GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

(INFANT TO ADOLESCENCE STAGE)

DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HEALTH

NURSING
 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

STAGES PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (ERICKSON)

Infant Trust v/s Mistrust: Characterized by taking in through all the senses; loving care of a mothering
(birth to 1 person is essential to develop trust; must have basic needs met; attachment to primary caretaker. The
year) favourable outcome is faith and optimism.
Toddler Autonomy v/s Shame and Doubt: Characterized by increasing ability to control
(1 to 3 years) bodies, themselves, and their environment; seek independence, negativism, threatened by changes
in routine, curious explorer. The favourable outcome is self-control and will power
Preschool (3 Initiative v/s Guilt: Characterized by enterprise and a strong imagination; develop conscience; feelings
to 6 years) of being punished; egocentric, inquisitive, rich fantasy life, and magical thinking. The favourable
outcome is direction and purpose.
School-Age Industry Versus Inferiority: Active learners, well-developed language skills and concept of time,
(6 to 12 concerns about body image, understands concept of death. Enjoy sorting and ordering, making
years) collections, and super heroes. Exhibit cognitive conceit. Can assist with own care and appreciates
rewards. Physically graceful and skilled; sports and clubs of same-sex peers are important.
The favourable outcome is competence.
Adolescent Identity Versus Role Confusion: Characterized by ability to deal with reality and abstractions, mood
(13 to 18 swings, changi
years) ng body image; preoccupied with the way they appear in the eyes of others as compared to their own
self-concept. Peers of both same and opposite-sex are very important to identity formation. The
favourable outcome is devotion and fidelity to others and to values and ideologists.

STAGES PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT (FREUD)

Infant Oral Stage: Characterized by infant-seeking pleasure via oral activities such as biting, sucking, chewing,
and vocalizing
Toddler (1 Anal Stage : Characterized by interest in the anal region and sphincter muscles (child is able to withhold
to 3 years) or expel feces); toilet training is a major milestone (method of parent discipline, may have lasting effects
on child's personality development).
Preschool (3 Phallic State : Characterized by interest and recognition in differences between the sexes and becomes
to 6 years) very curious about these
differences; often described as interest by females as penis envy and by males as castration anxiety.
School-Age Latency period : Characterized by gaining increased skill on newly acquired traits and skills; interested
(6 to 12 in acquiring knowledge and vigorous play. Sexuality lies dormant while energy is focused elsewhere.
years)
Adolescent Genital stage : Characterized by maturation of the reproductive system and production of sex
(13 to 18 hormones; genital organs become a source of tension and pleasure; interested in forming friendships
years) and preparation for marriage as an adult.

STAGES COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET)

Infant Sensori-motor : Characterized by progression from reflex activity through simple repetitive behaviors
(birth to 1 to imitative behaviors; information is gained through the senses and developing motor abilities;
year) develop a sense of "cause and effect"; problem-solving is by trial and error; high level of curiosity,
experimentation, and enjoyment in novelty; begin to separate self from others; develop sense of
"object permanence"; begin language development.
Toddler Preoperational (2 to 7 years): Characterized by egocentrism (inability to put oneself in the place of
(1 to 3
others); interpret objects and events in terms of their relationships or use of them; cannot see another's
years)
Preschool point of view; thinking is concrete, tangible; inability to make deductions or generalizations; display
(3 to 6
high level of imagination and questioning; reasoning is intuitive.
years)
School-Age Concrete Operations (7 to 11 years): Characterized by thoughts; become increasingly logical and
(6 to 12 coherent; able to classify, sort, organize facts, and begin to problem-solve; develop conservation
years) (realize volume, weight, and number remain the same even though outward appearances are changed);
solve problems in a concrete, systematic fashion, based on visual perceptions.
Adolescent Formal Operations (11 to 13 years): Characterized by thoughts which are adaptable and flexible;
(13 to 18 possess abstract thinking; able to make logical conclusions; able to make hypotheses and test them;
years) can consider abstract, theoretical, philosophical issues.
 GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
0 to 4 Lifts head if in prone position with head erect or bobbing and back rounded; raises chest with support of
months arms flexed limbs; 0 to 1 month, startle and rooting reflex are very strong, Moro reflex begins to fade at
2 months; 2 to 4 months, decrease in head lag when pulled up to sitting position
4 to 8 Holds head up and erect without support; lifts head and shoulders to 90 degree angle and rolls from back
months to side; turns over both ways; supports weight on legs and may pull self into sitting position; beginning
at 4 months, able to sit with support; head lag disappears; by 7
months, able to sit alone without support; likes to bounce on legs when held in standing position; Moro
reflex has disappeared.
8 to 12 Sits alone, creeps, crawls, cruises, sits from standing position without assistance, prefers being up instead
months of lying down; at 9 months, stands while holding onto furniture and able to pull self to standing position;
at 11 months walks while holding onto furniture or with both
hands held; at 12 months may be able to walk with one hand held
12 to 15 Walks alone with side-based gait, creeps up stairs, throws things
months
15 to 24 Walks alone with improvement, runs, pulls toys when walking, walks on toes, walks backwards, climbs
months up steps, climbs on furniture, sits on small chair, stands on one foot
2 years Walks with steady gait, runs with few falls, walks on toes, stands on one foot, walks up and down stairs,
jumps, kicks ball, rides tricycle,
throws ball overhand
3 and 4 Pedals tricycle, climbs and jumps well, walks up and down stairs with alternating feet, gains increased
years coordination and balance, hops on one foot, throws ball overhand proficiently
5 and 6 Hops; skips well; jumps rope; has improved coordination and control of muscles; active; throws and
years catches ball; runs without difficulty, hits nail on head
7, 8, and Repeats activities for mastery; active; rhythm, smoothness, and control of muscular movements
9 years increases; displays motor skills; strength and endurance increase
10, 11, Has control of timing, graceful high level of energy, explores environment, participates in team sports,
and 12 builds or constructs
years things, interested in physical skills
 FINE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES
0 to 4 Attempts to grab object but misses, brings object to mouth, holds hands in front and plays with hands
months and feet, grasps object with both hands; 1 month displays grasp reflex; 3 months, hands are usually
open; 2 to 4 months, looks and plays with own fingers; 3 months, when object is placed in hands, will
retain briefly; 4 months, reaches for objects and picks them up with a raking action of fingers
4 to 8 Grasps with thumb and fingers, explores objects, moves arms at sight of toy, reaches for object, picks
months up object with cupped hands, holds objects in both hands at same time, holds own bottle, puts nipple
in mouth, feeds self a cookie; 5 months, able to voluntarily grasp an object; 6 to 7 months, able to
transfer objects from one hand to another, enjoys banging objects together
8 to 12 Releases toy or object, locates hands for play, eats with fingers, uses spoon with assistance, drinks
months from cup with assistance, holds crayon and makes marks on paper; 10 months, pincer grasp is present,
able to pick up small objects like a raisin; 11 months, able to put objects into a container and enjoys
removing them; 12 months, displays interest in building a tower of two blocks, but it often falls down
12 to 15 Builds tower of 2 to 4 blocks, opens boxes, pokes finger in hole, turns pages of book, uses spoon with
months spilling
15 to 24 Drinks from cup with one hand, uses spoon without spilling, empties jar of contents, draws vertical
months line, scribbles, builds tower of 4 blocks
2 years Builds tower of 5 to 8 blocks, turns knob to open door, drinks from glass held in one hand, makes train
of cubes by manipulating play
materials
3 and 4 Strings beads, builds tower of blocks, learns to use and masters use of scissors, copies a circle-and-
years cross figures, holds crayon
with fingers, unbuttons buttons on side or front, laces shoes, brushes teeth, cuts out simple pictures
5 and 6 Copies letters of alphabet and prints name, dresses self with assistance, uses hammer and nails,
years knows right from left hand, cuts and pastes well, may tie shoes, uses fork
7, 8, and Hand-eye coordination improves; enjoys video games; writes rather than prints words; may play
9 years musical instruments, sew, build models, work jigsaw puzzles; adds details to drawings and uses
perspective in drawing, uses both hands independently
10, 11 Uses increased detail in work, handwriting skill improves, more refinement to motor activities, gradual
and 12 improvement to adult level
yrs
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES

0 to 4 Cries, whimpers; responds to sounds or activity; coos, gurgles, and babbles; smiles in
months
response to adult sounds and makes sounds
4 to 8 Laughs out loud, vocalizes, uses two syllable sounds like da da without meaning, imitates
months
expressions, cries if scolded
8 to 12 Responds to adult emotional tone, says one or two words, uses sounds to identify objects or
months
persons, uses wide range of sounds, understands use of no, knows own name,
communicates with others and self
1 – 2 years Uses jargon, names for familiar pictures or objects; points to desired object or vocalizes
wants, knows at least 10 words or more; uses short phrases; points to body parts
2 - 3years Uses about 300 words, uses pronouns, speaks 3 to 4 word sentences, enjoys stories, does
not ask for help.
3 and 4 years Uses about 900 to 1500 words; talks in sentences; asks questions consistently; states own
name; talks whether someone present or not; uses plural form of words; repeats words and
sentences at will; may omit prepositions, adverbs, adjectives in speech; asks how and why;
boasts and tattles; tells a story; counts to at least 3, understands simple questions
5 and 6 years Identifies colors, uses 2,100 words, knows names of days of week, asks thoughtful questions,
uses prepositions and conjunctions, uses complete sentences, shares experiences with
others through language, expands vocabulary with exposure and stimulation, errors in sound
disappear, begins to have a concept of abstract words
7, 8, and 9 Increases use of words to express self, increases use of words for exchange and
years
communication, considers what others say, uses all parts of speech
10, 11 and Uses 50,000 words, uses compound and complex sentences, understands abstract words
12 yrs