40-Animal Hormones

40
Animal Hormones
Chapter 40 Key Concepts
40.1 Hormones Circulate Around the Body

and Affect Target Cells
40.2 The Endocrine System and Nervous
System Work Together
40.3 Hormones Play Important Roles in
Development
40.4 Hormones Regulate Metabolism and
the Internal Environment
Key Concept 40.1 Focus Your Learning
• Hormones affect target cells that have appropriate

receptors.
• Hormones stimulate signal transduction pathways in
target cells either by binding to specific receptors on cell
surfaces or by diffusing through the cell membrane to
bind to internal receptors.
• Different target cells can respond to the same hormone
in different ways depending on the signal transduction
pathway stimulated.
• Intercellular chemical signaling mechanisms evolved
early in the evolutionary history of multicellular
animals.
40.1 Hormones Circulate Around the Body and Affect Target Cells
Endocrines are chemical signals secreted by

epithelial cells directly into the extracellular fluid
(ECF).
From the ECF, endocrines can diffuse locally and also
into the blood, where they circulate throughout the
body.
The endocrine system is like a radio or cell-phone system,

broadcasting signals that can be picked up by anyone with
an appropriate receiver.
The signals are received only by cells that have appropriate
receptors, and responses are determined by the receiving
cell’s signal transduction machinery.
Hormones are endocrine signals that enter the blood and

activate target cells.
• Examples: Testosterone, estrogen, adrenalin, insulin
Paracrines affect target cells near the release site.

• Example: Histamine, a mediator of inflammation
Autocrines bind to receptors on the same cells that secrete

them.
Hormones and paracrines can have autocrine functions as a
means of negative feedback to control their own rates of
secretion.
Some endocrine cells exist as

single cells (e.g., in the
digestive tract).
Endocrine glands:
Aggregations of endocrine cells
that secrete hormones within
the body.
Exocrine glands secrete
substances through ducts to
the outside of the body (e.g.,
sweat and salivary glands).
Neuroendocrines or neurohormones are secreted by

neurons and enter the circulation.
Pheromones are chemical signals released from the body of
an animal to influence the behavior and physiology of
other animals.
Three classes of hormones:

• Peptide and protein
hormones (e.g., insulin):
 Water-soluble, easily
transported in blood
 Can be packaged in
vesicles and released by
exocytosis
• Steroid hormones (e.g.,

estrogen, testosterone):
 Synthesized from cholesterol
 Lipid-soluble; pass easily
through cell membranes
 Usually bound to carrier
molecules in the blood
• Amine hormones (e.g., epinephrine):
 Mostly synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine (e.g.,

thyroxine)
 Some are water-soluble; others are lipid-soluble; their
modes of release differ accordingly.
Water-soluble hormones can’t pass

through cell membranes; they bind
to receptors on target cells.
The receptors are transmembrane
glycoprotein complexes with 3
domains:
• Binding domain
• Transmembrane domain
• Cytoplasmic domain that extends
into the cytoplasm
When a hormone binds to the

binding domain, the
cytoplasmic domain initiates
the cell’s response.
Second messengers activate a
cascade of events, activating
protein kinases or protein
phosphatases.
Enzymes are activated or
inactivated; or gene
expression is altered.
Lipid-soluble hormones can diffuse through cell

membranes; their receptors are usually inside cells.
They usually act by entering the nucleus and altering gene
expression.
(a) Water-soluble hormone; (b) Lipid-soluble hormone;
receptor in plasma receptor in nucleus or
membrane cytoplasm
SECRETORY SECRETORY
CELL CELL
Water- Lipid-
soluble soluble
hormone hormone
Blood
Blood vessel
vessel
Transport
Receptor protein protein
TARGET
TARGET CELL CELL
(a) Water-soluble hormone; (b) Lipid-soluble hormone;
receptor in plasma receptor in nucleus or
membrane cytoplasm
Receptor protein
TARGET
CELL
TARGET OR
Receptor
CELL protein
Cytoplasmic Gene
response regulation
Cytoplasmic
response Gene
regulation
NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS
One hormone can trigger different responses in

different types of cells.
• Example: Epinephrine and norepinephrine
are involved in the fight-or-flight
response.
The sympathetic nervous system responds to a
sudden fright by releasing norepinephrine.
Endocrine cells in the adrenal glands are stimulated to secrete

both epinephrine and norepinephrine, which quickly circulate
in the blood.
• They bind to receptors in the heart, blood vessels, liver, and
fat cells.
• Heart rate increases; some blood vessels constrict to send
more blood to muscles.
Epinephrine stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and

release glucose into the blood as a quick energy supply.
In fatty tissue, it stimulates breakdown of fats to fatty acids—
another source of energy.
Figure 40.4 Prolactin’s Structure Is Conserved, but Its Functions Have Evolved (Part 3)
Figure 40.5 The Endocrine System of Humans
• Oxytocin and vasopressin are produced in the

hypothalamus and secreted from nerve terminals in
the posterior pituitary.
• The anterior pituitary produces four tropic
hormones plus growth hormone, prolactin, and
melanocyte stimulating hormone.
• The release of hormones from the anterior pituitary
is controlled by hypothalamic hormones transported
to the pituitary in portal vessels. Regulation
involves short-loop and long-loop negative feedback.
40.2 The Endocrine System and Nervous System Work Together
Advantage of hormones: Originate in one place but reach all

cells and coordinate activities.
Disadvantage: Action is slow.
The nervous system communicates rapidly, can be turned off
quickly, and has access to information.
Thus it is advantageous for these systems to work together.
The nervous and endocrine systems control and regulate

all the physiological and behavioral mechanisms
that contribute to homeostasis, survival, and
reproduction.
“Pituitary gland”
The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus of the brain.
The pituitary connects the nervous and
endocrine systems and is involved in
hormonal control of many processes.
Anterior pituitary: Originates from

gut epithelial tissue; controlled by
hypothalamic neurohormones that
travel via the blood.
Posterior pituitary: Originates
from neural tissue; contains the
axons of hypothalamic neurons
that release neurohormones.
Hypothalamic neurons secrete two neurohormones into the

posterior pituitary:
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases the water
retained by the kidneys when necessary.
• Also called vasopressin—it causes the constriction of
peripheral blood vessels to elevate blood pressure.
2. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions in childbirth and

milk flow.
• The baby’s suckling stimulates neurons in the mother’s
brain that cause secretion of oxytocin.
 An example of how the nervous system integrates
information that regulates hormonally mediated
processes.
Neurosecretory cells
of the hypothalamus
Hypothalamic Portal vessels

releasing and
inhibiting
hormones
HORMONE Endocrine cells of
Posterior pituitary the anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary
TARGET hormones
FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin MSH GH
Testes or Thyroid Adrenal Mammary Melanocytes Liver, bones,

ovaries cortex glands other tissues
Tropic effects only: they Nontropic effects only Tropic and

control other endocrine nontropic effects
glands
Anterior pituitary also secretes:

• Growth hormone (GH) promotes growth by
stimulating cells to take up amino acids, and liver
cells to produce signals to stimulate growth of bone
and cartilage.
Anterior pituitary also secretes:

• Endorphins and enkephalins are the body’s
natural painkillers, acting as neurotransmitters in
the brain.
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

stimulates the production of the pigment melanin
in skin and hair.
Neurohormones produced by
hypothalamic neurons
reach the anterior pituitary
via the portal blood
vessels that run through
the pituitary stalk.
Hypothalamic neurons do not

extend into the anterior pituitary
as they do into the posterior.
Thus, anterior pituitary makes and
secretes its own hormones, but
the secretion of these hormones
are controlled by hypothalamus.
Figure 40.7 The Anterior Pituitary Is Controlled by the Hypothalamus (Part 1)
There are many hypothalamic hormones, including:

• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Prolactin-releasing and release-inhibiting hormones
• GH-releasing and GH-release inhibiting hormones
• Corticotropin-releasing hormones
Anterior pituitary cells are also

under negative feedback
control by the hormones of the
target glands they stimulate.
Anterior
pituitary
Posterior
pituitary
Besides being negative feedback signals controlling their own

secretion, hormones influence the nervous system in other
ways.
• Example: Oxytocin plays a role in the birth process and
stimulating milk flow; it also promotes bonding between
mother and baby, and pair bonding in many animals,
including humans.
The hormone irisin may mediate effects of exercise

on the brain.
Many experiments show that exercise improves
cognitive functions, especially in the hippocampus
which is involved in learning and memory.
BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) is involved
in the beneficial effects of exercise.
(• Classic experiments revealed that hormones

control insect metamorphosis.)
• Vertebrate sexual development is controlled by
steroid hormones.
• Human puberty results from a change in
sensitivity of the hypothalamus to negative
feedback.
40.3 Hormones Play Important Roles in Development
“Gonads”
Hormones also control development in vertebrates—
anterior pituitary growth hormone affects growth.
The gonads (testes and ovaries) produce steroid
hormones involved in sex development.
Androgens: Male; dominant form is

testosterone.
Estrogens and progesterone:
Female; dominant form is estradiol.
In development, sex hormones
determine whether a fetus develops
into a phenotypic female or male.
At about 7 weeks, expression of

genes on the Y chromosome
cause the gonads to produce
androgens and the male
reproductive system develops.
If there is no Y chromosome, and
no androgen, female
reproductive structures develop.
At puberty, production of sex hormones increases.

Gonad activity is controlled by gonadotropins from
the anterior pituitary:
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Gonadotropins are controlled by

hypothalamic gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH)—
its release increases at
puberty.
Increase in gonadotropins leads
to increased levels of sex
steroids and development of
secondary sex characteristics.
• The thyroid gland secretes the hormones thyroxine,

which has multiple effects on metabolism, and
calcitonin, which reduces blood calcium levels.
• Calcitriol increases blood calcium.
• Clusters of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans
in the pancreas secrete the hormones insulin,
glucagon, and somatostatin.
• The adrenal gland consists of the adrenal medulla,
which secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine,
and the adrenal cortex, which secretes steroid
hormones.
40.4 Hormones Regulate Metabolism and the Internal
Environment
“Thyroid gland”
The thyroid gland secretes 2
hormones:
• Thyroxine, which regulates
metabolism, is produced by
follicle epithelial cells.
• Calcitonin is produced by
cells between the follicles
and is involved in blood
calcium regulation.
Environment
Thyroglobulin is produced and secreted into the lumen

of the follicle, where it is iodinated and stored until
processed by the epithelial cells to generate T3 and T4.
In-Text Art, Ch. 40, p. 858 (1)
Thyroxine (Tetraiodothyronine), or T4
In-Text Art, Ch. 40, p. 858 (2)
Triiodothyronine, or T3
Environment
Anterior pituitary secretes

thyrotropin or thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH),
which activates the follicles to
produce thyroxine.
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
(TRH), produced in the
hypothalamus activates the TSH-
producing pituitary cells.
Environment
Thyroxine is lipid-soluble; it binds

to receptors in the nucleus to
stimulate genes involved in
metabolic pathways to increase
metabolic rates.
Insufficient thyroxine in a human
fetus or growing child greatly
retards physical and mental
development, resulting in a
condition known as cretinism.
Environment
A goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland;

associated with either hyperthyroidism
(excess thyroxine) or hypothyroidism
(thyroxine deficiency).
Graves disease is an autoimmune disease;
antibodies to TSH receptors on follicle
cells cause uncontrolled production of
thyroxine.
Environment
The most common cause of hypothyroid goiter is

iodine deficiency—follicle cells cannot produce
thyroxine.
Without thyroxine in the blood, TSH levels remain
high, and the thyroid continues to produce
thyroglobulin.
Environment
Regulation of calcium levels in the blood is critical

to body function.
There are several mechanisms for changing blood
calcium levels:
• Deposition or absorption of bone
• Excretion or retention of Ca by kidneys
• Absorption of Ca from digestive tract

Environment
These mechanisms are controlled by 3 hormones:

1. Calcitonin is released by the thyroid; lowers blood Ca by
regulating bone turnover.
• Bone is continuously remodeled: osteoclasts break down bone
and release Ca into the blood; osteoblasts take up Ca and
deposit it in new bone.
• Calcitonin decreases the activity of osteoclasts and thus favors
removal of Ca from the blood and deposition in bone by
osteoblasts.
Environment
2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH); secreted by the

parathyroid glands.
• Blood Ca levels control synthesis and release of PTH—
when low, PTH is released, which stimulates bone
turnover by osteoclasts and osteoblasts and increases
blood Ca levels.
• PTH also stimulates kidneys to reabsorb Ca.
Environment
3. Calcitriol is synthesized from vitamin D (calciferol),

which is really a hormone.
• Calciferol is synthesized from cholesterol when skin
cells receive ultraviolet light.
• PTH activates conversion of calciferol to calcitriol in the
liver and kidneys.
• Calcitrol promotes absorption of Ca from the gut.
• The combined actions of PTH and calcitriol raise blood

calcium levels.
Environment
PTH also stimulates release of phosphate from bone.

Small increases in Ca and phosphate in the blood can
result in precipitation of calcium phosphate salts.
This can result in kidney stones and hardening of the
arteries (Ca deposits). PTH acts on kidneys to
eliminate phosphate in the urine.
Figure 40.13 Hormonal Regulation of Calcium
Environment
“Pancreases”
Diabetes mellitus (type I) is caused by lack of the protein
hormone insulin.
Glucose transporters are controlled by insulin.
When insulin binds to cell receptors, transporters move to
the cell membrane and facilitate glucose uptake.
Environment
When glucose is not present, the transporters are

returned to the cytoplasm, and glucose uptake is
inhibited.
Environment
Adult onset or type II diabetes is associated with

obesity, high carbohydrate consumption, and lack of
exercise.
Caused either by low production of insulin or
insensitivity to insulin.
Environment
In both types, glucose builds up in the blood and

increases in the urine.
Urine output increases: water moves from cells to
blood by osmosis, and increased glucose in kidney
tubules pulls more water in by osmosis.
Diabetic person suffers dehydration and lack of
metabolic fuel.
Environment
In 1921, it was discovered that diabetes could be

treated by injecting pancreas extracts.
Today, insulin replacement therapy using
manufactured insulin allows people with type I
diabetes to lead almost normal lives.
Environment
Type II diabetes can be treated with a combination of

dietary changes and weight loss.
The hormone irisin may mediate the beneficial effects
of exercise on glucose metabolism in type II
diabetes.
Environment
Islets of Langerhans: Endocrine cells in the pancreas that

produce 3 hormones.
1. Beta (b) cells produce insulin.
2. Alpha (a) cells produce glucagon—stimulates liver to

convert glycogen to glucose when blood glucose levels fall
below normal.
Environment
When blood glucose rises after a meal, beta cells are stimulated
to produce insulin.
When blood glucose falls, insulin production stops and most
cells shift to using glycogen as a fuel source.
If blood glucose falls substantially below normal, alpha cells
release glucagon.
Environment
3. Delta (d) cells produce somatostatin—has

paracrine functions and inhibits release of both
insulin and glucagon.
Also slows digestive activities to extend the period
of nutrient absorption.
Hypothalamic somatostatin, or growth hormone
inhibiting hormone (GHIH), inhibits the release of
growth hormone and thyrotropin by the anterior
pituitary.
Environment
“Adrenal gland”
The adrenal gland is a gland
within a gland.
Adrenal medulla produces
epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine.
• Develops from nervous tissue
and is under nervous system
control.
Environment
Adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones called

corticosteroids:
• Mineralocorticoids influence salt and water
balance.
• Glucocorticoids influence blood glucose
concentration.
• Sex steroids (produced in negligible amounts in
adults).
Environment
Aldosterone, the main mineralocorticoid, stimulates

kidneys to conserve sodium and excrete potassium.
Environment
Cortisol, the main glucocorticoid,

mediates metabolic stress responses.
Tissues not critical for action decrease
glucose uptake and immune system
reactions are blocked. Response is
slower than adrenaline, but lasts
longer.
Cortisol and similar drugs are used to
reduce inflammation and allergic
responses.
Environment
Anterior pituitary controls cortisol release by

corticotropin (adrenocorticotropic hormone,
or ACTH).
ACTH release is controlled in turn by corticotropin-
releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
Acute stress response is turned off by negative
feedback of cortisol to brain.
Environment
With chronic or prolonged stress, the control

mechanisms become insufficient and cortisol must
exert negative feedback through the hippocampus.
But prolonged exposure to cortisol causes loss of
hippocampal cells, decreasing the ability to turn off
the stress response.
Environment
Prolonged stress can lead to digestive system

problems, cardiovascular problems, strokes,
impaired immune system, and increased
susceptibility to cancers and other diseases.
Environment
Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine in

response to stress.
Both bind to adrenergic receptors on target cells.
• a-adrenergic receptors respond more to norepinephrine.
• b-adrenergic receptors respond equally to both.

Environment
Drugs called beta blockers inhibit b-adrenergic

receptors, and thus can blunt the fight-or-flight
response without disrupting physiological processes.
Beta blockers are used to reduce symptoms of anxiety.

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40

40.1 Hormones Circulate Around the Body

• Hormones affect target cells that have appropriate

Endocrines are chemical signals secreted by

The endocrine system is like a radio or cell-phone system,

Hormones are endocrine signals that enter the blood and

Paracrines affect target cells near the release site.

Autocrines bind to receptors on the same cells that secrete

Some endocrine cells exist as

Neuroendocrines or neurohormones are secreted by

Three classes of hormones:

• Steroid hormones (e.g.,

• Amine hormones (e.g., epinephrine):

 Mostly synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine (e.g.,

Water-soluble hormones can’t pass

When a hormone binds to the

Lipid-soluble hormones can diffuse through cell

One hormone can trigger different responses in

Endocrine cells in the adrenal glands are stimulated to secrete

Epinephrine stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and

• Oxytocin and vasopressin are produced in the

Advantage of hormones: Originate in one place but reach all

The nervous and endocrine systems control and regulate

Anterior pituitary: Originates from

Hypothalamic neurons secrete two neurohormones into the

2. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions in childbirth and

Hypothalamic Portal vessels

FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin MSH GH

Testes or Thyroid Adrenal Mammary Melanocytes Liver, bones,

Tropic effects only: they Nontropic effects only Tropic and

Anterior pituitary also secretes:

Anterior pituitary also secretes:

• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Hypothalamic neurons do not

There are many hypothalamic hormones, including:

• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

• Prolactin-releasing and release-inhibiting hormones

• GH-releasing and GH-release inhibiting hormones

Anterior pituitary cells are also

Besides being negative feedback signals controlling their own

The hormone irisin may mediate effects of exercise

(• Classic experiments revealed that hormones

Androgens: Male; dominant form is

At about 7 weeks, expression of

At puberty, production of sex hormones increases.

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Gonadotropins are controlled by

• The thyroid gland secretes the hormones thyroxine,

Thyroglobulin is produced and secreted into the lumen

Anterior pituitary secretes

Thyroxine is lipid-soluble; it binds

A goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland;

The most common cause of hypothyroid goiter is

Regulation of calcium levels in the blood is critical

• Excretion or retention of Ca by kidneys

• Absorption of Ca from digestive tract

These mechanisms are controlled by 3 hormones:

2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH); secreted by the

3. Calcitriol is synthesized from vitamin D (calciferol),