method is used for simple machines. Relocation bit is 0: no
modification is necessary, and is 1: modification is needed. This is specified in the columns
10-12 of text record (T), the format of text record, along with relocation bits is as follows.
Text record:
col 1: T
col 2-7: starting address
col 8-9: length (byte)
col 10-12: relocation bits
col 13-72: object code
Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record (col:10-12 – relocation bits), since each
text record contains less than 12 words, unused words are set to 0, and, any value that is to be
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modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments. For absolute
loader, there are no relocation bits column 10-69 contains object code. The object program
with relocation by bit mask is as shown below. Observe FFC - means all ten words are to be
modified and, E00 - means first three records are to be modified.
HCOPY 000000 00107A
T0000001EFFC140033481039000036280030300015…3C0003 …
T00001E15E000C00364810610800334C0000…000003000000
T0010391EFFC040030000030…30103FD8105D280030...
T0010570A8001000364C0000F1001000
T00106119FE0040030E01079…508039DC10792C0036...
E000000
4.2.2 Program Linking
The Goal of program linking is to resolve the problems with external references
(EXTREF) and external definitions (EXTDEF) from different control sections .
EXTDEF (external definition) - The EXTDEF statement in a control section names
symbols, called external symbols, that are defined in this (present) control section and may be
used by other sections.
ex: EXTDEF BUFFER, BUFFEND, LENGTH
EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA
EXTREF (external reference) - The EXTREF statement names symbols used in
this (present) control section and are defined elsewhere.
ex: EXTREF RDREC, WRREC
EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC
How to implement EXTDEF and EXTREF
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The assembler must include information in the object program that will cause the loader to
insert proper values where they are required – in the form of Define record (D) and, Refer
record(R).
Define record
The format of the Define record (D) along with examples is as shown here.
Col. 1 D
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Col. 8-13 Relative address within this control section (hexadecimal)
Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols
Example records
D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
Refer record
The format of the Refer record (R) along with examples is as shown here.
Col. 1 R
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section
Col. 8-73 Name of other external reference symbols
Example records
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB
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Here are the three programs named as PROGA, PROGB and PROGC, which are
separately assembled and each of which consists of a single control section. LISTA, ENDA in
PROGA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGB and LISTC, ENDC in PROGC are external definitions in
each of the control sections. Similarly LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC in PROGA, LISTA,
ENDA, LISTC, ENDC in PROGB, and LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB in PROGC, are
external references. These sample programs given here are used to illustrate linking and
relocation. The following figures give the sample programs and their corresponding object
programs. Observe the object programs, which contain D and R records along with other
records.
0000 PROGA START 0
EXTDEF LISTA, ENDA
EXTREF LISTB, ENDB, LISTC, ENDC
………..
……….
0020 REF1 LDA LISTA 03201D
0023 REF2 +LDT LISTB+4 77100004
0027 REF3 LDX #ENDA-LISTA 050014
0040 LISTA EQU *
0054 ENDA EQU *
0054 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000014
0057 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
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005A REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 00003F
005D REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000014
0060 REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA FFFFC0
END REF1
0000 PROGB START 0
EXTDEF LISTB, ENDB
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTC, ENDC
………..
……….
0036 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
003A REF2 LDT LISTB+4 772027
003D REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
0060 LISTB EQU *
0070 ENDB EQU *
0070 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000000
0073 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 FFFFF6
0076 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 FFFFFF
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0079 REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB)FFFFF0
007C REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000060
END
0000 PROGC START 0
EXTDEF LISTC, ENDC
EXTREF LISTA, ENDA, LISTB, ENDB
………..
………..
0018 REF1 +LDA LISTA 03100000
001C REF2 +LDT LISTB+4 77100004
0020 REF3 +LDX #ENDA-LISTA 05100000
0030 LISTC EQU *
0042 ENDC EQU *
0042 REF4 WORD ENDA-LISTA+LISTC 000030
0045 REF5 WORD ENDC-LISTC-10 000008
0045 REF6 WORD ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 000011
004B REF7 WORD ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) 000000
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004E REF8 WORD LISTB-LISTA 000000
END
H PROGA 000000 000063
D LISTA 000040 ENDA 000054
R LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC
T 000020 0A 03201D 77100004 050014
T 000054 0F 000014 FFFF6 00003F 000014 FFFFC0
M000024 05+LISTB
M000054 06+LISTC
M000057 06+ENDC
M000057 06 -LISTC
M00005A06+ENDC
M00005A06 -LISTC
M00005A06+PROGA
M00005D06-ENDB
M00005D06+LISTB
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M00006006+LISTB
M00006006-PROGA
E000020
H PROGB 000000 00007F
D LISTB 000060 ENDB 000070
R LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC
T 000036 0B 03100000 772027 05100000
T 000007 0F 000000 FFFFF6 FFFFFF FFFFF0 000060
M000037 05+LISTA
M00003E 06+ENDA
M00003E 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +ENDA
M000070 06 -LISTA
M000070 06 +LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000073 06 -LISTC
M000073 06 +ENDC
M000076 06 -LISTC
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M000076 06+LISTA
M000079 06+ENDA
M000079 06 -LISTA
M00007C 06+PROGB
M00007C 06-LISTA
H PROGC 000000 000051
D LISTC 000030 ENDC 000042
R LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB
T 000018 0C 03100000 77100004 05100000
T 000042 0F 000030 000008 000011 000000 000000
M000019 05+LISTA
M00001D 06+LISTB
M000021 06+ENDA
M000021 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+ENDA
M000042 06 -LISTA
M000042 06+PROGC
M000048 06+LISTA
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M00004B 06+ENDA
M00004B 006-LISTA
M00004B 06-ENDB
M00004B 06+LISTB
M00004E 06+LISTB
M00004E 06-LISTA
The following figure shows these three programs as they might appear in memory
after loading and linking. PROGA has been loaded starting at address 4000, with PROGB
and PROGC immediately following.
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For example, the value for REF4 in PROGA is located at address 4054 (the beginning
address of PROGA plus 0054, the relative address of REF4 within PROGA). The following
figure shows the details of how this value is computed.
The initial value from the Text record
T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0 is 000014. To this is added the
address assigned to LISTC, which is 4112 (the beginning address of PROGC plus 30). The
result is 004126.
That is REF4 in PROGA is ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=4054-4040+4112=4126.
Similarly the load address for symbols LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040, LISTB:
PROGB+0060=40C3 and LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112
Keeping these details work through the details of other references and values of these
references are the same in each of the three programs.
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4.3.3 Algorithm and Data structures for a Linking Loader
The algorithm for a linking loader is considerably more complicated than the absolute loader
program, which is already given. The concept given in the program linking section is used for
developing the algorithm for linking loader. The modification records are used for relocation
so that the linking and relocation functions are performed using the same mechanism.
Linking Loader uses two-passes logic. ESTAB (external symbol table) is the main data
structure for a linking loader.
Pass 1: Assign addresses to all external symbols
Pass 2: Perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking
ESTAB - ESTAB for the example (refer three programs PROGA PROGB and
PROGC) given is as shown below. The ESTAB has four entries in it; they are name of the
control section, the symbol appearing in the control section, its address and length of the
control section.
Control section Symbol Address Length
PROGA 4000 63
LISTA 4040
ENDA 4054
PROGB 4063 7F
LISTB 40C3
ENDB 40D3
PROGC 40E2 51
LISTC 4112
ENDC 4124
Program Logic for Pass 1
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Pass 1 assign addresses to all external symbols. The variables & Data structures used during
pass 1 are, PROGADDR (program load address) from OS, CSADDR (control section address),
CSLTH (control section length) and ESTAB. The pass 1 processes the Define Record. The
algorithm for Pass 1 of Linking Loader is given below.
Program Logic for Pass 2
Pass 2 of linking loader perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking. It uses modification
record and lookup the symbol in ESTAB to obtain its address. Finally it uses end record of a
main program to obtain transfer address, which is a starting address needed for the execution
of the program. The pass 2 process Text record and Modification record of the object programs.
The algorithm for Pass 2 of Linking Loader is given below.
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How to improve Efficiency?
The question here is can we improve the efficiency of the linking loader. Also observe that,
even though we have defined Refer record (R), we haven’t made use of it. The efficiency can
be improved by the use of local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the same
symbol. For implementing this we assign a reference number to each external symbol in the
Refer record. Then this reference number is used in Modification records instead of external
symbols.01 is assigned to control section name, and other numbers for external reference
symbols.
The object programs for PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are shown below, with above
modification to Refer record (Observe R records).
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Symbol and Addresses in PROGA, PROGB and PROGC are as shown below. These
are the entries of ESTAB. The main advantage of reference number mechanism is that it avoids
multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol during the loading of a control section
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGA 4000
2 LISTB 40C3
3 ENDB 40D3
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124
Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGB 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTC 4112
5 ENDC 4124
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Ref No. Symbol Address
1 PROGC 4063
2 LISTA 4040
3 ENDA 4054
4 LISTB 40C3
5 ENDB 40D3
4.3. Machine-independent Loader Features
Here we discuss some loader features that are not directly related to machine architecture and
design. Automatic Library Search and Loader Options are such Machine-independent Loader
Features.
4.3.1Automatic Library Search
This feature allows a programmer to use standard subroutines without explicitly including
them in the program to be loaded. The routines are automatically retrieved from a library as
they are needed during linking. This allows programmer to use subroutines from one or more
libraries. The subroutines called by the program being loaded are automatically fetched from
the library, linked with the main program and loaded. The loader searches the library or
libraries specified for routines that contain the definitions of these symbols in the main
program.
4.3.2Loader Options
Loader options allow the user to specify options that modify the standard processing. The
options may be specified in three different ways. They are, specified using a command
language, specified as a part of job control language that is processed by the operating system,
and an be specified using loader control statements in the source program.
Here are the some examples of how option can be specified.
• INCLUDE program-name (library-name) - read the designated object program from
a library
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• DELETE csect-name – delete the named control section from the set pf programs
being loaded
• CHANGE name1, name2 - external symbol name1 to be changed to name2 wherever
it appears in the object programs
LIBRARY MYLIB – search MYLIB library before standard libraries
NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL – no loading and linking of unneeded routines
Here is one more example giving, how commands can be specified as a part of object
file, and the respective changes are carried out by the loader.
LIBRARY UTLIB
INCLUDE READ (UTLIB)
INCLUDE WRITE (UTLIB)
DELETE RDREC, WRREC
CHANGE RDREC, READ
CHANGE WRREC, WRITE
NOCALL SQRT, PLOT
The commands are, use UTLIB (say utility library), include READ and WRITE control
sections from the library, delete the control sections RDREC and WRREC from the load, the
change command causes all external references to the symbol RDREC to be changed to the
symbol READ, similarly references to WRREC is changed to WRITE, finally, no call to the
functions SQRT, PLOT, if they are used in the program.
4.4 Loader Design Options
There are some common alternatives for organizing the loading functions, including relocation
and linking. Linking Loaders – Perform all linking and relocation at load time. The
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Other Alternatives are Linkage editors, which perform linking prior to load time and,
dynamic linking, in which linking function is performed at execution time
Linking Loaders
Object
Program(s)
Linking loader
Library
Memory
The above diagram shows the processing of an object program using Linking Loader.
The source program is first assembled or compiled, producing an object program. A linking
loader performs all linking and loading operations, and loads the program into memory for
execution.
4.4.1 Linkage Editors
The figure below shows the processing of an object program using Linkage editor. A linkage
editor produces a linked version of the program – often called a load module or an executable
image – which is written to a file or library for later execution. The linked program produced
is generally in a form that is suitable for processing by a relocating loader.
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Some useful functions of Linkage editor are, an absolute object program can be created,
if starting address is already known. New versions of the library can be included without
changing the source program. Linkage editors can also be used to build packages of subroutines
or other control sections that are generally used together. Linkage editors often allow the user
to specify that external references are not to be resolved by automatic library search – linking
will be done later by linking loader – linkage editor + linking loader – savings in space
Object
Program(s)
Library Linkage Editor
Linked
program
Relocating loader
Memory
4.4.2Dynamic Linking
The scheme that postpones the linking functions until execution. A subroutine is loaded and
linked to the rest of the program when it is first called – usually called dynamic linking,
dynamic loading or load on call. The advantages of dynamic linking are, it allow several
executing programs to share one copy of a subroutine or library. In an object oriented system,
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dynamic linking makes it possible for one object to be shared by several programs. Dynamic
linking provides the ability to load the routines only when (and if) they are needed. The actual
loading and linking can be accomplished using operating system service request.
4.4.3 Bootstrap Loaders
If the question, how is the loader itself loaded into the memory? is asked, then the answer is,
when computer is started – with no program in memory, a program present in ROM ( absolute
address) can be made executed – may be OS itself or A Bootstrap loader, which in turn loads
OS and prepares it for execution. The first record ( or records) is generally referred to as a
bootstrap loader – makes the OS to be loaded. Such a loader is added to the beginning of all
object programs that are to be loaded into an empty and idle system.
4.5 Implementation Examples
This section contains brief description of loaders and linkers for actual computers. They are,
MS-DOS Linker - Pentium architecture, SunOS Linkers - SPARC architecture, and, Cray MPP
Linkers – T3E architecture.
4.5.1MS-DOS Linker
This explains some of the features of Microsoft MS-DOS linker, which is a linker for Pentium
and other x86 systems. Most MS-DOS compilers and assemblers (MASM) produce object
modules, and they are stored in .OBJ files. MS-DOS LINK is a linkage editor that combines
one or more object modules to produce a complete executable program - .EXE file; this file is
later executed for results.
The following table illustrates the typical MS-DOS object module
Record Types Description
THEADR Translator Header
TYPDEF,PUBDEF, EXTDEF External symbols and references
LNAMES, SEGDEF, GRPDEF Segment definition and grouping
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LEDATA, LIDATA Translated instructions and data
FIXUPP Relocation and linking information
MODEND End of object module
THEADR specifies the name of the object module. MODEND specifies the end of the
module. PUBDEF contains list of the external symbols (called public names). EXTDEF
contains list of external symbols referred in this module, but defined elsewhere. TYPDEF the
data types are defined here. SEGDEF describes segments in the object module ( includes name,
length, and alignment). GRPDEF includes how segments are combined into groups. LNAMES
contains all segment and class names. LEDATA contains translated instructions and data.
LIDATA has above in repeating pattern. Finally, FIXUPP is used to resolve external
references.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1) Write an algorithm for an absolute loader ( 7)
2) Explain bootstrap loaders. (6)
3) Write an algorithm for Bootstrap loader. (7)
4) Explain relocation w.r.t. loader. (8)
5) Explain bitmask with an example.(5)
6) Explain program linking with an example. (7)
7) Write the algorithm for pass 1 of an linking loader. (8)
8) Write the algorithm for pass 2 of an linking loader. (8)
9) Explain CSADDR, PROGADDR, ESTAB.(6)
10) Explain linkage editors. (8)
11) Explain dynamic linking. (8)
12) Write shortnotes on (10)
a. MS-DOS Linker
b. Sun OS linker
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EDITORS AND DEBUGGING SYSTEMS
An Interactive text editor has become an important part of almost any computing environment.
Text editor acts as a primary interface to the computer for all type of “knowledge workers” as
they compose, organize, study, and manipulate computer-based information.
An interactive debugging system provides programmers with facilities that aid in
testing and debugging of programs. Many such systems are available during these days. Our
discussion is broad in scope, giving the overview of interactive debugging systems – not
specific to any particular existing system.
5.1 Text Editors:
• An Interactive text editor has become an important part of almost any computing
environment. Text editor acts as a primary interface to the computer for all type of
“knowledge workers” as they compose, organize, study, and manipulate computer-
based information.
• A text editor allows you to edit a text file (create, modify etc…). For example the
Interactive text editors on Windows OS - Notepad, WordPad, Microsoft Word, and
text editors on UNIX OS - vi, emacs , jed, pico.
• Normally, the common editing features associated with text editors are, Moving the
cursor, Deleting, Replacing, Pasting, Searching, Searching and replacing, Saving and
loading, and, Miscellaneous(e.g. quitting).
5.1.1 Overview of the editing process
An interactive editor is a computer program that allows a user to create and revise a target
document. Document includes objects such as computer diagrams, text, equations tables,
diagrams, line art, and photographs. In text editors, character strings are the primary elements
of the target text.
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Document-editing process in an interactive user-computer dialogue has four tasks:
- Select the part of the target document to be viewed and manipulated
- Determine how to format this view on-line and how to display it
- Specify and execute operations that modify the target document
- Update the view appropriately
The above task involves traveling, filtering and formatting. Editing phase involves – insert,
delete, replace, move, copy, cut, paste, etc…
o Traveling – locate the area of interest
o Filtering - extracting the relevant subset
o Formatting – visible representation on a display screen
There are two types of editors. Manuscript-oriented editor and program oriented
editors. Manuscript-oriented editor is associated with characters, words, lines, sentences and
paragraphs. Program-oriented editors are associated with identifiers, keywords, statements.
User wish – what he wants – formatted.
5.1.2 User Interface:
Conceptual model of the editing system provides an easily understood abstraction of the target
document and its elements. For example, Line editors – simulated the world of the key punch
– 80 characters, single line or an integral number of lines, Screen editors – Document is
represented as a quarter-plane of text lines, unbounded both down and to the right.
The user interface is concerned with, the input devices, the output devices and, the
interaction language. The input devices are used to enter elements of text being edited, to enter
commands. The output devices, lets the user view the elements being edited and the results of
the editing operations and, the interaction language provides communication with the editor.
Input Devices are divided into three categories:
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o text devices
o button devices
o Locator devices.
1. Text Devices are keyboard. Button Devices are special function keys,
symbols on the screen. Locator Devices are mouse, data tablet. There are
voice input devices which translates spoken words to their textual equivalents.
2. Output Devices are Teletypewriters(first output devices), Glass teletypes
(Cathode ray tube (CRT) technology), Advanced CRT terminals, TFT
Monitors and Printers (Hard-copy).
3. The interaction language could be, typing oriented or text command oriented
and menu-oriented user interface. Typing oriented or text command oriented
interaction was with oldest editors, in the form of use of commands, use of
function keys, control keys etc.
4. Menu-oriented user interface has menu with a multiple choice set of text
strings or icons. Display area for text is limited. Menus can be turned on or
off.
5.1.3 Editor Structure:
Most text editors have a structure similar to that shown in the following figure. That is most
text editors have a structure similar to shown in the figure regardless of features and the
computers
Command language Processor accepts command, uses semantic routines – performs
functions such as editing and viewing. The semantic routines involve traveling, editing,
viewing and display functions.
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Editing
Editing
buffer
component Editing
filter
Traveling Main
component memory
input Command
language Viewing
processor Viewing Viewing filter
component buffer
Paging
Routines
Output
devices Display File
component system
Control
Data Typical Editor Structure
• Editing operations are specified explicitly by the user and display operations are
specified implicitly by the editor. Traveling and viewing operations may be invoked
either explicitly by the user or implicitly by the editing operations.
• In editing a document, the start of the area to be edited is determined by the current
editing pointer maintained by the editing component. Editing component is a collection
of modules dealing with editing tasks. Current editing pointer can be set or reset due to
next paragraph, next screen, cut paragraph, paste paragraph etc..,.
• When editing command is issued, editing component invokes the editing filter –
generates a new editing buffer – contains part of the document to be edited from current
editing pointer. Filtering and editing may be interleaved, with no explicit editor buffer
being created.
• In viewing a document, the start of the area to be viewed is determined by the current
viewing pointer maintained by the viewing component. Viewing component is a
collection of modules responsible for determining the next view. Current viewing
pointer can be set or reset as a result of previous editing operation.
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• When display needs to be updated, viewing component invokes the viewing filter –
generates a new viewing buffer – contains part of the document to be viewed from
current viewing pointer. In case of line editors – viewing buffer may contain the current
line, Screen editors - viewing buffer contains a rectangular cutout of the quarter plane
of the text.
• Viewing buffer is then passed to the display component of the editor, which produces
a display by mapping the buffer to a rectangular subset of the screen – called a window.
Identical – user edits the text directly on the screen. Disjoint – Find and Replace (For
example, there are 150 lines of text, user is in 100th line, decides to change all
occurrences of ‘text editor’ with ‘editor’).
• The editing and viewing buffers can also be partially overlapped, or one may be
completely contained in the other. Windows typically cover entire screen or a
rectangular portion of it. May show different portions of the same file or portions of
different file. Inter-file editing operations are possible.
• The components of the editor deal with a user document on two levels: In main memory
and in the disk file system. Loading an entire document into main memory may be
infeasible – only part is loaded – demand paging is used – uses editor paging routines.
• Documents may not be stored sequentially as a string of characters. Uses separate editor
data structure that allows addition, deletion, and modification with a minimum of I/O
and character movement.
Types of editors based on computing environment
Editors function in three basic types of computing environments:
1. Time sharing
2. Stand-alone
3. Distributed.
Each type of environment imposes some constraints on the design of an editor.
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• In time sharing environment, editor must function swiftly within the context of the
load on the computer’s processor, memory and I/O devices.
• In stand-alone environment, editors on stand-alone system are built with all the
functions to carry out editing and viewing operations – The help of the OS may also be
taken to carry out some tasks like demand paging.
• In distributed environment, editor has both functions of stand-alone editor; to run
independently on each user’s machine and like a time sharing editor, contend for
shared resources such as files.
5.2 Interactive Debugging Systems:
An interactive debugging system provides programmers with facilities that aid in testing and
debugging of programs. Many such systems are available during these days. Our discussion is
broad in scope, giving the overview of interactive debugging systems – not specific to any
particular existing system.
Here we discuss
- Introducing important functions and capabilities of IDS
- Relationship of IDS to other parts of the system
- The nature of the user interface for IDS
5.2.1. Debugging Functions and Capabilities:
One important requirement of any IDS is the observation and control of the flow of program
execution. Setting break points – execution is suspended, use debugging commands to analyze
the progress of the program, résumé execution of the program. Setting some conditional
expressions, evaluated during the debugging session, program execution is suspended, when
conditions are met, analysis is made, later execution is resumed.
A Debugging system should also provide functions such as tracing and trace back.
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
• Tracing can be used to track the flow of execution logic and data modifications. The
control flow can be traced at different levels of detail – procedure, branch, individual
instruction, and so on…
• Trace back can show the path by which the current statement in the program was
reached. It can also show which statements have modified a given variable or
parameter. The statements are displayed rather than as hexadecimal displacements
Program-Display capabilities
A debugger should have good program-display capabilities.
• Program being debugged should be displayed completely with statement numbers.
• The program may be displayed as originally written or with macro expansion.
• Keeping track of any changes made to the programs during the debugging session.
Support for symbolically displaying or modifying the contents of any of the variables
and constants in the program. Resume execution – after these changes.
To provide these functions, a debugger should consider the language in which the
program being debugged is written. A single debugger – many programming languages –
language independent. The debugger- a specific programming language– language dependent.
The debugger must be sensitive to the specific language being debugged.
The context being used has many different effects on the debugging interaction. The
statements are different depending on the language
Cobol - MOVE 6.5 TO X
Fortran - X = 6.5
C - X = 6.5
Examples of assignment statements
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
Similarly, the condition that X be unequal to Z may be expressed as
COBOL- IF X NOT EQUAL TO Z
FORTRAN- IF(X.NE.Z)
C - IF(X<> Z)
Similar differences exist with respect to the form of statement labels, keywords and so on
The notation used to specify certain debugging functions varies according to the
language of the program being debugged. Sometimes the language translator itself has
debugger interface modules that can respond to the request for debugging by the user. The
source code may be displayed by the debugger in the standard form or as specified by the user
or translator.
It is also important that a debugging system be able to deal with optimized code. Many
optimizations like
- Invariant expressions can be removed from loops
- Separate loops can be combined into a single loop
- Redundant expression may be eliminated
- Elimination of unnecessary branch instructions
Leads to rearrangement of segments of code in the program. All these optimizations
create problems for the debugger, and should be handled carefully.
5.2.2 Relationship with Other Parts of the System:
• The important requirement for an interactive debugger is that it always be available.
Must appear as part of the run-time environment and an integral part of the system.
• When an error is discovered, immediate debugging must be possible. The debugger
must communicate and cooperate with other operating system components such as
interactive subsystems.
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
• Debugging is more important at production time than it is at application-development
time. When an application fails during a production run, work dependent on that
application stops.
• The debugger must also exist in a way that is consistent with the security and
integrity components of the system.
• The debugger must coordinate its activities with those of existing and future language
compilers and interpreters.
5.2.3. User-Interface Criteria:
• Debugging systems should be simple in its organization and familiar in its language,
closely reflect common user tasks.
• The simple organization contribute greatly to ease of training and ease of use.
• The user interaction should make use of full-screen displays and windowing-systems
as much as possible.
• With menus and full-screen editors, the user has far less information to enter and
remember. There should be complete functional equivalence between commands and
menus – user where unable to use full-screen IDSs may use commands.
• The command language should have a clear, logical and simple syntax.
• command formats should be as flexible as possible.
• Any good IDSs should have an on-line HELP facility. HELP should be accessible
from any state of the debugging session.
RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. List out the four tasks to be accomplished by an interactive editor process. (4)
2. Explain user interface. (6)
3. With a diagram explain the structure of an editor. (10)
4. Explain user interface criteria. (6)
5. Explain debugging functions and its capabilities. (8)
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
MACRO PROCESSOR
A Macro represents a commonly used group of statements in the source programming
language.
• A macro instruction (macro) is a notational convenience for the programmer
o It allows the programmer to write shorthand version of a program (module
programming)
• The macro processor replaces each macro instruction with the corresponding group of
source language statements (expanding)
o Normally, it performs no analysis of the text it handles.
o It does not concern the meaning of the involved statements during macro
expansion.
• The design of a macro processor generally is machine independent!
• Two new assembler directives are used in macro definition
o MACRO: identify the beginning of a macro definition
o MEND: identify the end of a macro definition
• Prototype for the macro
o Each parameter begins with ‘&’
▪
name MACRO parameters
:
body
MEND
o Body: the statements that will be generated as the expansion of the macro.
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
6.1. Basic Macro Processor Functions:
• Macro Definition and Expansion
• Macro Processor Algorithms and Data structures
6.1.1Macro Definition and Expansion:
Figure shows the MACRO expansion. The left block shows the MACRO definition
and the right block shows the expanded macro replacing the MACRO call with its block of
executable instruction.
M1 is a macro with two parameters D1 and D2. The MACRO stores the contents of
register A in D1 and the contents of register B in D2. Later M1 is invoked with the parameters
DATA1 and DATA2, Second time with DATA4 and DATA3. Every call of MACRO is
expended with the executable statements.
Fig 6.1: macro call
The statement M1 DATA1, DATA2 is a macro invocation statements that gives the name of
the macro instruction being invoked and the arguments (M1 and M2) to be used in expanding.
A macro invocation is referred as a Macro Call or Invocation.
108
SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
Macro Expansion:
The program with macros is supplied to the macro processor. Each macro invocation
statement will be expanded into the statement s that form the body of the macro, with the
arguments from the macro invocation substituted for the parameters in the macro prototype.
During the expansion, the macro definition statements are deleted since they are no longer
needed.
The arguments and the parameters are associated with one another according to their
positions. The first argument in the macro matches with the first parameter in the macro
prototype and so on.
After macro processing the expanded file can become the input for the Assembler. The
Macro Invocation statement is considered as comments and the statement generated from
expansion is treated exactly as though they had been written directly by the programmer.
he difference between Macros and Subroutines is that the statement s from the body of
the Macro is expanded the number of times the macro invocation is encountered, whereas the
statement of the subroutine appears only once no matter how many times the subroutine is
called. Macro instructions will be written so that the body of the macro contains no labels.
• Problem of the label in the body of macro:
o If the same macro is expanded multiple times at different places in the
program …
o There will be duplicate labels, which will be treated as errors by the
assembler.
• Solutions:
o Do not use labels in the body of macro.
o Explicitly use PC-relative addressing instead.
• Ex, in RDBUFF and WRBUFF macros,
o JEQ *+11
o JLT *-14
• It is inconvenient and error-prone.
109
SYSTEM SOFTWARE 10CS52
The following program shows the concept of Macro Invocation and Macro
Expansion.
Fig 6.2: concept of Macro Invocation and Macro Expansion.
110
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