Martand

see Lawrence Babb, The Divine

Hierarchy, 1975. See also marriage,
eight classical forms.

Marriage Prohibitions
As in other cultures, Hindus have well-
defined rules and prohibitions regard-
ing whom one should and should not
marry—marriages should be endoga-
mous, that is, between members of the
same social subgroup (in this case, the
jati). Within this larger community, it is
generally accepted that the bride and
groom should not come from the same
gotra or the same pravara—both mythic
lineages detailing relationships with
ancient sages. The other strong prohibi-
tion was on marrying those with whom
one had a sapinda relationship—com- The village of Martand is known for its ruins of an
eighth-century temple built to the sun god.
mon ancestry. According to one well-
known code of law, the Mitakshara , the Mars
sapinda relationship ceases after the In Hindu astrology (jyotisha), a planet
seventh generation on the father’s associated with activity, war, and mis-
side, and the fifth generation on the fortune. Due to these associations, Mars
mother’s. People with common is considered a strong yet malignant
ancestors beyond those boundaries may planetary force. Tuesday, the day of the
contract a valid marriage. week ruled by Mars, is considered an
This sapinda formula was routinely inauspicious day, a day on which people
ignored, particularly in parts of often perform rites of protection to
southern India, where marrying one’s safeguard themselves from Mars’s bale-
maternal uncle’s daughter was not ful influence.
only permitted, but considered com-
mendable. While some of the texts in
the dharma literature condemn the Marshall, Sir John
practice as an abomination, others Director General of the Archeological
note that this is a practice peculiar to Survey of India (ASI) from 1901 until
the south, where it is permitted only his retirement in 1931. During his tenure
as part of the family’s customary as director, Marshall discovered then
practice (kulachara). excavated the cities of the Indus Valley
There is a long history for cross- civilization, for which he received
cousin marriage in southern India; it is a his British knighthood. He also carried
common practice even today. Among on the work of his predecessors at
southern Indian brahmins, there is the ASI, particularly Sir Alexander
some speculation that their relatively Cunningham, documenting and cata-
small population—about four percent loging India’s archeological artifacts.
of the total—made it impossible to find
brahmin spouses under the strict crite-
ria. Given the competing imperatives to Martand
marry other brahmins and to observe Village in the state of Jammu and
the lineage restrictions, this custom was Kashmir about forty miles southeast of
deemed less important. Shrinagar, the capital. Martand is noted
as an architectural history site, best

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 Marut

known for its temple to the sun god, Materialist

built during the eighth century. The The name for a philosophical school
temple ruins are in a mountain meadow, espousing the belief that the individ-
offering spectacular views of the sur- ual and the physical body are identi-
rounding mountains. cal. The body is composed of certain
physical elements, so with the death
of the body, the individual ceases to
Marut exist. Since the materialists believed
Class of minor deities considered to be
there is no life after death, they also
the companions of Indra, god of the
believed there is no reason to engage
storm. The Maruts are described as hav-
in religious activities in the hope of a
ing a flashing color, armed with golden
better afterlife. The materialist
weapons symbolic of lightning, and
believes that one should live well,
roaring like lions.
enjoy life to the fullest, and then die.
This viewpoint was first espoused by
Marwari Ajita Keshakambalin, who was a con-
Northern Indian trading community temporary of the Buddha. Its later
named after its place of origin, the adherents were called both Lokayata
Marwar region surrounding Jodhpur in (“worldly”) and Charvaka (after the
Rajasthan. The Marwaris have spread supposed founder). The materialists
all over northern India; many of them were universally reviled by the other
have become extremely wealthy. The philosophical schools, all of whom
Marwaris are stereotyped as ruthless considered their rejection of religious
and cutthroat in their business prac- life dangerous. One of their philo-
tices, yet at the same time, they are sophical theories, and a sign of their
munificent in donations to religious rootedness in concrete experience,
causes, reflecting traditional religious was their position on the pramanas,
piety. The most successful Marwari fam- the means by which human beings
ilies, such as the Birlas, still control large can gain true and accurate knowledge.
parts of the Indian economy. Marwari Most schools admitted at least three
support and patronage is an important such pramanas—perception (prat-
consideration for all northern Indian yaksha), inference (anumana), and
political parties. authoritative testimony (shabda). In
contrast, the materialists accepted
only perception, denying the validity
Masi of the other two. Emphasis is placed
Eleventh month in the Tamil year, cor- on experience and the belief that
responding to the northern Indian what is directly before one’s eyes is
month of Kumbha (the zodiacal sign indisputable.
of Aquarius), usually falling within
February and March. The existence of
several different calendars is a sign of Math
the continuing importance of regional (often translated as “monastery”) A
cultural patterns. One way that the dwelling place for ascetics; usually a
Tamils retain their culture is by preserv- large, well-settled dwelling for a number
ing their traditional calendar. Tamil of ascetics belonging to an established
is one of the few regional languages order. The four most famous maths are
in India with an ancient, well- believed to have been established by the
established literary tradition. See also philosopher Shankaracharya: the Jyotir
Tamil months, Tamil Nadu, and Math in the Himalayan town of
Tamil language. Joshimath; the Govardhan Math in the
city of Puri, on the Bay of Bengal; the

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 Matsya

Sharada Math in the city of Dwaraka the supreme spirit, Mathurakavi was
on the Arabian Sea; and the Shringeri able to rouse Nammalvar from a yogic
Math in the town of Shringeri in trance in which the latter had spent
southern India. These maths are the much of his life. From that point
headquarters for the four major Mathurakavi served Nammalvar as his
groups in the Dashanami sect guru. Whereas the other Alvars were
Sanyasis, renunciant ascetics who are quite prolific, Mathurakavi wrote only
devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva. ten songs, all in praise of his master. For
Although most maths do not have the further information see Kamil Zvelebil,
status of these four, they all serve as Tamil Literature, 1975; John Stirling
ascetic and religious centers. Morley Hooper, Hymns of the Alvars,
1929; and A. K. Ramanujan (trans.),
Hymns for the Drowning, 1981.
Mathura
City and sacred site (tirtha) in the
Braj region of the state of Uttar Matrilinear Succession
Pradesh, about ninety miles south of (Marumakkatayam) Most of Hindu
Delhi. Mathura is known as the town society is overwhelmingly patrilineal
in which the god Krishna was born. (organized around the father’s familial
The Krishna Janam Bhumi, purport- line). However, the Nayars of the state
edly the site of his birth, can still be of Kerala in southern India base soci-
seen today. Krishna was spirited out of ety on matrilineal succession (the
Mathura on that same night because mother’s familial line). Matrilineal suc-
his wicked uncle Kamsa, who was cession was practiced from very early
king of Mathura, had killed all of times, although it had largely disap-
Krishna’s older siblings at birth. When peared by the middle of the twentieth
Krishna came of age he returned to century. Under a matrilineal system,
Mathura, killed Kansa, and claimed both descent and inheritance are
his patrimony. As with sites in the passed on through the mother’s line,
Braj region, Mathura is full of associa- which is center of the family. The
tions with Krishna’s earthly life; these woman’s husband lives in her family
allow his devotees (bhakta) access to home, but has no claim upon their
him, in that they can visualize the children, and no claim on any of their
places he visited, and thus through marital property. A man has a certain
imagination take part in his mythic amount of control over his own fami-
deeds themselves. ly’s ancestral property—which he is
often called to manage—but the prop-
erty ultimately is inherited by his sis-
Mathurakavi ter’s children, rather than his own. In
(10th c.) The last of the Alvars, a group of many cases the woman’s “official” hus-
twelve poet-saints who lived in southern band never actually consummates the
India between the seventh and tenth marriage, and the woman is free to
centuries. All the Alvars were devotees form long-term liaisons with other
(bhakta) of the god Vishnu, and their men, according to her choice.
emphasis on passionate devotion
(bhakti) to a personal god, conveyed
through hymns sung in the Tamil lan- Matsya
guage, transformed and revitalized (“fish”) In the secret ritually-based reli-
Hindu religious life. According to tradi- gious practice known as tantra, fish is
tion, Mathurakavi was the disciple of the second of the “Five Forbidden
Nammalvar, to whom he was led from Things” (panchamakara), which, in
northern India by a great light in the “left hand” (vamachara) tantric ritual,
southern sky. By asking a question about are used in their actual forms, but are

431
 Matsya Avatar

represented by symbolic substitutes in the god Shiva. He is also known as

“right hand” (dakshinachara) tantric Minanath. According to the Nathpanthi
ritual. “Respectable” Hindu society tradition, Matsyendranath received his
strongly condemns the consumption of teaching from Shiva himself, by taking
nonvegetarian food, so this ritual use the form of a fish (in Sanskrit, the words
must be seen in the larger tantric matsya and mina both mean “fish”), and
context. One of the underlying tantric eavesdropping while Shiva was teaching
assumptions is the ultimate unity of his wife Parvati. For further information
everything that exists. From a tantric about Gorakhnath and the Nath tradi-
perspective, to affirm that the entire tion, see George Weston Briggs,
universe is one principle means that the Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis,
adept must reject all concepts based on 1973. See also tantra.
dualistic thinking. The “Five Forbidden
Things” provide a ritual means for
breaking down duality. In this ritual the Matter, Primeval
adept breaks societal norms forbidding The general translation given to the
consumption of intoxicants, nonvege- Sanskrit word prakrti, one of the two
tarian food, and illicit sexuality in a con- first principles in the Samkhya philo-
scious effort to sacralize what is sophical school. See prakrti.
normally forbidden. Tantric adepts cite
such ritual use of forbidden things as Mauni
proof that their practice involves a more Derived from the word muni (“sage”),
exclusive qualification (adhikara), and mauni designates a person who is
is thus superior to common practice. For observing a vow of silence as a religious
further information see Arthur Avalon act. Just as members of certain Christian
(Sir John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta, monastic orders observe a vow of
1978; Swami Agehananda Bharati, The silence to turn their thoughts inward
Tantric Tradition, 1977; and Douglas and enrich their inner lives, in the same
Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three way Hindu ascetics have taken vows of
Cities, 1990. silence as a tool for spiritual develop-
ment. At times these vows may be for a
Matsya Avatar finite period of time (a week, a month,
The first of the ten avatars or incarna- and so on), but even now there are
tions of the god Vishnu, which all took ascetics who have not spoken in
place at moments of crisis in the cos- decades, communicating through
mos. See Fish avatar. expression, gesture, and writing on a
piece of paper or a slate.

Matsyagandhi
(“[she whose] smell is fish”) In Hindu Mauni Amavasya
mythology, another name for queen This festival falls on the day of the
Satyavati. Matsyagandhi is a fisher-girl new moon (amavasya) in the lunar
who stinks of fish. She attracts the eye of month of Magh ( January–February).
a powerful sage, who later uses his Those observing this holiday pass the
magic powers to give her a pleasant day in silence. The word mauni (speech-
scent. See Satyavati. less) is derived from the word muni
(sage); silence is seen as one of the reli-
gious practices helping to promote spir-
Matsyendranath itual awareness. During the entire
According to tradition, the guru of the month of Magh, bathing (snana) in the
sage Gorakhnath and the founder of the Ganges (or another sacred river) is seen
Nathpanthis, a group of renunciant as meritorious. Bathing on the day of
ascetics who are devotees (bhakta) of the new moon offers greater sanctity. A
432
 Maya Devi

well-known spot for this rite is at the city tradition, maya describes how human
of Allahabad, at the confluence of the beings become confused about the true
Ganges and the Yamuna Rivers. nature of the world and themselves.
Such illusion keeps them enmeshed in
bondage to their desires and continues
Mauritius the cycle of reincarnation (samsara)
Island nation in the Indian Ocean, 1,200 that comes from this; at the same time,
miles east of the African coast. Mauritius however, such people are unaware that
has a significant Hindu diaspora popu- they are in bondage.
lation. As in many other cases, Indians In Hindu theism—in which the high-
were first brought to Mauritius as inden- est power is conceived as a deity—maya
tured agricultural laborers, in this case is generally described as one of God’s
as workers on the sugar plantations. powers, through which the deity can
Currently, they comprise nearly 75 per- accomplish his or her purposes; in this
cent of the island’s population, running understanding, maya is seen as an exist-
the nation’s political system. The Hindus ing entity. The analysis of maya is a little
on Mauritius have transferred India’s different in the Advaita Vedanta school,
sacred geography to their new land: A which propounds a position known as
southern lake named Grand Bassin is monism. Monism claims that a single
claimed to have an underground con- Ultimate Reality, called the unqualified
nection to the River Ganges, and the Brahman, lies behind all things. Despite
lake has become a significant pilgrim- the appearance of difference and diver-
age site. sity, the only thing that really exists is
this formless, unqualified Brahman. For
Maurya Dynasty the Advaitins, the assumption of diversity
The earliest of the great Indian empires. is a fundamental misunderstanding of
At its zenith, the Maurya dynasty ruled the ultimate nature of things. The
over most of the Indian subcontinent, Advaita school accepts that God wields
except in the deep south. The dynasty maya as a power, but since God (as a
was founded by Chandragupta Maurya being with particular qualities) is con-
in the fourth century B.C.E., but reached sidered lower than the highest, ultimate
its peak under his grandson Ashoka, Brahman, both God and maya are part
who reigned from 269–232 B.C.E. The this lower reality. Thus, both are ulti-
kingdom was centered in the lower mately not real. The Advaitins describe
Ganges basin, with its capital at maya as confusion from the lack of
Pataliputra, near the modern city of correct understanding; the confusion
Patna in the state of Bihar. The Mauryan disappears when perfect liberation has
empire is the first historically docu- been reached.
mented centralized Indian empire; it
was operated and maintained by a large Maya Devi
governmental bureaucracy. Despite its Local goddess considered to be a form
size and organization, the empire was of Durga, whose home is in the northern
short-lived. It began to disintegrate on Indian town and sacred city of
Ashoka’s death; fifty years later it had Haridwar. According to local tradition,
virtually disappeared. the site where her temple is built is one
of the Shakti Pithas, a network of sites
Maya sacred to the Goddess which spreads
A Sanskrit word. Maya’s literal meaning throughout the subcontinent. Each
is “magic” or “illusion”; the connotation Shakti Pitha marks the site where a body
it carries is a magic show or illusion in part of the dismembered goddess Sati
which objects appear to be present, but fell to earth, taking form there as a dif-
are not. In the Hindu philosophical ferent goddess; Maya Devi was Sati’s
433
 Mayapur

navel. Although this claim is not attested conservative. As the product of a dead
in other literature on the Shakti Pithas, animal, meat is seen as impure, and
the site itself is believed to be very old. those who are concerned about reli-
One of the oldest names for the gious purity (particularly brahmins)
Haridwar region is Mayapur, the “city of will generally avoid it for that reason.
Maya.” See also pitha. Even nonvegetarians recognize a hierar-
chy of animal foods. Some people will
eat only eggs; others will also eat chicken
Mayapur and/or fish, whereas others will also eat
City in West Bengal on the western side mutton. Pork is generally avoided by all
of the Hugli River across from the holy but the lowest-status people; pigs are
city of Navadvip, about sixty-five miles considered scavengers and deemed
north of Calcutta. Although both cities unclean. Beef is taboo for religious
claim to be the birthplace of the Bengali reasons, except for a very small Hindu
saint Chaitanya, Navadvip’s claim is community in southern India. Even
older. However, the claim that Mayapur those who eat meat generally do not eat
was the birthplace of Chaitanya is sup- it in large quantities. Because of its
ported by the International Society for relatively high cost, it is generally
Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), more prepared as one dish among many,
popularly known as the Hare Krishnas, rather than the central part of the meal.
who have built a magnificent temple
complex at Mayapur as the headquar-
ters of the organization. For extensive Medhatithi
information about this site, see E. Alan (mid-9th c.) Author of the most authori-
Morinis, Pilgrimage in the Hindu tative commentary on the Manu Smrti,
Tradition, 1984. also known as the “Laws of Manu.”
Medhatithi was schooled in the tech-
niques of textual interpretation devel-
Mayashiva oped by the Purva Mimamsa school,
(“illusionary Shiva”) In Hindu mythology, one of the six schools of Hindu philoso-
a demon named Jalandhara assumes phy. Due to his interpretive abilities, his
the form of the god Shiva in an attempt commentary quickly became the
to trick Parvati, the goddess, into having accepted standard.
sexual relations with him. Jalandhara
has been unable to conquer Shiva on the
battlefield, so he hopes that he can Medicine
diminish Shiva’s power by compromis- See ayurveda, Charaka Samhita, and
ing the faithfulness of his wife. Sushruta Samhita.
Jalandhara comes to Parvati in Shiva’s
form, but she is so suspicious that
Jalandhara is unable to fulfill his desires. Megasthenes
Jalandhara’s power is eventually broken (3rd c. B.C.E.) Ambassador sent to the
in the same way, when Vishnu (in the court of Chandragupta Maurya by
form of Jalandhara) manages to seduce Seleucus Nicator, a general in Alexander
Jalandhara’s wife, Vrnda. the Great’s army who ruled the eastern
part of the empire after Alexander’s
death. Megasthenes lived for many
Meat Eating years in the Mauryan capital,
An accepted part of the diet for most Pataliputra. His reports of life there are
Hindus. A 1996 poll of urban Hindus the first European accounts of India. His
found that only a quarter of the respon- original account no longer exists, but
dents were vegetarians. However, this the fact of its existence is attested to
figure may be higher in villages, where by the many references to it in the
people tend to be more traditional and works of later Greek writers; these
434
 Mela

writers, however, often voice doubts

about his credibility and veracity. See
also Maurya dynasty.

Meghaduta
(“Cloud-Messenger”) One of the great
poetic works by Kalidasa (5th c.?), gen-
erally considered to be the greatest clas-
sical Sanskrit poet. The Meghaduta is a
short poem consisting of one hundred
verses, written entirely in an extremely
long meter called mandakranta—sev-
enteen syllables to each quarter verse.
The poem tells the story of a yaksha
(nature sprite) who has been temporarily
Pilgrims in Allahabad gather in a
banished to the southern part of India.
mela tent to listen to a guru.
Separated from his beloved wife, who is
at their home in the kingdom of Kubera discourses titled God Speaks. Like many
in the Himalayas, the yaksha sees a contemporary Hindu missionary fig-
monsoon rain cloud moving northward ures, Meher Baba emphasized the need
in its annual journey. He implores it to for devotion to one’s guru or religious
carry a message of love to his beloved. preceptor, through which the disciple
The yaksha describes the regions would gain all things. For further infor-
through which the cloud travels. This mation from a devotee’s (bhakta) per-
description gives a vivid picture of spective, see Jean Adriel, Avatar, 1947.
everyday life and the cultural centers of
Kalidasa’s time. In some sources the
poem is called Meghasandesha, “The
Mehndipur
Village in the state of Rajasthan in the
Message [carried by] a Cloud.”
southern region between the cities of
Agra and Jaipur. The village is best
Meghanada known for the temple to the god Balaji,
(“roaring like thunder”) In the considered to be a form of the monkey-
Ramayana, the earlier of the two great god Hanuman. People possessed by
Indian epics, Meghanada is one of the malevolent spirits come to Balaji to be
epithets of Indrajit, son of the demon- cured through his power. For a thorough
king Ravana. See Indrajit. discussion of the language of posses-
sion and exorcism, see Sudhir Kakar,
Shamans, Mystics, and Doctors, 1991
Meher Baba
(b. Merwan Sheriar Irani, 1894–1969)
Modern religious figure who was born a Mela
Parsi, but whose teachings draw on (“meeting”) In the widest sense, the
Islamic mystical thought and Hindu word mela can refer to any type of large
devotional (bhakti) teachings. Meher gathering, usually for some specific pur-
Baba (“Divine Father”) claimed to be an pose. In a religious context, the word
avatar or “incarnation” of the divine, mela is generally translated as “festival”
and his followers accept him as such. In or fair. Melas include commercial inter-
1925 he took a vow of silence, which he ests, religious activity, and entertain-
kept for the rest of his life, communicat- ment. Melas are usually attended by vast
ing through gestures and an alphabet numbers of religious pilgrims, traveling
board. Despite his silence, he compiled to the site of the festival. By far the
his teachings in a five-volume set of largest of these melas is the Kumbha
435
 Mena

Mela at Allahabad. In 1989, the Kumbha considered a sign of auspiciousness or

Mela drew 15 million people on a single good fortune, since it indicates women’s
day, and millions more during the reproductive capacities. The ritual
month of the festival. observances and taboos for menstruat-
ing women vary widely between differ-
ing social groups. In some groups,
Mena women are subject to only a few restric-
In Hindu mythology, the wife of the tions, such as a ban on entering temples
minor deity Himalaya, and the mother during that time. In other groups,
of Parvati, the goddess. Mena christens women are expected to confine them-
her daughter, Uma, through her excla- selves to certain parts of the house and
mation “U Ma!” (“Oh, don’t!”) when to refrain from everyday activities such
Parvati announces her desire to make as cooking. Although such strict practice
the god Shiva her husband. The Shiva sounds oppressive, for many women
Purana details Mena’s initial discomfi- this interval was prized as a monthly
ture with her unconventional son-in- respite from their everyday duties,
law, yet later suggests Shiva as the which would be performed by the other
paradigm for the ideal husband, since women in the household.
he is completely devoted to his wife.

Mercury
Menaka In Hindu astrology (jyotisha), a planet
In Hindu mythology, a beautiful celestial associated with mental quickness,
maiden (apsara), who is a minion of memory, and education, based on its
Indra, the king of the gods. Menaka’s short orbit around the sun. Despite
primary function is to seduce sages these generally positive features,
threatening to replace Indra as the ruler Mercury is considered a weak planet,
of heaven. In traditional Indian culture, easily influenced toward benevolence
semen is seen as the concentrated and malevolence by other planets,
essence of a man’s vital energies; celibacy or by its position in the natal
is a means to conserve and retain these horoscope (janampatrika). Mercury’s
energies. Menaka’s powers of attraction association with the mind suggests that
are used to seduce these ascetics, the mind’s powers can be harnessed for
diminishing their accumulated spiritual either good or evil ends. During the
powers. Her most notable partner is the week, Mercury is said to rule over
sage Vishvamitra, who is twice smitten Wednesday; this day is not heavily
by her charms. Their first liaison marked as auspicious or inauspicious,
results in the birth of the maiden reflecting the planet’s light powers.
Shakuntala, celebrated in the drama
Abhijnanashakuntala, written by the
poet Kalidasa. During their second liai- Mercury
son, Vishvamitra lives with Menaka for (2) Elemental mercury is a pivotal
ten years, before leaving her for renun- substance in Indian alchemy. Hindu
ciant life in the forest. alchemy analyzes the world as a series
of bipolar opposites in tension with
one another. Unifying these opposing
Menstruation forces brings spiritual progress and
In traditional Hindu culture all bodily end of reincarnation (samsara). This
discharges are considered to be a source model of uniting or transcending
of ritual impurity (ashaucha). Women opposing forces is shared with Hindu
are considered ritually unclean during tantra, a secret, ritually-based religious
their menstrual periods; menstrual practice. This theme is shared with
fluid is considered a source of impurity. hatha yoga, which is based on a series
However, menstruation is also
436
 Mewar

of physical exercises that are also patterns. The first metric pattern is
believed to affect the subtle body. based simply on the number of syllables
The governing metaphor for this in a line. In the second pattern, each line
combination of opposites is the union of contains a certain number of metric
sun and moon. Both the sun and the beats, based on the distinction between
moon are connected to other opposing “heavy” and “light” syllables. A heavy
principles through an elaborate series of syllable is any syllable with a long vowel
associations. In keeping with this bipo- or a consonant cluster and is given two
lar symbolism, mercury is conceived as metric beats; all other syllables are con-
the semen of the god Shiva and thus full sidered light and counted as one beat.
of healing power. It is also identified Sanskrit poetry tends to stress the
with the moon (perhaps through its former pattern, and has codified meters
bright silvery hue), with healing and ranging from four to twenty-six syllables
restorative power, and with the nectar of per half-line, yet even within these syl-
immortality. Elemental sulfur is identi- labic constraints each meter usually has
fied with the goddess Shakti’s uterine a prescribed sequence of light and heavy
blood. When mercury and sulfur are syllables as well. Two different Sanskrit
mixed and consumed, the aspirant’s poetic meters may thus have the same
body is purified and refined, eventually number of syllables, but vary in their
rendering it immortal. Modern descrip- syllabic patterns. Although such subtle
tions of this practice warn that it should differences could generate vast num-
only be carried out under the direction bers of meters, in practice there were
of one’s guru (spiritual teacher); other- only about a hundred. The vast majority
wise these combinations will be harm- of Sanskrit texts are written in a single
ful, since by itself mercury is a deadly meter, the anushtubh, which has eight
poison. For further information see syllables per half-line.
Shashibhushan B. Dasgupta, Obscure Later devotional (bhakti) poetry,
Religious Cults, 1962; and David Gordon particularly in northern India, tend to
White, The Alchemical Body, 1996. favor poetic forms based on the number
of metric beats. The most popular forms
are the doha, which has twenty-four
Meru metric beats in two lines, and the chau-
Mythical mountain in the center of the pai, which has four lines of sixteen beats
continent of Jambudvipa, the inner- each. Although there are several poetic
most of the concentric landmasses that forms based on the number of syllables
make up the visible world in traditional in each line, particularly the savaiya and
Hindu cosmology; Mount Meru is the the kavitt, these were used less often.
center of the entire world, the pivot of
the entire created order. It is said to
extend far up into the heavens and Mewar
have its roots far beneath the earth, and In the time before Indian independence
on its crest is a divine city which is the in 1947, Mewar was a princely state in
home of the gods. The mythical Meru is southern Rajasthan, the capital of
often identified with the Himalayan which was in the city of Udaipur. In
mountain known as Kailas. For this the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
reason Kailas has been an important turies, Mewar was one of the important
pilgrimage place (tirtha), despite its centers for the Rajasthani style of
inaccessible location. miniature painting. The Rajasthani
style is characterized by a flat perspec-
tive. Visual power is derived from vivid
Meter, Poetic bands of colors that often serve as a
Indian poetry has well-developed metrical backdrop to the painting.
forms, basically following two dominant

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 Mimamsa Sutras

Minakshi
(“fish-eyed”) Presiding deity of the
Minakshi temple in the city of Madurai
in the state of Tamil Nadu. Her name
refers both to the shape of her eyes (long
and oval), and to their fluttering move-
ment, both of which are considered
marks of feminine beauty in classical
India. Minakshi was originally a local
deity, the guardian for the city of
Madurai. As Madurai became impor-
tant, by virtue of being the Pandya
dynasty capital, so did Minakshi.
According to her charter myth, Minakshi
is born with three breasts—already
a sign that she is unusual—and is
raised by her parents as a man. As she
accedes to the throne in Madurai, she
vows that she will only marry a man
who can defeat her in battle. She
fights and conquers all the kings of
the earth, but when she approaches
The east gate of the Minakshi Temple in the city of the god Shiva, she is suddenly stricken
Madurai. The temple is dedicated to the goddess with modesty and transformed from
Minakshi, the city’s guardian. a powerful warrior to a shy and
Mimamsa Sutras bashful girl. At this moment her third
The founding text of the Purva breast disappears, further signifying
Mimamsa school, one of the six schools the loss of her special status. Minakshi
of traditional Hindu philosophy. The and Shiva (in his manifestation as
Mimamsa Sutras are traditionally Sundareshvara) are married. Their
attributed to the sage Jaimini, who is wedding is celebrated every year in
believed to have lived in the fourth Madurai during the Chittirai festival.
century B.C.E. The Mimamsa school Despite her transformation in the
was most concerned with the investiga- charter myth, Minakshi is still an unusual
tion of dharma (“righteous action”), goddess. The wedding of a goddess
believed to be revealed in the Vedas, usually marks her domestication and
the earliest Hindu religious texts. implies subordination to her husband.
Much of Mimamsa thought is con- Minakshi, however, remains the more
cerned with principles and methods important deity in Madurai, perhaps
for textual interpretation, to discover reflecting her previous status as the
and interpret the instructions contained city’s guardian deity. For more informa-
in the Vedas. The Mimamsa Sutras tion see Dean David Shulman, Tamil
were elaborated in numerous commen- Temple Myths, 1980.
taries, the most famous of which
were written by Kumarila and
Prabhakara in the seventh century.
Minanath
Another epithet for Matsyendranath,
For further information and text, see
traditionally cited as the spiritual
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles
teacher (guru) of Gorakhnath, the great
A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian
yogi. See Matsyendranath.
Philosophy, 1957.

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