0% found this document useful (0 votes)

134 views216 pages

ACMP 271 Data Communication and Networks E-Contents

Uploaded by

fawkesvinci369

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

134 views216 pages

ACMP 271 Data Communication and Networks E-Contents

Uploaded by

fawkesvinci369

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 216

EGERTON UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

THE E-CAMPUS

E-LEARNING COURSE

ACMP271 : DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

Peter Kemei
[email protected] or [email protected]
+254727725372

2021
______________________________________________________

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 1 OF 216

MAIN INFORMATION PAGE

COURSE PRELIMINARIES

ACMP271: Data Communication and Networks

Is this course for you?

The course is designed to give practical knowledge of the fundamental principles
of modern data communications with a focus on physical layer of the network
protocol stack. Class discussion complements a series of lab experiments. The
course provides practical knowledge of the optical, wireless and wire cable data
communication systems relevant to digital data communications, and provides
hands-on experience by performing a series of laboratory experiments with a
number of important laboratory instruments.
You are expected to complete the course in 45 lecture hours within a period of
one semester. The pre-requisites for you to study this course are COMP110,
COMP224
Introduction to the course
In this course we aim to provide students with a deeper understanding of
foundations of data communication and networks, communication concepts. bit
and baud rates, synchronous, parallel and serial transmission modes, modulation
and demodulation., communication protocols and architecture. Network
topologies; bus, star, ring and hierarchical set ups. Basic TCP/IP, Messages, circuit
and packet switching. Examples of standard network architecture and Wireless
LAN.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 2 OF 216

Course Outline
There are Ten (10) topics in this course, namely:
Topic 1: Concepts & terminology
Topic 2: Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and Internet-Based Applications
Topic 3: Analog & Digital signals
Topic 4: Terminal devices i.e. modems, service units etc
Topic 5: OSI model
Topic 6: Protocols
Topic 7: Multiplexing
Topic 8: Network architecture
Topic 9: Packet/Circuit switching
Topic 10: Wireless LAN

Course Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

i. Identify and discuss the basic components of data communications, data
networking and the Internet.
ii. Describe protocol architecture, TCP/IP, and Internet-based applications.
iii. Explain data transmission, guided and wireless transmission.
iv. Analyze and describe Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks.
v. Evaluate communications architecture and protocols.
vi. Describe digital encoding techniques and digital data communication
techniques.
vii. Compare packet switching with circuit switching
viii. Basic concepts of Network architecture and wireless LAN

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 3 OF 216

Course Study Skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your
school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional
and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your
study activities around other professional or domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time
management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need
to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and
using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space, that is, the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that
learning.
We recommend that you take time now - before starting your self-study - to
familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources
on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The "How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find
links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking
notes, strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find
links to time scheduling (including a "where does time go?” link), a study skill
checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study environment,
note taking, how to read essays for analysis, and memory skills
("remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
This is another "How to study” web site with useful links to time management,
efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 4 OF 216

doing ("hands-on” learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated,
developing a learning plan.
Need Help?

This course was developed in April 2020 by Mr. Peter Kemei, Phone:
+254727725372; Email: [email protected] Peter Kemei is a Lecturer of
Computer Science in the Department of Computer Science at Egerton
University.

This session, the instructor for this course is Mr. Peter Kemei. My office is
located in the Department Computer Science, Faculty of Science. You may
consult me during the normal working hours between Monday and Friday or
contact me through:Phone: +254727725372; Email: [email protected]
Office: Egerton University, Njoro, E-Campus located off the road leading to
CMRT opposite the new graduation square.

For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact tech-
support via e-mail [email protected]. You can also reach learner support
through [email protected].

Assignments/Activities

Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some

assignments/activities will require submission while others will be self-
assessments that do not require submission. Ensure you carefully check which
assignment require submission and those that do not.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 5 OF 216

Course Learning Requirements
 Timely submission of the Theory/practicals assignments
 2 CATs (30%) – CAT 2 marks are derived from assignments.
 Final Examination (70% of total score)
Self-assessment
Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the topic
and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly advised
to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 6 OF 216

TOPIC ONE – DATA COMMUNICATIONS, DATA NETWORKS AND THE
INTERNET
Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing you data
communications, data networks, and the internet and defining the terminologies
used data communications and networks. You will also contemporary data
communication, communications model, communications tasks, data
communications model, transmission medium, circuit switching, packet
switching frame relay, and asynchronous transfer, types of networking, internet
elements and internet architecture. The topic is, therefore, designed to prepare
you to have a clear understanding of the data communications and basic
concepts and terminologies in data communication and networks.

Topic Time

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice

exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 8 OF 216

Three different forces have consistently driven the architecture and evolution of
data communications and networking facilities: traffic growth, development of
new services, and advances in technology.
Momentous changes in the way organizations do business and process
information have been driven by changes in networking technology and at the
same time have driven those changes. These include a growing need for high-
speed LANs in the business environment to support requirements like
Centralized server farms, Power workgroups, and High-speed local backbones.
Also changes in corporate data traffic patterns are driving the creation of high-
speed WANs. Lastly rapid conversion of consumer electronics to digital
technology is having an impact on both the Internet and corporate intranets,
dramatically increasing the amount of image and video traffic carried by
networks.
1.2 A Communications Model
The key elements of this model are:
i. Source - generates data to be transmitted
ii. Transmitter - converts data into transmittable signals
iii. Transmission System - carries data from source to destination
iv. Receiver - converts received signal into data
v. Destination - takes incoming data

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 9 OF 216

1.3 Communications Tasks

Transmission system utilization Addressing

Interfacing Routing

Signal generation Recovery

Synchronization Message formatting

Exchange management Security

Error detection and correction Network management

Flow control

Communicating devices
• Advice must interface with the transmission system
• Once an interface is established, signal generation is required for
communication

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 10 OF 216

• There must be synchronization between transmitter and receiver, to
determine when a signal begins to arrive and when it ends
• There is a variety of requirements for communication between two parties
that might be collected under the term exchange management
• Error detection and correction are required in circumstances where
errors cannot be tolerated
• Flow control is required to assure that the source does not overwhelm
the destination by sending data faster than they can be processed and
absorbed
• Addressing and routing, so a source system can indicate the identity of
the intended destination, and can choose a specific route through this
network
• Recovery allows an interrupted transaction to resume activity at the point
of interruption or to condition prior to the beginning of the exchange
• Message formatting has to do with an agreement between two parties
as to the form of the data to be exchanged or transmitted
• Frequently need to provide some measure of security in a data
communications system
• Network management capabilities are needed to configure the system,
monitor its status, react to failures and overloads, and plan intelligently
for future growth
See have gone from the simple idea of data communication between source and
destination to a rather formidable list of data communications tasks.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 11 OF 216

1.4 Data Communications Model

Most fundamental aspects of the communications function, focusing on the

transmission of signals in a reliable and efficient manner.
The process is modeled as follows:
• User keys in message m comprising bits g buffered in source PC memory
• Input data is transferred to I/O device (transmitter) as sequence of bits
g(t) using voltage shifts
• Transmitter converts these into a signal s(t) suitable for transmission
media being used
• Whilst transiting media signal may be impaired so received signal r(t) may
differ from s(t)
• Receiver decodes signal recovering g’(t) as estimate of original g(t)
• Which is buffered in destination PC memory as bits g’ being the received
message m’

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 12 OF 216

1.4.1 Elements of Data Communication Systems:

Source encoder / Decoder:

The Source encoder ( or Source coder) converts the input i.e. symbol sequence
into a binary sequence of 0’s and 1’s by assigning code words to the symbols in
the input sequence. For eg. :-If a source set is having hundred symbols, then
the number of bits used to represent each symbol will be 7 because 27=128
unique combinations are available. The important parameters of a source
encoder are block size, code word lengths, average data rate and the efficiency
of the coder (i.e. actual output data rate compared to the minimum achievable
rate)
At the receiver, the source decoder converts the binary output of the channel
decoder into a symbol sequence. The decoder for a system using fixed – length
code words is quite simple, but the decoder for a system using variable – length
code words will be very complex.
Channel Encoder / Decoder:
Error control is accomplished by the channel coding operation that consists of
systematically adding extra bits to the output of the source coder. These extra

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 13 OF 216

bits do not convey any information but helps the receiver to detect and / or
correct some of the errors in the information bearing bits.
The Channel decoder recovers the information bearing bits from the coded
binary stream. Error detection and possible correction is also performed by the
channel decoder. The important parameters of coder / decoder are: Method of
coding, efficiency, error control capabilities and complexity of the circuit
Modulator: The Modulator converts the input bit stream into an electrical
waveform suitable for transmission over the communication channel. Modulator
can be effectively used to minimize the effects of channel noise, to match the
frequency spectrum of transmitted signal with channel characteristics, to
provide the capability to multiplex many signals.
Demodulator: The extraction of the message from the information bearing
waveform produced by the modulation is accomplished by the demodulator.
The output of the demodulator is bit stream. The important parameter is the
method of demodulation.
Channel: The Channel provides the electrical connection between the source
and destination. The different channels are: Pair of wires, Coaxial cable, Optical
fibre, Radio channel, Satellite channel or combination of any of these. The
communication channels have only finite Bandwidth, non-ideal frequency
response, the signal often suffers amplitude and phase distortion as it travels
over the channel. Also, the signal power decreases due to the attenuation of
the channel. The signal is corrupted by unwanted, unpredictable electrical
signals referred to as noise. The important parameters of the channel are Signal
to Noise power Ratio (SNR), usable bandwidth, amplitude and phase response
and the statistical properties of noise.
Synchronization: Synchronization involves the estimation of both time and
frequency coherent systems need to synchronize their frequency reference with
carrier in both frequency and phase.
1.5 Transmission Medium

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 14 OF 216

The basic building block of any communications facility is the transmission line.
One of the basic choices facing a business user is the transmission medium. For
use within the business premises, this choice is generally completely up to the
business. For long-distance communications, the choice is generally but not
always made by the long-distance carrier.
In either case, changes in technology are rapidly changing the mix of media
used. The ever-increasing capacity of fiber optic channels is making channel
capacity a virtually free resource. However, switching is now becoming the
bottleneck. The growing use of wireless transmission, is a result of the trend
toward universal personal telecommunications and universal access to
communications.
Despite the growth in the capacity and the drop in cost of transmission facilities,
transmission services remain the most costly component of a communications
budget for most businesses. Thus, the manager needs to be aware of techniques
that increase the efficiency of the use of these facilities, such as multiplexing
and compression.
1.6 Networking
The number of computers in use worldwide is in the hundreds of millions, with
pressure from users of these systems for ways to communicate among all these
machines being irresistible. Advances in technology have led to greatly
increased capacity and the concept of integration, allowing equipment and
networks to deal simultaneously with voice, data, image, and even video.
Have two broad categories of networks: Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide
Area Networks (WAN).
1.6.1 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Wide area networks generally cover a large geographical area, require the
crossing of public right-of-ways, and rely at least in part on circuits provided by
a common carrier. Typically, a WAN consists of a number of interconnected
switching nodes. Traditionally, WANs have been implemented using one of two

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 15 OF 216

technologies: circuit switching and packet switching. More recently, frame relay
and ATM networks have assumed major roles.
Circuit Switching
In a circuit-switching network, a dedicated communications path is established
between two stations through the nodes of the network. That path is a
connected sequence of physical links between nodes, with a logical channel
dedicated to the connection. Data generated by the source station are
transmitted along the dedicated path as rapidly as possible. The most common
example of circuit switching is the telephone network.
Packet Switching
A packet-switching network uses a quite different approach, without need to
dedicate transmission capacity along a path through the network. Rather, data
is sent in a sequence of small chunks, called packets. Each packet is passed
through the network from node to node along some path leading from source
to destination. At each node, the entire packet is received, stored briefly, and
then transmitted to the next node. Packet-switching networks are commonly
used for terminal-to-computer and computer-to-computer communications.
Frame Relay
Frame relay was developed to take advantage of high data rates and low error
rates on modern WAN links. Whereas the original packet-switching networks
were designed with a data rate to the end user of about 64 kbps, frame relay
networks are designed to operate efficiently at user data rates of up to 2 Mbps.
The key to achieving these high data rates is to strip out most of the overhead
involved with error control.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), is a culmination of developments in circuit
switching and packet switching. ATM can be viewed as an evolution from frame
relay. ATM uses fixed-length packets, called cells. As with frame relay, ATM
provides little overhead for error control, depending on the inherent reliability
of the transmission system and on higher layers of logic in the end systems to
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 16 OF 216
catch and correct errors. By using a fixed packet length, the processing
overhead is reduced even further for ATM compared to frame relay. The result
is that ATM is designed to work in the range of 10s and 100s of Mbps, and in
the Gbps range. ATM allows the definition of multiple virtual channels with data
rates that are dynamically defined at the time the virtual channel is created.
1.6.2 Local Area Networks (LAN)
A LAN is a communications network that interconnects a variety of devices and
provides a means for information exchange among those devices. The scope of
the LAN is small, typically a single building or a cluster of buildings. It is usually
the case that the LAN is owned by the same organization that owns the attached
devices. The internal data rates of LANs are typically much greater than those
of WANs.
LANs come in a number of different configurations. The most common are
switched LANs and wireless LANs. The most common switched LAN is a switched
Ethernet LAN, others are ATM & Fibre Channel LANs. Wireless networks provide
advantages in the areas of mobility and ease of installation and configuration.
1.6.3 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Networks provide a middle ground between LANs and WANs,
typically spanning a city / metro area e.g private or public network with higher
speed connections.
1.7 The Internet
Internet is interconnection of different networks. It evolved from the ARPANET,
developed in 1969 by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the
U.S. Department of Defense. It was the first operational packet-switching
network. The network was so successful that ARPA applied the same packet-
switching technology to tactical radio communication (packet radio) and to
satellite communication (SATNET). The need for interworking between these led
to Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn of ARPA developing methods and protocols for such
internetworking, which led eventually to the development of TCP/IP.
1.7.1 Internet Elements
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 17 OF 216
Figure above illustrates the key elements that comprise the Internet, whose
purpose is to interconnect end systems, called hosts; including PCs,
workstations, servers, mainframes, and so on. Most hosts that use the Internet
are connected to a network, such as a local area network (LAN) or a wide area
network (WAN). These networks are in turn connected by routers.

Example of Internet Configuration

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 18 OF 216

In summary, you learned that;
i. Importance of data communications needs
ii. Communications model
iii. Definition of data communications
iv. Overview of networks
v. Overview Internet

Glossary
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a
receiver.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 19 OF 216

Distributed System is a collection of independent computers that appear to
the users of the system as a single computer.
Computer networks: connection of communications devices with the aim of
sharing computer resources. Networks exist in various types depend on several
factors.
Circuit-switching network, a dedicated communications path is established
between two stations through the nodes of the network.
A packet-switching network uses a quite different approach, without need to
dedicate transmission capacity along a path through the network.
Internet is interconnection of different networks architecture connected
globally
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
In your own opinion list application of network you normally user as describing
how data is transferred from your system to another system.
Tips
E.g From your phone to external memory card or from your phone to another

Review
i) Briefly describe with the help of schematic diagram a digital data
communication main elements and components.
ii) You want your laptop and cell phone to exchange information. What
networking technology might be a requirement as a feature of both your
laptop and phone to accomplish this?
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 20 OF 216
iii) What is the principal application that has driven the design of circuit-switching
networks?
iv) Use a diagram to review main component of internet configuration

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 21 OF 216

TOPIC TWO – PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE, TCP/IP, AND INTERNET-
BASED APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing you to need for Protocol
architecture, key elements of a protocol, TCP/IP Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP
Layers, Operation of TCP and IP. You will learn addressing requirements,
operation of TCP/IP, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), TCP Header, User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), UDP Header, IP Header, IPv6 Header and TCP/IP
Applications. Also you will learn Layer Specific Standards, Service Primitives and
Parameters, Traditional vs Multimedia Applications, Packet structure,
subnetting, private and public addressing. The topic is, therefore, designed to
prepare you to have a clear understanding of the Protocol Architecture basic
concepts, packet structure as well as addressing.

Topic Time

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice

exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 22 OF 216
vi. State the importance Data Communication and Networks
vii. Define “Data Communication and Networks
viii. Explain Data Communication model
ix. Outline types of networks
x. Explain internet elements and configuration.
xi. Discuss packet structure
xii. Explain network addressing
Topic Content
2.1 Introduction
Need for Protocol Architecture
When computers, terminals, and/or other data processing devices exchange
data, the procedures involved can be quite complex. eg. file transfer. There
must be a data path between the two computers. But also need:
 Source to activate communications Path or inform network of destination.
Source must check destination is prepared to receive.
 File transfer application on source must check destination file management
system will accept and store file for his user. May need file format
translation. Instead of implementing the complex logic for this as a single
module, the task is broken up into subtasks, implemented separately. In a
protocol architecture, the modules are arranged in a vertical stack, each
layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions. It relies on the
next lower layer to perform more primitive functions. It provides services to
the next higher layer. The peer layers communicate using a set of rules or
conventions known as a protocol.

2.2 Key Elements of a Protocol

Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two
systems communicate. The peer layers communicate by means of formatted
blocks of data that obey a set of rules or conventions known as a protocol. The
key features of a protocol are:
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 23 OF 216
• Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Includes control information for coordination and error handling
• Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing
2.3 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
The TCP/IP protocol architecture is a result of protocol research and
development conducted on the experimental packet-switched network,
ARPANET, funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA),
and is generally referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite. This protocol suite
consists of a large collection of protocols that have been issued as Internet
standards by the Internet Activities Board (IAB).
2.3.1 Simplified Network Architecture

In general terms, communications can be said to involve three agents:

applications (eg. file transfer), computers (eg. PCs & servers), and networks.
These applications, and others, execute on computers that can often support
multiple simultaneous applications. Computers are connected to networks, and
the data to be exchanged are transferred by the network from one computer to
another. Thus, data transfer involves first getting the data to the computer in

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 24 OF 216

which the application resides and then getting the data to the intended
application within the computer. Can think of partitioning these tasks into 3
layers as shown above.
2.4 TCP/IP Layers
TCP/IP have got the following layers
 Application layer
 Host-to-host, or transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network access layer
 Physical layer
2.4.1 Physical Layer
The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission
device (e.g., workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network.
This layer is concerned with specifying the characteristics of the transmission
medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate, and related matters.
2.4.2 Network Access Layer
The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between an
end system (server, workstation, etc.) and the network to which it is attached.
The sending computer must provide the network with the address of the
destination computer, so that the network may route the data to the appropriate
destination. The sending computer may wish to invoke certain services, such as
priority, that might be provided by the network. The specific software used at
this layer depends on the type of network to be used; different standards have
been developed for circuit switching, packet switching (e.g., frame relay), LANs
(e.g., Ethernet), and others. Thus it makes sense to separate those functions
having to do with network access into a separate layer.
2.3.3 Internet Layer (IP)
The internet layer provides procedures used to allow data to traverse multiple
interconnected networks, to provide communications between devices are
attached to different networks. The Internet Protocol (IP) is used at this layer
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 25 OF 216
to provide the routing function across multiple networks. This protocol is
implemented not only in the end systems but also in routers. A router is a
processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay
data from one network to the other on its route from the source to the
destination end system.
2.3.4 Host-to-Host Layer or Transport Layer
The host-to-host layer, or transport layer, collects mechanisms in a common
layer shared by all applications to provide reliable delivery of data. Regardless
of the nature of the applications, there is usually a requirement that data be
exchanged reliably, ensuring that all of the data arrives at the destination
application and that the data arrives in the same order in which they were sent.
These mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the
nature of the applications. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the most
commonly used protocol to provide this functionality.
2.3.5 Application Layer
The application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications. For each different type of application, such as file transfer, a
separate module is needed that is peculiar to that application.

2.4 Operation of TCP and IP

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 26 OF 216

Figure above indicates how these protocols are configured for communications.
To make clear that the total communications facility may consist of multiple
networks, the constituent networks are usually referred to as subnetworks.
Some sort of network access protocol, such as the Ethernet logic, is used to
connect a computer to a subnetwork. This protocol enables the host to send
data across the subnetwork to another host or, if the target host is on another
subnetwork, to a router that will forward the data. IP is implemented in all of
the end systems and the routers. It acts as a relay to move a block of data from
one host, through one or more routers, to another host. TCP is implemented
only in the end systems; it keeps track of the blocks of data to assure that all
are delivered reliably to the appropriate application.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 27 OF 216

2.4.1 Operation of TCP/IP

Consider a simple operation where a process on host A, wishes to send a

message to another process on host B. The process at A hands the message
down to TCP with instructions to send it to host B. TCP hands the message down
to IP with instructions to send it to host B. Note that IP need not be told the
identity of the destination port. Next, IP hands the message down to the network
access layer (e.g., Ethernet logic) with instructions to send it to router J (the
first hop on the way to B).
To control this operation, control information as well as user data must be
transmitted, The sending process generates a block of data and passes this to
TCP. TCP may break this block into smaller pieces to make it more manageable.
To each of these pieces, TCP appends control information known as the TCP
header, forming a TCP segment.
Next, TCP hands each segment over to IP, with instructions to transmit it to B.
These segments must be transmitted across one or more subnetworks and
relayed through one or more intermediate routers. This operation, too, requires

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 28 OF 216

the use of control information. Thus IP appends a header of control information
to each segment to form an IP datagram.
Finally, each IP datagram is presented to the network access layer for
transmission across the first subnetwork in its journey to the destination. The
network access layer appends its own header, creating a packet, or frame. The
packet is transmitted across the subnetwork to router J.
2.4.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
For most applications running as part of the TCP/IP protocol architecture, the
transport layer protocol is TCP. TCP provides a reliable connection for the
transfer of data between applications. A connection is simply a temporary logical
association between two entities in different systems. A logical connection refers
to a given pair of port values. For the duration of the connection each entity
keeps track of TCP segments coming and going to the other entity, in order to
regulate the flow of segments and to recover from lost or damaged segments.
2.4.3 TCP Header

A TCP packet consists of two sections, header and data. All fields may not be
used in every transmission. A flag field is used to indicate the type of
transmission the packet represents and
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 29 OF 216
how the packet should be interpreted
• Source port—identifies the sending application.
• Destination port- Identifies the destination application.
• Sequence number—Used for assembling segmented data in the proper
order at the receiving end
• Acknowledgement number—The sequence number the sender (the
receiving end) expects next
• Data offset or header length —The size of the TCP header, it is also the
offset from the start of the TCP packet to the data portion.
• Reserved—Reserved for future use, should be set to zero.
• Flags(also known as control bits)—contains 6 1-bit flags
• URG-Urgent pointer field is significant
• ACK-Acknowledgement field is significant.
• PSH-Push function.
• RST-Reset the connection.
• SYN-Synchronize sequence numbers
• FIN-No more data from sender.
Window—The number of bytes the sender is willing to receive starting from the
acknowledgement field value.
Checksum—used for error-checking of the header and data
Urgent pointer—if the URG flag is set, then this 16-bit field is an offset from
the sequence number indicating the last urgent data byte
Options—Additional header fields (called options) may follow the urgent pointer

2.4.4 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

In addition to TCP, there is one other transport-level protocol that is in common
use as part of the TCP/IP protocol suite: the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
UDP does not guarantee delivery, preservation of sequence, or protection
against duplication. UDP enables a procedure to send messages to other
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 30 OF 216
procedures with a minimum of protocol mechanism. Some transaction-oriented
applications make use of UDP; eg SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol). Because it is connectionless, UDP has very little to do. Essentially, it
adds a port addressing capability to IP.
2.4.5 UDP Header

The UDP Packet Structure

The UDP packet structure is illustrated above . It consists of 5 fields, some of
which are optional:
 Source Port-The sending application. This is an optional field
 Destination Port-The target application at the receiving end.
 Length-The length of the entire packet.
 Checksum-Optional field used to perform basic error correction on the
packet.
 Data-The user data to be transmitted.

2.4.6 The IPv4 Header

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 31 OF 216

The IPv4 Packet Structure (32 bits) by 160 bits
An IP packet consists of two sections; header and data. The header consists of
12 mandatory fields and 1 optional field:
• Version—Indicates the IP protocol version being used.
• Internet Header Length (IHL)—Indicates the total size of the IP
packet header, so the start of the data portion can be determined
• Type of Service (TOS) or data service (DS)—Defines delay,
throughput and reliability requirement of the IP packet.
• (ECN) 2 bits are used for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).
• Total Length—Indicates the entire packet size, including header and
data, in bytes.
• Identification—Used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP
datagram.
• Flags—Used to control or identify fragments.
• Fragment Offset—Allows a receiver to determine the place of a
particular fragment in the original IP datagram, measured in units of 8-
byte blocks.
Time To Live (TTL):The maximum number of hops a packet can traverse
between
the source and destination hosts. Each packet switch (or router) that a packet
crosses

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 32 OF 216

decrements the TTL field by one. When the TTL field becomes zero, the packet
is
no longer forwarded by a packet switch and is discarded. This mechanism
prevents
packets from being trapped in endless routing loops, clogging up a network.
Header Checksum—used for error checking of the header. At each hop, the
checksum of the header is compared to the value of this field. If a header
checksum is found to be mismatched, the packet is discarded. Because the
TTL field is decremented on each hop; the checksum must be recomputed and
inserted into the IP packet.
2.4.7 IPv6 Header (32 bits) by 240 bits)

IPv6 Packet structure

An IPv6 address is 4 times larger than IPv4, but surprisingly, the header of an
IPv6 address is only 2 times larger than that of IPv4. IPv6 headers have one
Fixed Header and zero or more Optional (Extension) Headers. All the
necessary information that is essential for a router is kept in the Fixed Header.
The Extension Header contains optional information that helps routers to
understand how to handle a packet/flow.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 33 OF 216
 Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol, i.e. 0110.
 Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts. The most
significant 6 bits are used for Type of Service to let the Router Known
what services should be provided to this packet. The least significant 2
bits are used for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).
 Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the sequential flow
of the packets belonging to a communication. The source labels the
sequence to help the router identify that a particular packet belongs to a
specific flow of information. This field helps avoid re-ordering of data
packets. It is designed for streaming/real-time media.
 Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used to tell the routers how much
information a particular packet contains in its payload. Payload is
composed of Extension Headers and Upper Layer data. With 16 bits, up
to 65535 bytes can be indicated; but if the Extension Headers contain
Hop-by-Hop Extension Header, then the payload may exceed 65535 bytes
and this field is set to 0.
2.4.8 TCP/IP Applications
TCP/IP have a number of standard TCP/IP applications such as cover in topic 6.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Telnet
2.5 Layer Specific Standards
Three elements are key:
 Protocol specification: Two entities at the same layer in different
systems cooperate and interact by means of a protocol. Because two
different open systems are involved, the protocol must be specified
precisely. This includes the format of the protocol data units exchanged,
the semantics of all fields, and the allowable sequence of PDUs.
 Service definition: In addition to the protocol or protocols that operate
at a given layer, standards are needed for the services that each layer
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 34 OF 216
provides to the next higher layer. Typically, the definition of services is
equivalent to a functional description that defines what services are
provided, but not how the services are to be provided.
 Addressing: Each layer provides services to entities at the next higher
layer. These entities are referenced by means of a service access point
(SAP). Thus, a network service access point (NSAP) indicates a transport
entity that is a user of the network service.
2.4.1 Service Primitives and Parameters
i) Define services between adjacent layers using:
ii) Primitives to specify function performed
iii) Parameters to pass data and control information

Primitive Types

REQUEST A primitive issued by a service user to invoke some service

and to pass the parameters needed to specify fully the
requested service

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 35 OF 216

INDICATION A primitive issued by a service provider either to:
indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the peer
service user on the connection and to provide the
associated parameters, or
notify the service user of a provider-initiated action

RESPONSE A primitive issued by a service user to acknowledge or

complete some procedure previously invoked by an
indication to that user

CONFIRM A primitive issued by a service provider to acknowledge or

complete some procedure previously invoked by a request
by the service user

2.4.2 Traditional vs Multimedia Applications

The Internet, until recently, has been dominated by information retrieval
applications, e-mail, and file transfer, plus Web interfaces that emphasized text
and images. Increasingly, the Internet is being used for multimedia applications
that involve massive amounts of data for visualization and support of real-time
interactivity. Streaming audio and video are perhaps the best known of such
applications.
Although traditionally the term multimedia has connoted the simultaneous use
of multiple media types (e.g., video annotation of a text document), the term
has also come to refer to applications that require real-time processing or
communication of video or audio alone. Thus, voice over IP (VoIP), streaming
audio, and streaming video are considered multimedia applications even though
each involves a single media type.
2.4.3 Elastic and Inelastic Traffic
Traffic on a network or internet can be divided into two broad categories: elastic
and inelastic.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 36 OF 216

Elastic traffic can adjust, over wide ranges, to changes in delay and
throughput across an internet and still meet the needs of its applications. This
is the traditional type of traffic supported on TCP/IP-based internets and is the
type of traffic for which internets were designed. Elastic applications include
common Internet-based applications, such as file transfer, electronic mail,
remote logon, network management, and Web access. But there are differences
among the requirements of these applications.
Inelastic traffic does not easily adapt, if at all, to changes in delay and
throughput across an internet. The prime example is real-time traffic, such as
voice and video. The requirements for inelastic traffic may include the following:
minimum throughput may be required, may be delay-sensitive, may require a
reasonable upper bound on delay variation, may vary in the amount of packet
loss, if any, that they can sustain.
These requirements are difficult to meet in an environment with variable
queuing delays and congestion losses. Accordingly, inelastic traffic introduces
two new requirements into the internet architecture.
2.5 Packet Structure
A packet is one unit of binary data capable of being routed through a computer
network.
To improve communication performance and reliability, each message sent
between two network devices is often subdivided into packets by the underlying
hardware and software.

2.5.1 Packet Structure

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 37 OF 216

Depending on the protocol(s) they need to support, packets are constructed in
some standard packet format. Packet formats generally include a header, the
body containing the message data (also known as the payload), and sometimes
a footer (also known as the trailer).
 The header contains overhead information about the data carried by the
packet This information may include:
 Packet Length: some packets may be fixed-length, while others rely on
the header to contain this information
 Synchronization: a few bits that help the packet match up to the
network
 Packet Number: indicates the position in a sequence of packets
 Protocol: defines what type of packet is being transmitted
 Destination: indicates where the packet is going
 Source: indicates where the packet is coming from
 The header includes:
 An alert signal to indicate that the packet is being transmitted.
 The source address.
 The destination address.
 Clock information to synchronize transmission.
The payload refers to the actual data that the packet is delivering to the
destination The payload is sometimes called the body or data of a packet If a
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 38 OF 216
packet is fixed-length, then the payload may be padded with blank information
to ensure it is the correct length.
The trailer or footer refers to a set of bits that inform the receiving device
that the end of the packet has been reached The trailer is sometimes called the
footer of the packet The trailer may also contain some type of error checking
The most common error checking used in packets is Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC).
The receiving device is responsible for re-assembling individual packets into the
original message, by stripping off the headers and footers and concatenating
packets in the correct sequence.
Example
You send an e-mail to a friend. The e-mail is about 3,500 bits (3.5 kilobits) in
size. The network you send it over uses fixed-length packets of 1,024 bits (1
kilobit).
The header of each packet is 96 bits long and the trailer is 32 bits long, leaving
896 bits for the payload.
To break the 3,500 bits of message into packets, you will need four packets
(divide 3,500 by 896). Three packets will contain 896 bits of payload and the
fourth will have 812 bits. Here is what one of the four packets would contain:
Here is what one of the four packets would contain:
Each packet's header will contain the proper protocols, the originating address
(the IP address of your computer), the destination address (the IP address of
the computer where you are sending the e-mail) and the packet number (1, 2,
3 or 4 since there are 4 packets).

2.6 Addressing

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 39 OF 216

A core function of IP is to provide logical addressing for hosts. An IP address
provides a hierarchical structure to both uniquely identify a host and what
network that host exists on.
2.6.1 Addressing Requirements
For successful communication, every entity in the overall system must have a
unique address. Actually, two levels of addressing are needed. Each host on a
subnetwork must have a unique global internet address; this allows the data to
be delivered to the proper host. Each process with a host must have an address
that is unique within the host; this allows the host-to-host protocol (TCP) to
deliver data to the proper process. These latter addresses are known as ports.
IP addresses
An IP address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a host (computer or
other device, such as a printer or router) on a TCP/IP network. IP addresses are
normally expressed in dotted-decimal octal format, with four numbers
separated by periods, such as 192.168.123.132.
These eight bit sections are known as octets. The example IP address, then,
becomes 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100.
The decimal numbers separated by periods are the octets converted from binary
to decimal notation.
an IP address has two parts. The first part of an IP address is used as a network
address, the last part as a host address.
For example 192.168.123.132 and divide it into these two parts you get the
following:
 192.168.123. Network
 .132 Host
 192.168.123.0 - network address. 0.0.0.132 - host address.

Subnet mask
The subnet mask is used by the TCP/IP protocol to determine whether a host is
on the local subnet or on a remote network.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 40 OF 216
In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address that are used as the network and host
addresses are not.
The subnet mask follows two rules:
If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in
the address identifies the network.
If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in
the address identifies the host.
Example 1
 IP Address: 10011110.01010000.10100100.00000011
 Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Hosts on the same logical network will have identical network addresses but
not same host addresses since the will be IP conflict and can communicate
freely. For example, the following two hosts are on the same network:
 Host A: 158.80.164.100 255.255.0.0
 Host B: 158.80.164.101 255.255.0.0
Both share the same network address (158.80), which is determined by the
255.255.0.0 subnet mask.
Example2
Hosts that are on different networks cannot communicate without an
intermediating device. For example:
 Host A: 158.80.164.100 255.255.0.0
 Host B: 158.85.164.101 255.255.0.0
The subnet mask has remained the same, but the network addresses are now
different (158.80 and 158.85 respectively). Thus, the two hosts are not on the
same network, and cannot communicate without a router between them.
 Routing is the process of forwarding packets from one network to
another.
2.7 Network classes
These IP addresses are divided into classes. The most common of these are
classes A, B, and C. Classes D and E exist. Each of the address classes has a
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 41 OF 216
different default subnet masks. You can identify the class of an IP address by
looking at its first octet.
Class A networks
Class A networks use a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 and have 0-127 as
their first octet. The address 10.52.36.11 is a class A address. Its first octet is
10, which is between 1 and 126, inclusive.
Class B networks
Class B networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and have 128-191
as their first octet. The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address. Its first octet
is 172, which is between 128 and 191, inclusive.
Class C networks
Class C networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and have 192-
223 as their first octet. The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address. Its
first octet is 192, which is between 192 and 223, inclusive.
Default gateways
If a TCP/IP computer needs to communicate with a host on another network, it
will usually communicate through a device called a router.
In TCP/IP terms, a router that is specified on a host, which links the host's
subnet to other networks, is called a default gateway.
When a host attempts to communicate with another device using TCP/IP, it
performs a comparison process using the defined subnet mask and the
destination IP address versus the subnet mask and its own IP address.
The result of this comparison tells the computer whether the destination is a
local host or a remote host.
If the result of this process determines the destination to be a local host, then
the computer will simply send the packet on the local subnet. If the result of
the comparison determines the destination to be a remote host, then the
computer will forward the packet to the default gateway defined in its TCP/IP
properties. It is then the responsibility of the router to forward the packet to the
correct subnet.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 42 OF 216
2.8 CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a simplified method of
representing a subnet mask. CIDR identifies the number of binary bits set to a
1 (or on) in a subnet mask, preceded by a slash.
Example 1
For example, a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 would be represented as
follows in binary:
 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
 The first 28 bits of the above subnet mask are set to 1. The CIDR
notation for this subnet mask would thus be /28.
Address Classes vs. Subnet Mask
Remember the following three rules:
 The first octet on an address dictates the class of that address.
 The subnet mask determines what part of an address identifies the
network, and what part identifies the host.
 Each class has a default subnet mask. A network using its default
subnet mask is referred to as a classful network.
Example 2
10.1.1.1 is a Class A address and its default subnet mask is255.0.0.0 (/8 in
CIDR).
 Default subnet mask is 10.1.1.1.0

Example 3
 The CIDR mask is often appended to the IP address. An IP address of
192.168.1.1 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 would be represented
as follows using CIDR notation:
 192.168.1.1 /24
2.8.1 Subnet and Broadcast Addresses
 On each IP network, two host addresses are reserved for special use:
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 43 OF 216
The subnet (or network) address
The broadcast address
Neither of these addresses can be assigned to an actual host.
The subnet address is used to identify the network itself.
A routing table contains a list of known networks, and each network is
identified by its subnet address.
Subnet addresses contain all 0 bits in the host portion of the address.
Subnet address example
192.168.1.0/24 is a subnet address. This can be determined by looking at
the address and subnet mask in binary:
IP Address: 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Note that all host bits in the address are set to 0.
The broadcast address example
The broadcast address identifies all hosts on a particular network. A packet
sent to the broadcast address will be received and processed by every host on
that network. Broadcast addresses contain all 1 bits in the host portion of
the address
 192.168.1.255/24 is a broadcast address. Note that all host bits are set
to 1:
 IP Address: 11000000.10101000.00000001.11111111
 Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Types of IP broadcast packets
 Unicasts are packets sent from one host to one other host
 Multicasts are packets sent from one host to a group of hosts
 Broadcasts are packets sent from one host to all other hosts on the
local network
2.8.2 Subnetting

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 44 OF 216

Subnetting is the process of creating new networks (or subnets) by stealing
bits from the host portion of a subnet mask. There is one caveat: stealing bits
from hosts creates more networks but fewer hosts per network.
 Consider the following Class C network:
 192.168.254.0
 The default subnet mask for this network is 255.255.255.0.
 This single network can be segmented, or subnetted, into multiple
networks.
For example
Assume a minimum of 10 new networks are required. Resolving this is possible
using the following magical formula:
 2n .The exponent ‘n’ identifies the number of bits to steal from the host
portion
 The exponent ‘n’ identifies the number of bits to steal from the host
portion of the subnet mask.
 The default Class C mask (255.255.255.0) looks as follows in binary:
 11111111.1111111.1111111.00000000
There are a total of 24 bits set to 1, which are used to identify the network.
There are a total of 8 bits set to 0, which are used to identify the host, and these
host bits can be stolen
 Stealing bits essentially involves changing host bits (set to 0 or off) in the
subnet mask to network bits (set to 1 or on). Remember, network bits in
a subnet mask must always be contiguous
 Consider the result if three bits are stolen. Using the above formula:
 2 n = 23 = 8
 8 new networks created
However, a total of 8 new networks does not meet the original requirement of
at least 10 networks. Consider the result if four bits are stolen:
 2n = 24 = 16
 = 16 new networks created
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 45 OF 216
A total of 16 new networks does meet the original requirement. Stealing four
host bits results in the following new subnet mask:
 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 = 255.255.255.240
In the previous example, a Class C network was subnetted to create 16 new
networks, using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 (or /28 in CIDR). Four bits
were stolen in the subnet mask, leaving only four bits for hosts.
 for each of the new 16 networks, a slightly modified formula is required:
 2n – 2
Consider the result if four bits are available for hosts:
 2n – 2 = 24 – 2 = 16 – 2 = 14 usable hosts per network
Thus, subnetting a Class C network with a /28 mask creates 16 new networks,
with 14 usable hosts per network.
Why is the formula for calculating usable hosts 2n – 2? Because it is never
possible to assign a host an address with all 0 or all 1 bits in the host portion
of the address.
These are reserved for the subnet and broadcast addresses respectively.
Thus, every time a network is subnetted, useable host addresses are lost.
Example 1
You have been provided with the IP Address range 202.200.10.128/26.
Determine the following
i) Subnet mask in dotted quad notation
ii) The maximum number of hosts in the subnet
iii) The available host address (list them)
iv) The subnet address
v) The broadcast address
vi) Network class
Solution
Class C Addressing
Default Subnet mask address for this network using CIDR slash /26 the last
quad is
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 46 OF 216
i) 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 = 255.255.255.192
ii) Maximum Number of Hosts in the subnet, Host bits = 6 hosts Therefore
hosts are26 - 2 = 64-2= 62 hosts.
iii) The available host addresses(list them), 202.200.10.129 –
202.200.10.190
iv) The subnet address , first address is subnet address = 202.200.10.0
v) The broadcast address, last address is broadcast address =
202.200.10.255
vi) Class C first octets range between 192 and 223,
2.9 Public Address and Private Address
A public IP address, in common parlance, is synonymous with a globally
routable unicast IP address.
A public address can be routed on the Internet. Thus, devices that must be
Internet-accessible must be configured with (or reachable by) public addresses.
A private address is intended for internal use within a home or organization,
and can be freely used by anyone.
Private addresses can never be routed on the Internet. Three private address
ranges for each class are
i) Class A – 10.0.0.0 -10.255.255.255
ii) Class B - 172.16.0.0- 172.31.0.0
iii) Class C - 192.168.0.0- 192.168.255.255
In summary, you learn
 Need for Protocol Architecture
 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
 Traditional Vs Multimedia Application Needs
 Packet Structure
 Network Addressing
Glossary
Protocol is language used by network systems to communicate using a set of
rules or conventions.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 47 OF 216
TCP/IP is a protocol suite consists of a large collection of protocols that have
been issued as Internet standards.
A packet is one unit of binary data capable of being routed through a computer
network.
An IP address is a hierarchical structure to both uniquely identify a host and
what network that host exists on.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a simplified method of
representing a subnet mask.
Subnetting is the process of creating new networks (or subnets) by stealing
bits from the host portion of a subnet mask.
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
In own opinion list applications under elastic and inelastic use do using your own
mobile phone.
Tips
Identify your mobile specifications, applications and features to guide you
appreciate your mobile usability capabilities.
Review
i) Discuss how your mobile phone is able to connect to internet using TCP/IP
and UDP provide practical example for each.
ii) The image below depicts the format of the IP header.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 48 OF 216

Briefly indicate the purpose of the following IPv4 header fields:
a) Version,
b) Time-To-Live,
c) Flags,
d) Header checksum.
iii) Outline the main differences between unicast, broadcast and multicast
internet protocol citing real life practical example
iv) Compute the subnet mask, subnet address ad broadcast address for each
of the following IP subjects.
a) 196.202.221.16/28
b) 10.10.2.64/30
vii) A host was given the IP addresses 192.168.3.219 /29. Consider this
address and indicate:
a) The network address to which the host belongs.
b) The total number of hosts available in the network

TOPIC THREE: ANALOG & DIGITAL SIGNALS

Introduction
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 49 OF 216
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of analog
& digital signals components, medium, communication links, analog and digital
signal, signal main components, wavelength, frequency domain and bandwidth,
analog and digital data transmission, transmission impairments, channel
capacity, data transmission modes,channel concepts, modulation and
demodulation and broadband transmission.
The topic is, therefore, designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
of character encoding techniques and factors that affect performance of the
network.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 50 OF 216

viii)Discuss modulation and demodulation terminologies and broadband
transmission
ix) Discuss character encoding techniques
x) Explain factors that affect performance of the network.
Topic Content
3.1 Introduction
Concepts and terminologies
 Transmitter: Converts data into transmittable signals
 Receiver: Converts received signal into data
 Communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 Medium: carries data, may classified as
 Guided medium: the waves are guided along a physical path. e.g.
twisted pair, optical fiber,coxial cable
 Unguided medium (wireless):provide a means for transmitting
electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. e.g. air, water,
vacuum (space)

3.2 Communication Links

Direct link: no intermediate devices (no amplifiers or repeaters), the
signal propagates directly from transmitter to receiver. This term can
apply to both guided an unguided media.
Point-to-point: provides direct link between two devices and those are
the only 2 devices sharing the link.
Multi-point guided configuration: more than two devices share the same
link
3 .3 Analog and Digital Signals
An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be
propagated over a variety of media:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 51 OF 216

A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that can be transmitted over a
wire medium: e.g. a constant positive level to represent binary 0 and a constant
negative level to represent binary 1.
3.3.1 Time domain concepts:
Time domain concepts: signal viewed as a function of time, an
electromagnetic signal can be either analog or digital:
Analog signal: the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time .
Continuous signal .No breaks or discontinuities in the signal.
Digital signal: signal intensity maintains a constant level then changes to
another constant level. Discrete signal. This is an idealized definition; in fact
there is a small transition period.
Periodic signal: the same signal pattern repeats over time
A periodic signal: pattern does not repeat over time
Analog and Digital Signals Representation

3.2.2 Periodic Signals

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 52 OF 216

2.3.3 Signal Main Components
Peak Amplitude (A): Maximum strength of signal, measured in volts.
Frequency (f): Rate at which the signal repeats
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
Period = time for one repetition (T)
T = 1/f
Phase (): Relative position in time within a single

3.3 Wavelength, Frequency Domain and Bandwidth

Wavelength is defined as distance occupied by one cycle or distance between
two points of corresponding phase in two consecutive cycles ().
Assuming signal velocity v
 = vT
f = v
c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)
For an electromagnetic wave that travels in free space:
f = c
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 53 OF 216
Frequency Domain Concepts
An electromagnetic signal is usually made up of many frequencies
signal is made up of components at various frequencies, in which each
component is a sinusoid
By adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with the appropriate
amplitude, frequency, and phase, any electromagnetic signal can be
constructed.
Spectrum & Bandwidth
Spectrum range of frequencies contained in signal
Bandwidth:The frequency range of a channel, measured as the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel supports. The
maximum transmission speed dependent upon the available bandwidth. The
larger the bandwidth, the higher the transmission speed.
Absolute bandwidth: Width of spectrum
Effective bandwidth: Often just bandwidth
Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy in the signal.
Data Rate and Bandwidth: Any transmission system has a limited band of
frequencies. This limits the data rate that can be carried.

3.4 Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data: Entities that convey meaning, or information.
Signals: Electric or electromagnetic representations of data.
Transmission: Communication of data by propagation and processing of
signals
Analog data: Continuous values within some interval (e.g. sound, video)
Digital data: Discrete values (e.g. text, integers)
Analog Transmission:
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content.The signals may represent
analog data (e.g. voice) or digital data (e.g. binary data pass through
modem).The analog signal will become weaker (attenuate) over distance. To
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 54 OF 216
achieve longer distances, analog transmission use amplifiers to boost the energy
in the signal. Also amplifies noise. With cascaded amplifiers, the signal becomes
more and more distorted
Digital Transmission
Concerned with content. The integrity of the data is not endangered by noise,
attenuation and other impairments. Repeaters used
• Repeater receives signal
• Extracts bit pattern
• Retransmits (a new signal is regenerated)
• Attenuation is overcome
• Noise is not amplified

Advantages of Digital Transmission over Analog

i) Digital technology
 Drop in cost and size of digital circuitry because of the advent of
LSI/VLSI technology.
ii) Data integrity
 With the use of repeaters rather than amplifiers, it is possible to
transmit data longer distances over lower quality (less cost) lines.
iii) Capacity utilization
 High bandwidth links economical. Easier and more efficient
multiplexing with digital techniques (time division)
iv) Security & Privacy
 Encryption techniques can be easily applied to digital data.
v) Integration
 Can treat analog and digital data similarly, integration of voice,
video, and digital data on the same transmission system is
possible.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 55 OF 216

3.4.1 Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted. For analog signal these
impairments can degrade the signal quality. For digital signals bit errors may be
introduced, a binary 1 can be transformed into a binary 0 and vice versa. The
most significant impairments are:
i) Attenuation and attenuation distortion
ii) Delay distortion
iii) Noise

Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance. Attenuation depends on medium. For
guided media: it is exponential and expressed as a constant number of decibels
per unit distance. For unguided media: it is a complex function of distance and
makeup of the atmosphere. The received signal strength must be: Enough to
be detected by the electronic circuitry in the receiver. Sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error. It is important to know that attenuation is
an increasing function of frequency.
Delay Distortion
Occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal through a guided medium
varies with frequency. The velocity tends to be highest near the center
frequency and fall off toward the two edges of the band. Critical for digital data,
consider that a sequence of bits is being transmitted. Some of the signal
components of one bit position will spill over into other bit positions, causing
intersymbol interference. This is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a
transmission channel.
Noise
Additional unwanted signals inserted somewhere between transmitter and
receiver. It is the major limiting factor in communication system performance.
Noise may be divided into four categories:
i) Thermal noise:
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 56 OF 216
 Is due to thermal agitation of electrons.
 Uniformly distributed across the bandwidth and called white noise.
 Cannot be eliminated and therefore places an upper bound on
communications system performance
ii) Intermodulation noise
 Signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies
sharing a medium
iii) Crosstalk
 A signal from one line is picked up by another
 e.g. while using telephone, hear another conversation.
iv) Impulse noise
 Irregular pulses or spikes
 e.g. External electromagnetic interference (lightning)
 Short duration and relatively high amplitude
3.5 Channel capacity
Define the channel capacity is the data rate which can be transmitted over a
given channel reliably.
Shannon Equation:
Use R = H log2(1+S/N)
(S/N)dB = 10log Power-in/Power-out
Example
Given that a copper twisted pair cable link is able to attain a maximum data
rate of 56kbps at a bandwidth of 3000Hz estimate the S/N ratio for the cable
in dB,
R = H log2(1+S/N)
Where R =Maximum data rate, S = signal power, N= noise power, H=
bandwidth
R/H =Log2 (1+S/N)
1+ S/N = 2R/H
S/N = 2R/H -1
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 57 OF 216
(S/N)dB = 10log10(2R/H -1) multiply the result by 2 since it is two way
communication
(S/N)dB = 112.4dB

3.6 Data Transmission Modes

The primary concern in the transmission of data from one device to another is
the wiring and how to send the data stream. Do we send 1 bit at a time or group
bits into larger groups. The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits
are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
The different transmission modes are as shown in the following figure.

Parallel Transmission
In Parallel Transmission, data consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into
groups of n bits each. Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits.
By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1bit. This is called
parallel transmission. In parallel transmission we use n wires to send n bits at
one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be
transmitted with each clock tick from one device to another. The following figure
shows how parallel transmission works for n =8. Typically, the eight wires are
bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 58 OF 216

The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel
transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial
transmission.
But the disadvantage is cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication
lines just to transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel
transmission is usually limited to short distances.
Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one
communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two
communicating devices. The following figure shows serial transmission.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 59 OF 216

Serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a
factor of n. Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous.
a) Asynchronous Transmission:
In Asynchronous transmission, the timing of a signal is unimportant. Instead,
information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns. As long as those
patterns are followed, the receiving device can retrieve the information without
regard to the rhythm in which it is sent. Patterns are based on grouping the bit
stream into bytes. Each group, usually 8 bits, is sent along the link as a unit.
The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link
whenever ready, without regard to a timer.
Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the
next group will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group,
therefore, an extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually
a 0, is called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1
or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually
1 s, are called stop bits.
By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits
is information and 2 bits or more are signals to the receiver. In addition, the
transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying duration.
This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of
additional stop bits. The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the
beginning and end of each byte and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.
This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the sender
and receiver do not have to be synchronized. But within each byte, the receiver
must still be synchronized with the incoming bit stream. That is, some
synchronization is required, but only for the duration of a single byte. The
receiving device resynchronizes at the onset of each new byte.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 60 OF 216

The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit stream
make asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can
operate without the addition of control information.
b) Synchronous Transmission:
In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames,"
which may contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the
transmission link without a gap between it and the next one. It is left to the
receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes. The
following figure show illustration of synchronous transmission.

The sender puts its data onto the line as one long string. If the sender wishes
to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 61 OF 216

special sequence of 0s and 1s that means idle. The receiver counts the bits as
they arrive and groups them in 8-bit units.
Without gaps and start and stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the
receiving device adjust its bit synchronization midstream. Timing becomes very
important, therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is
completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate
count of the bits as they come in.
The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or gaps
to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving end, and, by
extension, with
fewer bits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than
asynchronous transmission. For this reason, it is more useful for high-speed
applications such as the transmission of data from one computer to another.
c) Isochronous Transmission
In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not
acceptable, synchronous transmission fails. For example, TV images are
broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be viewed at the
same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be
no delays between frames. For this type of application, synchronization between
characters is not enough; the entire stream of bits must be synchronized. The
isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
3.6.1 Channel concepts
i) Channel
– A channel is a portion of the communications medium allocated to
the sender and receiver for conveying information between them.
The communications medium is often subdivided into a number of
separate paths, each of which is used by a sender and receiver for
communication purposes.
ii) Baud Rate

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 62 OF 216

– Baud rate is the same as symbol rate and is a measure of the
number of line changes which occur every second. Each symbol can
represent or convey one (binary encoded signal) or several bits of
data. For a binary signal of 20Hz, this is equivalent to 20 baud (there
are 20 changes per second).
iii) Bits Per Second
– This is an expression of the number of data bits per second. Where
a binary signal is being used, this is the same as the baud rate.
When the signal is changed to another form, it will not be equal to
the baud rate, as each line change can represent more than one bit
(either two or four bits).
iv) Bandwidth
– Bandwidth is the frequency range of a channel, measured as the
difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that the
channel supports. The maximum transmission speed is dependant
upon the available bandwidth. The larger the bandwidth, the higher
the transmission speed.
3.6.2 Data Communication Channels
i) Simplex
– Data in a simplex channel is always one way. Simplex channels
are not often used because it is not possible to send back error or
control signals to the transmit end. An example of a simplex
channel in a computer system is the interface between the
keyboard and the computer, in that key codes need only be sent
one way from the keyboard to the computer system.
– signals are transmitted in only one direction
– Example e.g. Television

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 63 OF 216

–
ii) Half Duplex
– A half duplex channel can send and receive, but not at the same
time. Its like a one-lane bridge where two way traffic must give
way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a time, the other
end receives.
– both stations may transmit but only one way at a time
– Example e.g. police radio

iii) Full Duplex

– Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need
to switch from transmit to receive mode like in half duplex. Its like
a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway
– both station may transmit simultaneously
– Example e.g. telephone
–

3.7 Modulation and demodulation

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 64 OF 216

Modulation has been defined as the process of combining an input signal m(t)
and a carrier at frequency fc to produce a signal s(t) whose bandwidth is
(usually) centered on fc. Reversing the process back to original form signal is
demodulation as shown below

When only analog transmission facilities are available, modulation is required to

convert the digital data to analog form
There are two principal reasons for analog modulation of analog signals:
i) A higher frequency may be needed for effective transmission, since for
unguided transmission, it is virtually impossible to transmit baseband
signals;
ii) Modulation permits frequency division multiplexing.
As with AM, both FM and PM result in a signal whose bandwidth is centered at
fc, but can show that the magnitude of that bandwidth is very different, hence
both FM and PM require greater bandwidth than AM. The shapes of the FM and
PM signals are very similar.
Modulation techniques are methods used to encode digital information in an
analogue world.
Transmission of Digital Signals: A digital signal, periodic or non-periodic, is
a composite analog signal with frequencies between zero and infinity. We can

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 65 OF 216

transmit a digital signal by using one of two different approaches: baseband
transmission or broadband transmission (using
modulation).
3.7.1 Baseband Transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing the digital signal to an analog signal. The following figure shows
baseband transmission. Baseband transmission requires a low-pass channel, a
channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero. This is the case if we have a
dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one channel. For example,
the entire bandwidth of a cable connecting two computers is one single channel.
As another example, we may connect several computers to a bus, but not allow
more than two stations to communicate at a time.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Fig: baseband signal starting from 0Hz
3.7.2 Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an
analog signal for transmission. Modulation allows us to use a band pass channel-
a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero. This type of channel
is more available than a low-pass channel. The following figure shows a band
pass channel.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 66 OF 216

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Fig:

There are three basic modulation techniques

– AM (amplitude modulation)
– FM (frequency modulation)
– PM (phase modulation)
All 3 modulation techniques employ a carrier signal. A carrier signal is a single
frequency that is used to carry the intelligence (data).
– For digital, the intelligence is either a 1 or 0.
When we modulate the carrier, we are changing its characteristics to correspond
to either a 1 or 0.
Analog and Digital information can be encoded as either analog or digital
signals:
1. Digital data to digital signals: simplest form of digital encoding of
digital data
2. Digital data to analog signal: A modem converts digital data to an
analog signal so that it can be transmitted over an analog
3. Analog data to digital signals: Analog data, such as voice and video,
are often digitized to be able to use digital transmission facilities
Analog data to analog signals: Analog data are modulated by a carrier
frequency to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band, which can
be utilized on an analog transmission system.
For digital signaling, a data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog,
is encoded into a digital signal x(t). The basis for analog signaling is a
continuous constant-frequency fc signal known as the carrier signal or carrier
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 67 OF 216
wave.. Data may be transmitted using a carrier signal or carrier wave by
modulation, which is the process of encoding source data onto the carrier signal.
All modulation techniques involve operation on one or more of the three
fundamental frequency domain parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase.
The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital and is called the modulating
signal, and the result of modulating the carrier signal is called the modulated
signal s(t).
3.7.3 Character Encoding techniques
1. Digital data to digital signals
A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses.
Each pulse is a signal element. Binary data are transmitted by encoding
each data bit into signal elements. In the simplest case, there is a one-
to-one correspondence between bits and signal elements. More complex
encoding schemes are used to improve performance, by altering the
spectrum of the signal and providing synchronization capability.
Encoding techniques
1) Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
2) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
3) Bipolar -AMI
4) Pseudoternary
5) Manchester
6) Differential Manchester
Definition of Digital Signal Encoding Format
1. Non-return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
0 = high level
1 = low level
2. Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
0 = no transition at beginning of interval 1one bit time 2
1 = transition at beginning of interval
3. Bipolar-AMI
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 68 OF 216
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones
4. Pseudoternary
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros
1 = no line signal
5. Manchester
0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval
6. Differential Manchester
Always a transition in middle of interval
0 = transition at beginning of interval
1 = no transition at beginning of interval

2. Digital Data to Analog Signal modulation

Digital devices are attached to the network via a modem (modulator-
demodulator), which converts digital data to analog signals, and vice
versa.
There are three basic encoding or modulation techniques for transforming
digital data into analog signals, as illustrated Figure below:
1) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK),
2) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), And

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 69 OF 216

3) Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
In all these cases, the resulting signal occupies a bandwidth centered on the
carrier frequency.

3. Analog data to digital signals

To change an analog signal to digital data we use two techniques,
i) pulse code modulation and
ii) Delta modulation.
After the digital data are created (digitization) then we convert the digital data
to a digital signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is the most common technique used to change an
analog signal to digital data (digitization). A PCM encoder has three processes
as shown in the following Figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 70 OF 216

1. The analog signal is sampled
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.
Sampling
The first step in PCM is sampling. The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where
Ts is the sample interval or period. The inverse of the sampling interval is called
the sampling rate or sampling frequency and denoted by ƒs, Where ƒs = 1/ Ts.
As shown below

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 71 OF 216

Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be
infinite with non-integral values between the two limits. These values cannot be
used in the encoding process. The following are the steps in quantization:
a) We assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes
between Vmin and Vmax
b) We divide the range into L zones, each of height Δ (delta).

Δ (delta) = V max- Vmin/L

c) We assign quantized values of 0 to L - I to the midpoint of each zone.
d) We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized
values.

Figure show Delta Modulation where the staircase function is overlaid on the
original analog waveform. A 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up
during the next interval; a 0 is generated otherwise. The transition (up or down)
that occurs at each sampling interval is chosen so that the staircase function
tracks the original analog waveform as closely as possible. There are two
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 72 OF 216
important parameters in a DM scheme: the size of the step assigned to each
binary digit, δ, and the sampling rate.
4. Analog data to analog signals
Analog data can be modulated by a carrier frequency to produce an analog
signal in a different frequency band, which can be utilized on an analog
transmission system. The basic techniques are
1) Amplitude modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation (AM) is the
simplest form of modulation, and involves the multiplication of the input
signal by the carrier fc.
Modifies the amplitude of the carrier to represent 1s or 0s
i) A 1 is represented by the presence of the carrier for a predefined
period of 3 cycles of carrier.
ii) Absence or no carrier indicates a 0
• Pros
– Simple to design and implement
• Cons
– Noise spikes on transmission medium interfere with the carrier
signal.
– Loss of connection is read as 0s.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 73 OF 216

2) Frequency modulation (FM), for frequency modulation, the derivative
of the phase is proportional to the modulating signal.
Modifies the frequency of the carrier to represent the 1s or 0s.
a. a 0 is represented by the original carrier frequency
b. a 1 by a much higher frequency ( the cycles are spaced closer
together)
Pros
c. Immunity to noise on transmission medium.
d. Always a signal present. Loss of signal easily detected
Cons
i) Requires 2 frequencies
ii) Detection circuit needs to recognize both frequencies when signal is
lost.

3) Phase modulation (PM). Phase modulation, the phase is proportional

to the modulating signal
Phase Modulation modifies the phase of the carrier to represent a 1 or 0.
i) The carrier phase is switched at every occurrence of a 1 bit but
remains unaffected for a 0 bit.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 74 OF 216

ii) The phase of the signal is measured relative to the phase of the
preceding bit. The bits are timed to coincide with a specific number
of carrier cycles (3 in this example = 1 bit)
Pros
iii) Only 1 frequency used
iv) Easy to detect loss of carrier
Cons
v) Complex circuitry required to generate and detect phase changes

3.8 Performance of the Network:

One important issue in networking is the performance of the network. The
different factors which effects performance of the Network are as follows:
i) Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth. However,
the term can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring
values: bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
a. Bandwidth in Hertz
Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For example, we can say the
bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
b. Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 75 OF 216

The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a
channel, a link, or even a network can transmit. For example, one can say the
bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a
maximum of 100 Mbps. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
c. Relationship:
There is an explicit relationship between the bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth
in bits per seconds. Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an
increase in bandwidth in bits per second. The relationship depends on whether
we have baseband transmission or transmission with modulation.
ii) Throughput :
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput
seem the same, they are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but
we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B. In other
words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is
an actual measurement of how fast we can send data. For example, we may
have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices connected to the end
of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we cannot send more
than 200 kbps through this link.
iii) Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from
the source. We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation
time, transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
Latency =propagation time +transmission time +queuing time + processing
delay
iv) Propagation Time
Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the source
to the destination. The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance
by the propagation speed.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 76 OF 216
Propagation time = Distance /Propagation speed
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and
on the frequency of the signal. For example, in a vacuum, light is propagated
with a speed of 3x108mfs. It is lower in air; it is much lower in cable.

v) Transmission time
In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message. The first
bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its destination; the
last bit also may take the same amount of time. However, there is a time
between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver.
The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later and arrives
later. The time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of
the message and the bandwidth of the channel. Transmission time =Message
size / Bandwidth
vi) Queuing Time
The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed for each
intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can be processed. The
queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load imposed on the
network. When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time
increases. An intermediate device, such as a router, queues the arrived
messages and processes them one by one. If there are many messages, each
message will have to wait.
vii) Jitter :
Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter. Jitter is a problem
if different packets of data encounter different delays and the application using
the data at the receiver site is time- sensitive (audio and video data, for
example). If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms,
and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets
endures jitter.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 77 OF 216
In summary, you learned that;
i) Main concepts of analog & digital signals components,
ii) Types of communication links,
iii) Analog signal, digital signal and signal main components
iv) Analog and digital data transmission,
v) Transmission impairments,
vi) Channel capacity
vii) Data transmission modes, and channel concepts,
viii)Modulation and demodulation concepts
ix) Character encoding techniques
x) Factors that determine performance of the network.
Glossary
An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be
propagated over a variety of media:
A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that can be transmitted over a
wire medium:
Modulation is defined as the process of combining an input signal m(t) and a
carrier at frequency fc to produce a signal s(t) whose bandwidth is (usually)
centered on fc. Reversing the process is demodulation.
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
In your own place of residence identify communication systems which used full
duplex communication modes. At the same time which should communication
systems like early TV set were connected through a decoder.
Tips
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 78 OF 216
Use internet search to review the roles of encoder as well as decoder.

Review
i) Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20 Mbps, the bandwidth of
the channel is 3 MHz. Assuming white thermal noise, what signal-to-noise
ratio is required to achieve this capacity?
ii) Consider a stream of data consisting of a long sequence digital data
equivalent to fifty six decimal value encoded to digital signal. Draw the
waveform using the following techniques:-
a. Manchester
b. Differential Manchester
iii) In synchronous time division multiplexing, it is possible to interleave bits,
one bit from each channel participating in a cycle. If the channel is using
a self-clocking code to assist synchronization, might this bit interleaving
introduce problems because there is no continuous stream of bits from
one source?
iv) Latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out
from the source. Explain the four main components of latency.
v) What does the sampling theorem states concerning the rate of sampling
required for an analog signal? Discuss two techniques used to encode
analog data to digital signal briefly.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 79 OF 216

TOPIC FOUR: TERMINAL DEVICES

Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of Digital
Service Unit(DSU), Channel Service Unit (CSU),Ethernet Wiring,Patch
Panels,Network interfaces Cards(NIC),Hubs/ concentrators or Repeaters,
Switches, Routers, Servers, Gateways, Modem and Firewall
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
of types of transmission media, Network Address Translation (NAT) as well.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Explain Digital Service Unit (DSU)
ii) Explain Channel Service Unit (CSU)
iii) Explain Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
iv) Discuss Ethernet Wiring
v) Discuss the roles of Patch Panels and Network interfaces Cards(NIC)
vi) Discuss function Hubs/ concentrators or Repeaters
vii) Explain importance of Switches, Routers and Servers in networks
viii)Describe the functions of Gateways, Modem and Firewall in networks
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 80 OF 216
ix) Explain types of transmission media
x) Roles of Network Address Translation (NAT).
Topic Contents
4.1. Introduction
Network terminal (NT) is device which ends a telecommunications link and is
the point at which a signal enters or leaves a network. NT is a device that
connects the customer’s data or telephone equipment to carrier’s line that
comes in a building or office. It provide connection for terminal equipment (TE)
and terminal adapter (TA) equipment to local loop. Examples of equipment
containing network terminations are telephones, fax machines computer
terminal and network devices, printers and workstations.
4.2 Data digital services units or digital services units
A data service unit, sometimes called a digital service unit, is a piece of
telecommunications circuit terminating equipment that transforms digital data
between telephone company lines and local equipment. The device converts
bipolar digital signals coming ultimately from a digital circuit and directly from
a Channel service unit (CSU), into a format compatible with the piece of data
terminal equipment (DTE) (e.g. a router) to which the data is sent.
4.3 Channel Service Unit (CSU)
A channel service unit (CSU) is a line Bridging device for use with T-carrier that:
• Used to perform loopback testing,
• Perform bit stuffing
• Provide a framing and formatting pattern compatible with the
network
• Provides a barrier for electrical interference from either side of the
unit,
• The last signal regeneration point, on the loop side, coming from
the central office before the regenerated signal reaches a
multiplexer or data terminal equipment (DTE)
4.4 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 81 OF 216
(DTE) is an end instrument that converts user information into signals or
reconverts received signals. Devices which acts as source or destinations in
digital communication and which is capable of converting information to signals
and also reconverting received signals.
Features of Data Terminal Equipment
• Provides the data communication control function to the digital data
communication.
• It can be single piece equipment or multiple pieces interconnected to
perform the required functions.
• In data communication data terminal equipment is the terminal.
• performs error detection and clocking
• Device which uses serial transmission to transmit data, which is done with
help of the serial port in the device.
• To connect a data terminal equipment to a communication link, data
communication equipment needs to be used.
4.5 Ethernet Wiring
Structured Cabling. A structured cabling system is a complete system of
cabling and associated hardware, which provides a comprehensive
telecommunications infrastructure. This infrastructure serves a wide range of
uses, such as to provide telephone service or transmit data through a computer
network.
4.5.1 Vertical and the Horizontal Cabling
The purpose of the vertical is to act as the high capacity backbone of the
system. This would normally operate between different floors of the building
and also main resource centres such as computer rooms and possibly the public
service access point to the building.
The horizontal element is concerned with the linking of individual access points
to the main backbone or vertical element. At the point of transition from vertical
to horizontal, there is a requirement for some form of adaptability or conversion.
4.5.2 Cable types.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 82 OF 216
Straight Through Cabling
Straight through cable used to connect dissimilar devices e.g computer to hub,
hub to switch, router to switch e.t.c
Both standards define the T-568A and T-568B pin-outs for using Unshielded
Twisted Pair cable and RJ-45 connectors for Ethernet connectivity. The
standards and pin-out specification appear to be related and interchangeable,
but are not the same and should not be used interchangeably.
T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

Crossover Ethernet Cable

Cross over cable are used to connect similar device. Each peer to peer,
switch to switch, hub to hub,e.t.c
Both the T-568A and the T-568B standard Straight-Through cables are used
most often as patch cords for your Ethernet connections. If you require a cable

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 83 OF 216

to connect two Ethernet devices directly together without a hub or when you
connect two hubs together, you will need to use a Crossover cable instead.

Ethernet Cable Instructions:

 Pull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. If you are pulling
cables through holes, its easier to attach the RJ-45 plugs after the cable
is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a PC and a hub or
between two PC's cannot exceed 100 Meters (328 feet) for 100BASE-TX
and 300 Meters for 10BASE-T.
 Start on one end and strip the cable jacket off (about 1") using a
stripper or a knife. Be extra careful not to nick the wires, otherwise you
will need to start over.
 Spread, untwist the pairs, and arrange the wires in the order of the
desired cable end. Flatten the end between your thumb and forefinger.
Trim the ends of the wires so they are even with one another, leaving
only 1/2" in wire length. If it is longer than 1/2" it will be out-of-spec
and susceptible to crosstalk. Flatten and insure there are no spaces
between wires.
 Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. Push
the wires firmly into the plug. Inspect each wire is flat even at the front

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 84 OF 216

of the plug. Check the order of the wires. Double check again. Check
that the jacket is fitted right against the stop of the plug. Carefully hold
the wire and firmly crimp the RJ-45 with the crimper.
 Check the color orientation, check that the crimped connection is not
about to come apart, and check to see if the wires are flat against the
front of the plug. If even one of these are incorrect, you will have to
start over. Test the Ethernet cable.

Ethernet Cable Tips:

 A straight-through cable has identical ends.
 A crossover cable has different ends.
 A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
 A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for
connecting two hubs.
 A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the
Green set.
 Odd numbered pins are always striped, even numbered pins are always
solid colored.
 Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is
always on the right, and pin 1 is on the left.
 No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise
it will be susceptible to crosstalk.
 Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run
parallel with power cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise
inducing components.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 85 OF 216
By looking at a T-568A UTP Ethernet straight-thru cable and an Ethernet
crossover cable with a T-568B end, we see that the TX (transmitter) pins are
connected to the corresponding RX (receiver) pins, plus to plus and minus to
minus. Both the blue and brown wire pairs on pins 4, 5, 7, and 8 are not used
in either standard. What you may not realize is that, these same pins 4, 5, 7,
and 8 are not used or required in 100BASE-TX as well. So why bother using
these wires, well for one thing its simply easier to make a connection with all
the wires grouped together.
4.6 Patch panels
These are installed in the wiring closet and are designed for the management
of cable connections. On the front side of a patch panel there are jacks designed
to receive short patch cables, while on the back of the panel there are either
jacks or punch down blocks that receive the connections of longer and more
permanent cables. This makes it easier to manage ‘moves and changes’
4.7 Network Interfaces Cards (NIC)
A network interface is a device that connects a client computer, server, printer
or other component to your network. NIC consists of a small electronic circuit
board that is inserted into a slot inside a computer or printer
NIC provides important services
1. It connects your computer physically to your network,
2. It converts information on your computer to and from electrical signals
for your network.
3. Unique MAC (MEDIA Access Control) address helps route information
within your local area network and is used by switches and bridges.
4.7.1 Types of NIC
• 10BaseT cards
– Physical star networks
– 10 Mbps speed
– Ethernet standard
– Twisted pair wiring
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 86 OF 216
• 10base2 cards
– Physical bus networks
– 10 Mbps speed
– Ethernet standard
– Thin coaxial wiring
• 10Base5
– 10 Mbps speed
– Ethernet standard
– Thick coaxial wiring
• 100BaseTX
– 100 Mbps speed
– Fast Ethernet standard
– Twisted pair
• Higher quality Category 5 wires are recommended
• Token ring network cards
• Earlier token ring cards
– 4 Mbps
• Newer token ring cards
– 16 Mbps
4.7.2 Cable Connections for NICs
• BNC barrel connector
– Thin coaxial
• RJ 45
– Twisted pair
4.8 Hubs/ Concentrators or Repeaters:
The hub is a small box that gathers the signals from each individual device,
optionally amplifies each signal, and then sends the signal out to all other
connected devices. Used for extending the physical span of a network out
10base5 the span is limited to 500 meters.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 87 OF 216

 Amplification helps to ensure that devices on the network receive
reliable information.
 Operates at Physical layer
 Improves the performance by dividing the network into segments thus
reducing the numbers of computers per segement.
 Hubs does not support support heavy network traffic
 Does not support uses of different access methods
 Does not filter traffic
Uses
1. Connects two segments of similar or dissimilar media
2. Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted
3. Pass all traffic in both direction
4. Connect two segments in the most cost –effective manner.
Types
o Active hub
o Passive hub
 Passive hubs
o Simply provides the physical and the electrical connection for the
network
 Active hubs
o Has built-in intelligence
o Some are manageable hubs
4.9 Switches
A switch is defined as a device that allows a LAN to be segmented .The segments
will operate under the same protocol. A switch focuses on segmenting a LAN.
The device that gathers the signals from devices that are connected to it, and
then regenerates a new copy of each signal.
i) Switches operate by learning the MAC addresses of all connected clients,
servers, peripherals, and associating each address with one of its ports.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 88 OF 216

When a switch receives an incoming signal, it creates a temporary circuit
between the sender and receiver.
ii) Most switches operate by examining incoming or outgoing signals for
information at OSI level 2 the data link level.
4.9.1 Purpose of a Switch
• Performance is improved especially in the case of a bus network
• Multiple bus paths are now available for communication
• Each segment can engage in simultaneous communication within itself
• Easier to isolate a problem to a segment
Switches use three methods to deal with data as it arrives:
i) Cut-through—In a cut-through configuration, the switch begins to
forward the packet as soon as it is received. No error checking is
performed on the packet, so the packet is moved through quickly. The
downside of cut-through is that because the integrity of the packet is not
checked, the switch can propagate errors.
ii) Store-and-forward—In a store-and-forward configuration, the switch
waits to receive
the entire packet before beginning to forward it. It also performs basic
error checking.
iii) Fragment-free—Building on the speed advantages of cut-through
switching, fragment free switching works by reading only the part of the
packet that enables it to identify fragments of a transmission.
4.9.2 Switches have two benefits:
1. They provide each pair of communicating devices with a fast connection;
and
2. They segregate the communication so that it does not enter other
portions of the network.
4.10 Routers
Routers are devices whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks
and to filter network signals so that only desired information travels between
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 89 OF 216
them. Routers can inspect a good deal more information than bridges, and they
therefore can regulate network traffic more precisely. Routers operate primarily
by examining incoming data for its network routing and transport. This
information includes the source and destination network routing addresses
information
The network routing address provides information on which routers base
traffic management decisions Internal tables of network information that it
compiles, a router then determines whether or not it knows how to forward
the data packet towards its destination.
4.10.1 The Functions of a Router
i) Connect LANs operating under different protocols
ii) The LANs connected are better known as sub-networks instead of
network segments
iii) Filtering and isolating traffic
iv) Connecting network segments.
v) A router is connected to two different networks and passes packets
between them,
How Routers Work
i) All known networks addresses
ii) Instructions for connections to other networks
iii) The possible paths between routers
iv) The costs of sending data over those paths by choosing the best path
(shortest path)
4.10.2 Router Characteristics
i) A router true internetworking device
– Connects different sub-networks together
ii) Establishes a logical path of communication between the sub-networks
iii) Contributes to the modular construction of a network
– Network itself is better managed
– Network resources are better utilized
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 90 OF 216
– Examine and alter the data packets
– Perform protocol conversion
– Operates at Network layer
4.10.3 Router Requirements
i) Requires more processing power compared to switches and hubs
ii) Operations fall within the network layer of the ISO-OSI communication
model
4.10.4 Types of Routers
i) Static routers: Manually setups and configured the routing table by
network administrator by specify each route.
ii) Dynamic router: Designed to discover routes automatically and require
a minimal amount of setup and configuration. They examine information
from routers and make packet by packet decisions about how to send data
across the network.
4.10.5 Servers
A server is a system (software and suitable computer hardware) that responds
to requests across a computer network to provide, or help to provide, a network
service. Servers operate within a client-server architecture. Servers are
computer programs running to serve the requests of other programs, the
clients. Thus, the server performs some tasks on behalf of clients. The clients
typically connect to the server through the network but may run on the same
computer. In the context of Internet Protocol (IP) networking, a server is a
program that operates as a socket listener
Servers often provide essential services across a network, either to private users
inside a large organization or to public users via the Internet.
4.10.6 Server hardware
i) Hardware redundancy—installing more than one instance of modules such
as power supplies and hard disks arranged so that if one fails another is
automatically available—is widely used.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 91 OF 216

ii) Servers may incorporate faster, higher-capacity hard drives, larger
computer fans or water cooling to help remove heat, and uninterruptible
power supplies that ensure the servers continue to function in the event
of a power failure.
iii) ECC memory devices that detect and correct errors are used;
iv) The hard drive controllers and RAID technology is recommend for servers.
4.10.7 Types of servers
i) A database server is a computer program that provides database
services to other computer programs or computers, as defined by the
client–server model. The term may also refer to a computer dedicated to
running such a program. Database management systems frequently
provide database server functionality, and some DBMSs, file server, mail
server, print server, web server, gaming server, and application server.
ii) File server is a computer attached to a network that has the primary
purpose of providing a location for shared disk access, i.e. shared storage
of computer files (such as documents, sound files, photographs, movies,
images, databases, etc.) that can be accessed by the workstations that
are attached to the same computer network.
iii) A mail server is a computer that serves as an electronic post office for
email. Mail exchanged across networks is passed between mail servers
that run specially designed software. This software is built around agreed-
upon, standardized protocols for handling mail messages and any data
files (such as images, multimedia or documents) that might be attached
to them.
iv) Printer server, is a device that connects printers to client computers
over a network. It accepts print jobs from the computers and sends the
jobs to the appropriate printers, queuing the jobs locally to accommodate
the fact that work may arrive more quickly than the printer can actually
handle it. Ancillary functions include the ability to inspect the queue of
jobs to be processed, the ability to reorder or delete waiting print jobs, or
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 92 OF 216
the ability to do various kinds of accounting (such as counting pages
printer, which may involve reading data generated by the printer(s)
v) Web server: The primary function of a web server is to store, process
and deliver web pages to clients. The communication between client and
server takes place using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
vi) A proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application) that
acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking resources from
other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some
service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource available
from a different server and the proxy server evaluates the request as a
way to simplify and control its complexity.
4.11 Gateways
A gateway device provides communication to a remote network or an
autonomous system that is out of bounds for the host network nodes. Gateways
serve as the entry and exit point of a network; all data routed inward or outward
must first pass through and communicate with the gateway in order to use
routing paths. The gateway (or default gateway) is implemented at the
boundary of a network to manage all the data communication that is routed
internally or externally from that network. Besides routing packets, gateways
also possess information about the host network's internal paths and the learned
path of different remote networks. If a network node wants to communicate
with a foreign network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway, which then
routes it to the destination using the best possible path.
4.12 Modem
Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator. Modems
perform a simple. The main function of modem is translate digital signals from
a computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.
The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the
receiving end.
How error detection works between two modems
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 93 OF 216
1. Both Transmitting and receiving modems agree no how error check is to
be calculated( via handshaking process)
2. Transmitting modem calculates and transmits the errors check along
transmitted data
3. Receiving modem recalculates error check based on received data and
compares its newly calculated error check that was calculated and
transmitted mode
4. If error checks match transmission is ok – if the transmitted/ received
doesn’t match, error is detected.
4.13 Firewall
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing
network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a
defined set of security rules.They establish a barrier between secured and
controlled internal networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside networks,
such as the Internet. A firewall can be hardware, software, or both.
Types of firewalls
i) Packet Filter firewall (network firewall). In Packet filter firewall each
packet(incoming or outgoing) is compared to certain set of rules(As
defined by the administrator) before it Is forwarded.
ii) Stateful Inspections or application firewall. It is a Packet filter
firewall with an additional functionality of maintaining state of connections
(for each packet) and blocking packets which deviates from their ideal
state.
iii) Application-Level Proxy: These firewalls contain a proxy agent that acts
as an intermediary between two hosts that wish to communicate with each
other, and never allows a direct connection between them. Each
successful connection attempt actually results in the creation of two
separate connections—one between the client and the proxy server, and
another between the proxy server and the true destination.
4.14 Types of network media
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 94 OF 216
4.14.1 Guided media:

Guided media, which are those that provide a channel from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal
traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current.
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in the following figure.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference
(noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the
same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise
or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results
in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.

For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and
the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it
probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (noise or
crosstalk).

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 95 OF 216

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair
cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil
or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors which
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
Categories
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify
unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined
by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each EIA category
is suitable for specific uses.
Performance
One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare
attenuation versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a
wide range of frequencies. With increasing frequency, the attenuation,
measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with
frequencies above 100 kHz.

Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels and Local- area networks, such as lOBase-T and lOOBase-T, also use
twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those
in twisted pair cable. Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the
two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as
the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 96 OF 216
also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a
plastic cover which is shown as follows.

Coaxial Cable Standards:

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each
RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire
gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the
construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Different
categories are like RG-59, RG-58 and RG-11.

Performance:
The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable. In
other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal
weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

Applications:
The different applications of Coaxial cable are as follows.

i) Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a

single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
ii) Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
iii) Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 97 OF 216

Fiber-Optic Cable:
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly
enters another substance of a different density, the ray changes direction. The
following figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a
more dense to a less dense substance.

As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with
the line perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than
the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface. If the angle
of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If
the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and
travels again in the denser substance. Note that the critical angle is a property
of the substance, and its value differs from one substance to another.

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic
core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference
in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it
as shown in the following figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 98 OF 216

Propagation Modes:
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for
propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different
physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-
index or graded-index as shown in the following figure.

i) Multimode: Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a

light source move through the core in different paths. How these beams
move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown
in the following figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 99 OF 216

ii) In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains
constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through
this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of
the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change
due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The
term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the
fiber.

iii) In multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the

signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of
refraction. As we saw above, the index of refraction is related to density.
A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is
highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest
at the edge. The above figure shows the impact of this variable density
on the propagation of light beams.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 100 OF 216
iv) Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused
source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to
the horizontal. The single mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much
smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially
lowers density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a
critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of
beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is
almost identical, and delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the
destination "together" and can be recombined with little distortion to the
signal.
Performance:
Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable.
The performance is such that we need fewer (actually 10 times less)
repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.

Applications
 Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective.
 Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the
backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the
user premises. This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow
bandwidth requirement at the user end does not justify the use of optical
fiber.
 Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:

Advantages: Fiber-optic cable has several advantages which are as follows.

i) Higher bandwidth: Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher

bandwidths and hence data rates than either twisted-pair or coaxial
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 101 OF 216
cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic
cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and
reception technology available.
ii) Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is
significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run
for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5
km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
iii) Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise
cannot affect fiber- optic cables.
iv) Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to
corrosive materials than copper.
v) Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
vi) Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to
tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that
can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages: There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

i) Installation and maintenance: Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new

technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is
not yet available everywhere.
ii) Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is
unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are
needed.
iii) Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than
those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high,
often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.
4.14.2 Unguided media- Wireless Communication:
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus
are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 102 OF 216
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown
in the following figure.

i) Ground propagation mode: In ground propagation, radio waves

travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the
transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance
depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power,
the greater the distance.
ii) Sky propagation mode: In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio
waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere
where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output
power.
iii) Line-of-sight propagation mode: In line-or-sight propagation, very
high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 103 OF 216

antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other
and either tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by
the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because
radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 104 OF 216

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared waves as shown in the following figure.

Radio Waves:
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. The electromagnetic
waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an
antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too.
The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference
by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate
walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is
an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a
building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to
just inside or outside a building.
Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 105 OF 216
transmission, we can have several types of antennas. The following figure
shows an omnidirectional antenna.

Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,
television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits
microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending
and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with
another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes some characteristics
of microwave propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that
are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as
other blocking obstacles does not allow two short towers to
communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long
distance communication.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 106 OF 216
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction.
Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic
dish and the horn which are shown in the following figure.

A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line

parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles
such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The
parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing
them to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than
would be possible with a single-point receiver.
Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The
microwaves hit the dish and are deflected outward in a reversal of the receipt
path.
A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are
broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series
of narrow parallel beams by the curved

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 107 OF 216

head. Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn,
in a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
Applications:
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast
(one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from
1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves,
having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-
range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of
the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use
infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data
transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with
a very high data rate.
4.15 Network Address Translation(NAT)
Network Address Translation helps improve security by reusing IP addresses.
The NAT router translates traffic coming into and leaving the private network.
NAT gateways sit between two networks, the inside network and the outside
network. Systems on the inside network are typically assigned IP addresses that
cannot be routed to external networks. NAT conserves the number of globally
valid IP addresses a company needs, and in combination with Classless Inter-

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 108 OF 216

Domain Routing (CIDR) has done a lot to extend the useful life of IPv4 as a
result.
NAT gateways can map IP addresses in several ways:
i) From a local IP address to one global IP address statically;
ii) From a local IP address to any of a rotating pool of global IP
addresses a company may have;
iii) From a local IP address plus a particular TCP port to a global IP
address or one in a pool of ports;
iv) From a global IP address to any of a pool of local IP addresses on
a round-robin basis.
Example

In summary, you learned the;

i) Roles of Digital Service Unit (DSU)
ii) Concepts of Channel Service Unit (CSU)
iii) Functions of Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
iv) Concepts of Ethernet Wiring Technology
v) The roles of Patch Panels and Network interfaces Cards(NIC)
vi) Function Hubs/ concentrators or Repeaters
vii) Importance of Switches, Routers and Servers in networks

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 109 OF 216

viii)The functions of Gateways, Modem and Firewall in networks
ix) Types of transmission media
x) Importance of Network Address Translation (NAT).

Glossary
Network Terminal (NT) devices is device which ends a telecommunications
link and is the point at which a signal enters or leaves a network.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) (DTE) is an end instrument that converts
user information into signals or reconverts received signals.
A channel service unit (CSU) is a line Bridging device for use with T-carrier.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts user
information into signals or reconverts received signals
Hubs/ concentrators or Repeaters is small box that gathers the signals from
each individual device, optionally amplifies each signal, and then sends the
signal out to all other connected devices.
Switch is a device that gathers the signals from devices that are connected to
it, and then regenerates a new copy of each signal.
Routers are devices whose primary purpose is to connect two or more networks
and to filter network signals so that only desired information travels between
them.
A server is a system (software and suitable computer hardware) that responds
to requests across a computer network to provide, or help to provide, a network
service.
A gateway device provides communication to a remote network or an
autonomous system that is out of bounds for the host network nodes.
Modem (Modulator and Demodulator) is device that translate digital signals
from a computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone
lines.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 110 OF 216

A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing
network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a
defined set of security rules.
Guided media are those that provide a channel from one device to another.
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
Network Address Translation (NAT) is devices used to improve security by
reusing IP addresses.
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
In your own perspective used the skills you have gain from the topic to figure
out how Access Point (AP) qualify to be one of the network terminal device if
you agree with the statement.
Tips
Use internet search to review the how Access Point (AP) operates as one of
Network Terminal Device.
Review/ Assignment1 to be submitted through contact e-mail
i) Explain how error detection works between two modems (5 Marks)
ii) Explain any four router characteristics used in accomplishing stated
purposes. (8 Marks)
iii) A switch is a device that allows a LAN to be segmented and operate under
the same protocol.
a) State which OSI layer does a switch operate (2 Mark)
b) How does a switch gather signals from devices that are connected
and regenerate a new copy?

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 111 OF 216

c) Recommend the best method used by switches to deal with data
giving reason(s). (3 Marks)
iv) You have two cell phone and you want to exchange information between
this two devices wirelessly. What networking terminal devices might you
require as a feature of both cell phone to accomplish this? Explain how
the devices operates (8 Marks)
v) Illustrate the difference between the following fibre optics propagation
methods
i) Multi-Mode Step Index (2 Marks)
ii) Multi-Mode Graded Index (2 Marks)

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 112 OF 216

TOPIC FIVE: OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) REFERENCE
MODEL

Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, roles of OSI and functions of
each OSI layer.
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
of responsibilities of each OSI layer as well.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

Topic Contents
5.1 Introduction
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 113 OF 216
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model that
characterizes and standardizes the internal functions of a communication
system by partitioning it into abstraction layers. The model groups
communication functions into seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it.
5.1.1 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
At each level (N), two entities (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units
(PDUs) by means of a layer-N protocol. A service data unit (SDU) is the payload
of a PDU, transmitted unchanged to a peer. The SDU is a unit of data that has
been passed down from an OSI layer to the next-lower layer, and which the
lower layer encapsulates into a PDU. Layer N-1 adds a header or footer, or both,
to the SDU, composing a PDU of layer N-1. The added framing makes it possible
to get the data from a source to a destination. The PDU at a layer N becomes
the SDU of layer N-1 process is refers as decapsulation
2.3 OSI Layers

Advantages and Disadvantages of OSI Model

Advantages

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 114 OF 216

i) Reduces complexity:
ii) Standardizes interfaces:
iii) Facilitates modular engineering
iv) Interoperability between Vendors:
v) Ensures interoperable technology:
vi) Accelerates evolution
vii) Simplifies teaching and learning
Disadvantages
i) Many applications do not need the data integrity provided by OSI
ii) Many LAN applications need very fast setup
iii) The OSI model is too complex
iv) Not adapted at all to telecommunication/Network applications
5.3.1 Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over
a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of
the interface and transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and
functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission
to Occur. Figure shows the position of the physical layer with respect to the
transmission medium and the data link layer.

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 115 OF 216

i) Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
ii) Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of
bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits
must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The physical layer
defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
iii) Data rate: The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is
also defined by the physical layer.
iv) Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other
words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
v) Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection
of devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link
is shared among several devices.
vi) Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh
topology (every device is connected to every other device), a star
topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology
(each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology
(every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a
combination of two or more topologies).
vii) Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

5.3.2 Data Link Layer:

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 116 OF 216

layer). The following Figure shows the relationship of the data link layer to the
network and physical layers.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 117 OF 216

5.3.3 Network Layer:
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host possibly across multiple networks
(links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures
that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two
systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a
network layer. The following shows the relationship of the network layer to
the data link and transport layers.

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

i) Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the
data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet
passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to
help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer
adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
ii) Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network
layer is to provide this mechanism.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 118 OF 216

5.1.4 Transport Layer:
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message. A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the
network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether
or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the source-to-destination level. The following Figure shows the
relationship of the transport layer to the network and session layers.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

i) Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at
the same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means
delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific
process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running
program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include
a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 119 OF 216

ii) Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and
replace packets that were lost in transmission.
iii) Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment
as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection
is terminated.
iv) Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible
for flow control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to
end rather than across a single link.
v) Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible
for error control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-
to-process rather than across a single link: The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport
layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.
5.1.5 Session Layer:
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network)
are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog
controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems. Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the
following:
i) Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take place

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 120 OF 216

in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.
ii) Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints,
or synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system
is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not
be resent. The following Figure illustrates the relationship of the session
layer to the transport and presentation layers

5.1.6 Presentation Layer:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 121 OF 216

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems. The following Figure shows the
relationship between the presentation layer and the application and session
layers.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

i) Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems,
the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.
ii) Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to
ensure privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 122 OF 216

iii) Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained
in the information. Data compression becomes particularly important in
the transmission of multimedia such as text, Audio, and video.
5.1.7 Application Layer:
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access
the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,
and other types of distributed information services. The following Figure shows
the relationship of the application layer to the user and the presentation layer.

Where many application services available, the figure shows only three: XAOO
(message-handling services), X.500 (directory services), and file transfer,
access, and management (FTAM). The user in this example employs XAOO to
send an e-mail message. Specific services provided by the application layer
include the following:
i) Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote
host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal
at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal
which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 123 OF 216
it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to
log on.
ii) File transfer, access and management: This application allows a user
to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve
files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage
or control files in a remote computer locally.
iii) Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding
and storage. Directory services. This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about various objects
and services.
In summary, you learned the;
i) Concepts of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
ii) Roles of OSI
iii) Functions of each OSI layer
iv) Responsibilities of each OSI layer
Glossary
OSI is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the internal
functions of a communication system by partitioning it into abstraction layers.
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream
over a physical medium.
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host possibly across multiple networks (links).
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message.
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains,
and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 124 OF 216

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software to access
the network
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Compare the similarities and contrast between TCP/IP model in topic2 and OSI
model references.
Tips
Review topic 1 under protocol architecture and related to this topic.
Review
i) Match each of the following functions to the seven layers of the OSI Model.
a) Physical addressing
b) Flow control
c) Inter-host communications
d) Path determination and logical addressing
e) Network process to application
f) Media, signals and binary transmission
g) Data representation, encryption and decryption
ii) The network layer, or OSI layer 3, provides services to allow end devices to
exchange data across the network. To accomplish this end-to-end transport,
the network layer uses four basic processes. Briefly describe the purpose of
each of these basic processes.
a) Addressing of end devices,
b) Encapsulation,
c) Routing and
d) De-encapsulation.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 125 OF 216

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 126 OF 216
TOPIC SIX: PROTOCOLS
Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of
protocol, responsibilities of protocol, functions of protocols, ccompare OSI vs.
TCP/IP model with respectively protocol and differentiate various types of
protocols with their functions.
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
of network security protocols as well.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Explain the term of protocol
ii) Discuss responsibilities of protocol
iii) Explain functions of protocols
iv) Compare OSI vs. TCP/IP model with respectively protocol
v) Differentiate different protocols
vi) Describe types of protocols
vii) Explain network security protocols

Topic Contents

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 127 OF 216

6.1 Introduction
Protocols are rules or guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a
network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling and
speed of data transfer. Protocols can be implemented either in hardware or
software or a mixture of both the lower layers is implemented in hardware, with
the higher layers being implemented in software as follows:-
i) Protocols are how computers on a network communicate.
ii) Protocols may determine packet size, information in the headers, and how
data is stored in the packet.
iii) Both sides of the conversation must understand these rules for a
successful transmission.
iv) Most protocols actually consist of several protocols grouped together in a
suite.
v) Protocols are how computers on a network communicate. Rules governing
communicate between LAN devices.
vi) Protocols may determine packet size, information in the headers, and how
data is stored in the packet.
vii) Both sides of the conversation must understand these rules for a
successful transmission.
6.2 Functions of protocols
i) Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller
packets of fixed size. Data sequencing rules define the method of
numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and to
correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
ii) Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the
source and destination.
iii) Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or
characters within packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other
information.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 128 OF 216

iv) Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from
overwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection
against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on communication
lines.
v) Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and
to ensure transmission of correct messages. The most common method
is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having
error is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
vi) Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the
nodes get a chance to use the communication lines and other resources
of the network based on the priorities assigned to them.
vii) Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how
connections are established, maintained and terminated when two nodes
of a network want to communicate with each other.
viii)Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most
communication software packages. It prevents access of data by
unauthorized users.
ix) Log information. Several communication software are designed to
develop log information, which consists of all jobs and data
communications tasks that have taken place. Such information may be
used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the
network resources.
6.2.1 Routable Protocols
Many networks today consist of connected LANs. These LANs are often
connected using routers. One consideration of connecting LANs is the ability of
protocols to work properly across the router to the different networks. A
protocol with the ability to communicate across the router is known as a routable
protocol. This type of protocol has become increasingly important.
6.2.2 Non-routable Protocols

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 129 OF 216

Some protocols cannot be routed and are limited to smaller LANs. Besides being
simpler than routable protocols, non-routable protocols are also usually faster
and provide better transfer speeds, due to less overhead.
6.2.3 Connectionless Protocols
Connectionless protocols have no feedback to know whether it arrived safely or
not. Connectionless protocols are faster than connection-oriented ones due to
less overhead. They are used mainly when there is a need to send data to
multiple computers at once when high speed is needed, such as in video or
audio.
6.2.4 Connection-Oriented Protocols
If you need to ensure that certain data arrives at its destination, then a
connection oriented protocol can be used. The protocols send acknowledgments
to show that data was received successfully.
6.3 TCP/IP Protocol suite
TCPIP is routable, which enables you to connect multiple LANs into one large
internetwork. Today it is the main protocol used on the worldwide Internet.
TCP/IP has been shown to run over almost any type of network connection from
FDDI to radio wave. Almost all devices on a TCP/IP network are considered
hosts. TCP/IP Addressing: Every host on a TCP/IP network is given an IP
address.
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application. The first four layers provide physical standards,
network interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to
Protocols
the first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers
SMTP, in the OSI
FTP,DNS,
model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a single DHCP, IPSec,
layer called the
SSL,HTTP,NFS
application layer which is shown in the following figure with e.t.c
,ICMP corresponding
protocols.
TCP, UDP,
SCTP

IP, ARP, RARP,

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS
ICMP, PAGE
IGMP.
130 OF 216
Protocols
defined by
underying
6.3.1 Types of Protocols
i) Network protocols
ii) Transport protocols
iii) Application protocols
6.3.2 Network protocols
Physical/data link Protocols
At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not define any specific protocol.
It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCPI/IP
internetwork can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.
6.3.3 Network Layer Protocols
Internetworking Protocol (IP):
(IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. IP
transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately. Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of
sequence or be duplicated. Does not keep track of the routes and has no facility
for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.IP provides bare-
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 131 OF 216
bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilities
necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Used to associate a logical address with a physical address. Used to find the
physical address of the node when its Internet address is known. Handles the
conversion of the address by sending out a discovery packet. To find out the
MAC address of a particular IP address. Maintains a list of IP and MAC addresses
so a discovery packet is not needed every time communication takes place. ARP
is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is
known.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram
problems back to the sender by sending query and error reporting messages.
The query messages, which occur in pairs, help a host or a network manager
get specific information from a router or another host. The error-reporting
messages report problems that a router or a host (destination) may encounter
when it processes an IP packet.
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
Used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of
recipients. Gives the multicast routers information about the membership status
of hosts (routers) connected to the network as group management protocol. It
helps a multicast router create and update a list of loyal members related to
each router interface.

6.3.4 Transport protocols

UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message
from a process (running program) to another process.
SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 132 OF 216

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP
transport protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port
addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer.
Transmission Control Protocol:
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services
to applications. TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in
this context, means connection-oriented: A connection must be established
between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data. At the
sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller
units called segments. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering
after receipt, together with an acknowledgment number for the segments
received. Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams. At
the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
transmission based on sequence numbers.
Services Offered by TCP
TCP Services
i) Provides process-to-process communication using port numbers
ii) TCP allows the sending process to deliver data as a stream of bytes and
iii) Allows the receiving process to obtain data as a stream of bytes
iv) TCP offers full-duplex service, in which data can flow in both directions
at the same time.
Connection-Oriented Service

i)The two TCPs establish a connection between them.

ii) Data are exchanged in both directions.
iii) The connection is terminated.
iv) Creates a virtual connection between two TCPs to send data.
v) TCP uses flow and error control mechanisms at the transport level
Reliable Service
i) TCP is a reliable transport protocol
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 133 OF 216
ii) It uses an acknowledgment mechanism to check the safe and sound
arrival of data.
TCP/UDP application
 TCP is used in file transfer application between client and server
 UDP provide services to higher layer protocols however multiple higher
layer protocols can be multiplexed on to a single UDP layer e.g video
streaming application
 UDP no acknowledgement used in audio conferencing
Stream Control Transmission Protocol:
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that
combines the best features of UDP and TCP. Designed for Internet applications
e.g ISDN over IP, telephony signaling, media gateway control, IP telephony.
Provides this enhanced performance and reliability. Preserves the message
boundaries and at the same time detects lost data, duplicate data, and out-of-
order data and has congestion control and flow control mechanisms.
SCTP Services
i) Process-to-Process Communication
 SCTP uses all well-known ports in the TCP space
ii) Multiple Streams
 SCTP allows multi-stream service in each connection, which is called
association in SCTP terminology
iii) Multi-homing
 The sending and receiving host can define multiple IP addresses in
each end for an association
6.3.5 Application protocols
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session,
presentation, and application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are
defined at this layer some include the following

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 134 OF 216
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is responsible for making sure that e-mail
is delivered. SMTP only handles the delivery of mail to servers and between
servers. It does not handle the delivery to the final e-mail client application.
Mail transfer is done through message transfer agents (MTA).SMTP simply
defines how commands and responses must be sent back and forth.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Mechanism provided by TCP/IP for copying a file from one host to another.
Establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data
transfer, the other for control information (commands and responses).
FTP uses the services of TCP. It needs two TCP connections.
i)The well-known port 21 is used for the control connection and
ii) The well-known port 20 for the data connection.
Domain Name System (DNS).
Protocol used to map a name to an IP address or an address to a user friendly
name. DNS client program sends a request to a DNS server to map the e-mail
address to the corresponding IP address. People prefer to use names instead of
numeric addresses.

Name Space
The names assigned to machines must be selected from a name space with
complete control over the binding between the names and IP addresses.
Flat Narne Space
A name in this space is a sequence of characters without structure.
Hierarchical Narne Space
Each name is made of several parts. The first part can define the nature of the
organization. The second part can define the name of an organization .The third
part can define departments in the organization and so on
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 135 OF 216

(SNMP) is a framework for managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP
protocol suite provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and
maintaining an internet, controls and monitors a set of agents, usually routers
SNMP frees management tasks from both the physical characteristics of the
managed devices and the underlying networking technology. Used in a
heterogeneous internet made of different LANs and WANs connected by routers
made by different manufacturers. SNMP uses two other protocols
Structure of Management Information (SMI) and Management Information Base
(MIB).
Role of SMI
Defines the general rules for naming objects, defining object types (including
range and length), and showing how to encode objects and values
Role of MIB
Creates a collection of named objects, their types, and their relationships to
each other in an entity to be managed
Network management protocols are used to
i) Monitoring, testing, configuring, and troubleshooting network
components to meet a set of requirements defined by an organization.
ii) Management system protocol is SNMP
iii) Functions performed by a network management system include
a) Configuration Management,
b) Fault Management,
c) Performance Management,
d) Security Management, And
e) Accounting Management
Role of SNMP
i) Defines the format of the packet to be sent from a manager to an
agent and vice versa.
ii) Interprets the result and creates statistics

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 136 OF 216

iii) It reads and changes the status (values) of objects (variables) in
SNMP packets.
Terminal Network (Telnet)
Allows a user to remotely log in to another computer and run applications. User
is physically working effectively becomes a dumb terminal — no processing is
done on that computer. User wants to access an application program or utility
located on a remote machine, she performs remote log-in. TELNET uses only
one TCP connection.
Telnet Mode of Operation
Default Mode: User types a character, and the client echoes the character on
the screen (or printer) but does not send it until a whole line is completed.
Character mode, each character typed is sent by the client to the server. The
server normally echoes the character back to be displayed on the client screen.
Line mode, line editing (echoing, character erasing, line erasing, and so on) is
done by the client. The client then sends the whole line to the server.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP is responsible for providing an IP address from DHCP server offered by
Nework operating system. Provide more information when a client host requests
an IP address from the DHCP server. Information that a DHCP server can
provide to client hosts are
 IP address
 Subnet mask
 DNS server address
 Default gateway
Once network becomes large, keeping up with IP addresses and settings can
become an ordeal. (DHCP) takes over the job of assigning addresses and
configuring computers on the network. DHCP server is given a range of IP
addresses to hand out to network devices. The range of IP addresses must be
specified for the network depending on network devices
Network File System (NFS)

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 137 OF 216

NFS is a more advanced protocol used to share files and disk drives than FTP
and Telnet. Allows users to connect to network drives and use them as if they
were local hard drives.
6.3.6 Network Security Protocols
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS).Designed to
make use of TCP to provide a reliable end-to-end secure service. Record
Protocol provides basic security services to various higher layer protocols
defined as part of SSL:
i) The Handshake Protocol,
ii) The Change Cipher Spec Protocol, and
iii) The Alert Protocol
SSL Record Protocol provides two services for SSL connections
i) Confidentiality: The Handshake Protocol defines a shared secret key
that is used for symmetric encryption of SSL payloads.
ii) Message integrity: The Handshake Protocol also defines a shared
secret key that is used to form a message authentication code (MAC)

IPV4 and IPV6 Security (IPSec)

Used to secure the network infrastructure from unauthorized monitoring, control
of network traffic, secure end user-to-end-user traffic using authentication and
encryption mechanisms.
IPSec provides three main facilities:
i) an authentication-only function referred to as Authentication
Header (AH),
ii) a combined authentication/encryption function called
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP),
iii) a key exchange function
Applications of IPSec
i) Secure connectivity
ii) Secure remote access

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 138 OF 216

iii) Establishing connectivity
iv) Enhancing electronic security
In summary, you learned the;
i) Main concepts of protocol
i) Responsibilities of protocol
ii) Functions of protocols
iii) Similarities and difference between OSI vs. TCP/IP model with
respectively protocol
iv) Different types protocols
v) Network security protocols
Glossary
Protocols are rules or guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of
a network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling and
speed of data transfer.
TCP/IP is routable protocol which enables to connect multiple LANs into one
large internetwork.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a high-performance fibre optic
token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps over distances up to 200 km with up to
1000 stations connected
Network Security Protocols: Record protocol provides basic security
services to various higher layer protocols.
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Read and make brief notes on HTTP and ICMP application protocols.
Tips

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 139 OF 216

Use internet to search HTTP and ICMP application protocols.
Review
i) The Domain Name System (DNS) protocol is chiefly used to translate
hostnames into numeric IP addresses. Illustrate how this protocol
implements the process.
ii) A local bank just hired you to completely redesign its network. Money is
no object but its database transactions are time- critical and PCs
throughout the bank must be able to access the databases which are on
UNIX systems. Choose and explain the best protocol(s) for this scenario.
iii) Using illustration to show how LAN is connected to internet connectivity
labelled all devices and suitable protocol(s).
iv) A switch is a device that allows a LAN to be segmented and operate under
the same protocol.
a. State the protocol which a switch uses to achieve the function.
b. How does a switch implement network security
c. Which protocol is implemented to achieve network security?

TOPIC SEVEN: MULTIPLEXING

Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of
multiplexing, techniques of multiplexing, Frequency-Division Multiplexing,
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing and Time-Division Multiplexing
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
multiplexing process, demultiplexing process, interleaving and data rate
management.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 140 OF 216

Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Explain the concepts of multiplexing
ii) Differentiate techniques of multiplexing
iii) Describe Frequency-Division Multiplexing
iv) Describe Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
v) Describe Time-Division Multiplexing

Topic Content
7.1 Introduction
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link. Whenever the bandwidth of a
medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices,
the link can be shared.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. The following
figure shows the basic format of a multiplexed system. The lines on the left
direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them
into a single stream (many-toone). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into
a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component
transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 141 OF 216

The following figure shows, the three basic multiplexing techniques:
frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and time-
division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals,
the third, for digital signals.

7.2 Frequency-Division Multiplexing:

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be
applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each
sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals
are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the
link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate
the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which
the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. The following
figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission path

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 142 OF 216

is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one
transmission.

7.2.1 Multiplexing Process:

The following figure is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process.
Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the
multiplexer, these similar signals modulate different carrier frequencies (f1, f2
and f3). The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth
to accommodate it.
7.2.2 Demultiplexing Process:
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal
into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed
to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to
the output lines.
Applications of FDM:
 To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies
have traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto
higher-bandwidth lines.
 A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 143 OF 216

 The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses
FDM.
Implementation:
FDM can be implemented very easily. In many cases, such as radio and
television broadcasting, there is no need for a physical multiplexer or
demultiplexer. As long as the stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air
using different carrier frequencies, multiplexing is achieved. In other cases, such
as the cellular telephone system, a base station needs to assign a carrier
frequency to the telephone user. There is not enough bandwidth in a cell to
permanently assign a bandwidth range to every telephone user. When a user
hangs up, her or his bandwidth is assigned to another caller.
7.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data
rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line
wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines
into one.
WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
The following figure gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and
demultiplexer. Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined
to make a wider band of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the
demultiplexer.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 144 OF 216

In this method, we combine multiple light sources into one single light at the
multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting
of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall from basic physics that a
prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency.
Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams
of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of
a wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the
process.
7.4 Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several
connections to share the high bandwidth of a link Instead of sharing a portion
of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion
of time in the link. The following figure gives a conceptual view of TDM.

TDM is divided into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.

a) Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing:
In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even
if it is not sending data. In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input
connection is divided into units, where each input occupies one input time slot.
A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes
one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an
output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an
input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of
connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 145 OF 216
duration; it travels faster. The following figure shows an example of
synchronous TDM where n is 3.

In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is

collected into a frame. If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time
slots and one slot is allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the
duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is Tin and the duration
of each frame is T.
Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of
time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n
input lines, each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data
from a specific input line.
Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing
side and the other on the demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized
and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing
side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.
On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path. The following
figure shows the interleaving process.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 146 OF 216

Empty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have
data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty. The following
figure shows a case in which one of the input lines has no data to send and one
slot in another input line has discontinuous data.

The first output frame has three slots filled, the second frame has two slots
filled, and the third frame has three slots filled. No frame is full.
7.4.1 Data Rate Management
One problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input data rates. If
data rates are not the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be
used. The three different strategies are multilevel multiplexing, multiple-
slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.
i) Multilevel Multiplexing: Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used
when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others. For example,
in the following figure, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs of
40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide
a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can
create an output of 160 kbps.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 147 OF 216
ii) Multiple-Slot Allocation: Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more
than one slot in a frame to a single input line. For example, we might have
an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of another input. In
the following figure, the input line with a SO-kbps data rate can be given
two slots in the output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line
to make two inputs out of one.

iii) Pulse Stuffing: Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not multiple
integers of each other. Therefore, neither of the above two techniques can
be applied. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the
dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower
rates. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing,
bit padding, or bit stuffing as shown in the following figure. The input with
a data rate of 46 is pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps. Now
multiplexing can take place.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 148 OF 216

7.4.2 Frame Synchronizing
The implementation of TDM is not as simple as that of FDM. Synchronization
between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. If the, multiplexer
and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may
be received by the wrong channel.
For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the
beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame
to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream
so that it can separate the time slots accurately. In most cases, this
synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating between 0
and I, as shown in the following figure.

b) Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing:

Statistical TDM improve the efficiency by removing the empty slots from the
frame. In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame.
This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to send. In statistical
time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth
efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it given
a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each
frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input
line in round robin fashion. It allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data
to send otherwise it skips the line and checks the next line.
The following figure shows a synchronous and a statistical TDM example. In the
former, some slots are empty because the corresponding line does not have

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 149 OF 216

data to send. In the latter, however, no slot is left empty as long as there are
data to be sent by any input line.

Addressing
The above figure also shows a major difference between slots in synchronous
TDM and statistical TDM. An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied
by data, in statistical TDM; a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of
the destination.
In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing. Synchronization and
reassigned relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address.
We know, for example, that input 1 always goes to input 1. If the multiplexer
and the demultiplexer are synchronized, this is guaranteed. In statistical
multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no pre-assigned or reserved slots. We need to include the
address of the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.
The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output
lines with n =log2 n. For example, for eight different output lines, we need a 3-
bit address.
Slot Size

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 150 OF 216

Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the
data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For
example, it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address
is 3 bits. This would mean an overhead of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a
block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few bytes.
No Synchronization Bit
There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this
time it is at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be
synchronized, so we do not need synchronization bits.
Bandwidth
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity
of the link based on the statistics of the load for each channel. If on average
only x percent of the input slots are filled, the capacity of the link reflects this.
Of course, during peak times, some slots need to wait.
Glossary
Protocols are rules or guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of
a network: access method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling and
speed of data transfer.
TCP/IP is routable protocol which enables to connect multiple LANs into one
large internetwork.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a high-performance fibre optic
token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps over distances up to 200 km with up to
1000 stations connected
Network Security Protocols: Record protocol provides basic security
services to various higher layer protocols.
In summary, you learned the;
i) The concepts of multiplexing
ii) Different techniques of multiplexing
iii) Multiplexing and demultiplexing process

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 151 OF 216

iv) Frequency-Division Multiplexing
v) Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
vi) Time-Division Multiplexing
vii) Data management rate and concept of interleaving.

Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Use the concepts of multiplexing you have learnt figure out which types of
multiplexing does mobile telecommucation implement in achieve it main
application such as calls, SMS, video streaming, e-mail, what-up, Facebook,
twitter e.t.c
Tips
Refer to these multiplexing terms and apply to figure out how to apply in the
topic activity:-
a) Frame synchronizing,
b) Addressing,
c) Interleaving and
d) Bandwidth
Review
a) Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared. One approach used
is multiplexing.
i) Describe one goal of multiplexing
ii) List three main multiplexing techniques

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 152 OF 216

iii) Which of the three multiplexing techniques is (are) used to combine
digital signals?
iv) Which of the three multiplexing techniques is common for fiber optic
links? Explain the reason.
b) Distinguish between multilevel, multiple slot and pulse-stuffed time division
multiplexing.
c) In synchronous time division multiplexing, it is possible to interleave bits,
one bit from each channel participating in a cycle. If the channel is using a
self-clocking code to assist synchronization, might this bit interleaving
introduce problems because there is no continuous stream of bits from one
source? Discuss briefly
d) Compare statistical and synchronous time division multiplexing using
illustration with four inputs.
e) Why is it that the start and stop bits can be eliminated when character
interleaving is used in synchronous Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)?
f) Briefly explain how wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is able to
increase the amount of data that can be transmitted along a single fibre optic
cable. .
g) Explain in terms of data link control and physical layer concepts how error
and flow control are accomplished in synchronous time division multiplexing.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 153 OF 216

TOPIC EIGHT: NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Introduction
Welcome to topic eight. This topic is aimed at introducing main concepts of
layering of networks as discuss in topic two and five, network technologies,
network design and network topologies
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
network control access method
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Explain the roles of layering a networks
ii) Discuss existing network technologies
iii) Describe Hierarchical LAN design and converged network
iv) Describe common network topologies
v) Discuss network control access methods

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 154 OF 216

8.1 Introduction
Network architecture is global view of network that describes how various
operation are organised in network and data communication. It address the
following:-
vi) Layering of networks
• OSI and TCP/IP models
vii) Network technologies
• ISDN, ATM, Ethernet, FDDI, Token ring, SONET, HIPPI e.tc,
viii) Network design
• Hierarchical design and converged network
ix) Network topologies
• Bus, star, ring, mesh and Hybrid.
x) Network control access method.
 Contention methods, token passing, demand priority, polling ad
Network switching
xi) Network security
• Security basic concepts, types of threats, security mechanisms,
secure channels, security services, message integrity and
conﬁdentiality secure channels and access control.
Digital data communication are used in packet switched networks used to
transmit data or send data across WAN at
i) High speed,
ii) Convenient and
iii) Reliable
iv) Using different possible paths to package and route data.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 155 OF 216

8.2 Network Architecture Technologies
The most popular network architecture technologies include
8.2.1 Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN)
ISDN is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission
of multimedia and other network services over the public switched telephone
network (PSTN).
ISDN elements
i) With ISDN you can have a digital telephone line and a 64 Kbps data line,
or one 128 Kbps data line.
ii) 2B (Basic User) Channels – 64Kbps each – digital data and voice
iii) 1D (Data Traffic) Channel – 16Kbps – signalling information for B channels
iv) H (High Speed) Channel – 348Kbps (H0), 1.536Mbps (H11), 1.92Mbps
(H12) – high speed apps, fax, video e.t.c
ISDN Services
There are two main ISDN services
i) The basic rate interface (BRI) is the service for homes and small
businesses. The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic(s) Rate Interface
(BRI), a 128 Kbit/s service delivered over a pair of standard telephone
copper wires. The 144 Kbit/s payload rate is broken down into two 64
Kbit/s bearer channels ('B' channels) and one 16 Kbit/s signaling channel
('D' channel or data channel). This is sometimes referred to as 2B+D
ii) The primary rate interface (PRI) is the service for larger businesses.
The other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which
is carried over a T1 (2048 Kbit/s). A T1 is 23 'B' channels of 64 Kbit/s,
one 'D' channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel of 64 Kbit/s.
used to carry digital data in full duplex mode at rate of 1.544Mbps. A
computer connected to a ISDN services can both use B channels together
for a combined 128Kbps data stream. If both end stations support
compression, much high throughput can be achieved This is sometimes
referred to as 23B+D

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 156 OF 216

Example
Compute the full capacity of the following ISDN service types
i) BRI= 2B+D
= 2*64 + 16 =144Kbps
ii) PRI=23B+D
= 23*64 +64 =1.54Kbps
iii) What are D and B channels
B= Voice, data, video break down into payload
D= channels use for network management, call setup used to carry tear
down data
iv) Which one is equivalent to T1 circuit line? Explain
PRI= 23*B+D
PRI = 23*64 + 64 = 1.536Mbps = 1.544Mbps.
Explanation
1.544 Mbps @ 24 channels each 64Mbps
8.2.2 Asynchrones Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM is the leased service that can provide a high-speed connection for data
transfer between two points either locally or over long distances. Both send
packets of data over high speed lines ad require a user to create a circuit with
a provider. It is capable of speeds up to 622 Mbps. Data travels over a
connection called a virtual channel connection (VCC). VCC is connection
between two endpoints. To better manage VCCs, a VCC must travel over a
virtual path connection (VPC). One of ATM’s strengths (besides its high speeds)
is its ability to offer various classes of service.
Types of ATM Bit Rate
i) If a company requires a high-speed, continuous connection, they might
consider a constant bit rate service.
ii) A less demanding service is variable bit rate (VBR). VBR can also
support real time applications, as well as non-real time applications, but
do not demand a constant bit stream.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 157 OF 216

iii) Available bit rate (ABR) is used for bursty traffic that does not need to
be transmitted immediately. ABR traffic may be held up until a
transmission opening is available.
iv) Unspecified bit rate (UBR) is for lower rate traffic that may get held
up, and may even be discarded part way through transmission if
congestion occurs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ATM

• Advantages of ATM include very high speeds and the different classes of
service.
• Disadvantages include potentially high costs (both equipment and
support) and a high level of complexity.
8.2. 3: Ethernet standards
Ethernet is the most widely-installed local area network (LAN) technology.
Specified in a standard, IEEE 802.3 project specification. The standards
comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI model. It provides
services up to and including the data link layer. An Ethernet LAN typically uses
coaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires. Ethernet is also used in
wireless LANs. An Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or special grades of
twisted pair wires. Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs. The most commonly
installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASET and provide transmission speeds
up to 10 Mbps. Devices are connected to the cable and compete for access using
a Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol.
Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits
per second and is typically used for LAN backbone systems, supporting
workstations with 10BASET cards. Gigabit Ethernet provides an even higher
level of backbone support at 1000 megabits per second (1 gigabit or 1 billion
bits per second). 10-Gigabit Ethernet provides up to 10 billion bits per second.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 158 OF 216

10BASE-T
This designation is an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
shorthand identifier. The "10" in the media type designation refers to the
transmission speed of 10 Mbps. The "BASE" refers to baseband signaling, which
means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium. The "T" represents
twisted-pair; the "F" represents fiber optic cable; and the "2", "5", and "36"
refer to the coaxial cable segment length (the 185 meter length has been
rounded up to "2" for 200). 10BASE-T, one of several physical media specified
in the IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet local area networks (LANs), is ordinary
telephone twisted pair wire. 10BASE-T supports Ethernet's 10 Mbps
transmission speed. In addition to 10BASE-T, 10 megabit Ethernet can be
implemented with these media types:
i) 10BASE-2 (Thinwire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length of 185
meters)
ii) 10BASE-5 (Thickwire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length of
500 meters)
iii) 10BASE-F (optical fiber cable)
iv) 10BASE-36 (broadband coaxial cable carrying multiple baseband channels
for a maximum length of 3,600 meters)
v) 10GB- transmit at 10gabit per second speed at long distance miles way
e.g optical fiber cable
8.2.4 Token Ring
Ring topology: every node has exactly two branches connected to it (a
succession of point-to-point links). Stations are connected using interfaces
(repeaters). Ex: Token Ring LAN. Repeaters joined by point to point links in
closed loop. Receive data on one link and retransmit on another and links
unidirectional. Data in frames circulate past all stations, destination recognizes
address and copies frame. Frame circulates back to source where it is removed.
Media access control determines when station can insert frame. Dual ring allows
for a second (reserve) ring; data flow has here an opposite direction; not all

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 159 OF 216

stations linked to both rings. The dual ring topology uses a second (auxiliary)
ring which operates in the reverse direction compared with the main ring. The
second ring is for emergencies only
8.2.5 Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI)
FDDI is a high-performance fiber optic token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps over
distances up to 200 km with up to 1000 stations connected. FDDI is used as
backbone to connect copper LANs using repeater device to connect many link.
It also used token passing access control method to share a common link
generated by special token protocol 802.5. FDDI uses a multimode fiber. The
FDDI cabling consists of two fiber rings, one transmitting clockwise and the
other transmitting counter clockwise. If either one breaks the other If both links
break at same time they can be joined to form a new approximately twice as
long. This new ring is formed by relays at the two nodes adjoining the broken
link. The basic FDDI protocols are modeled on protocol 802.5.The station must
first capture a token, transmit a frame and remove it when it comes around. In
FDDI the time spent in waiting for a frame to circumnavigate is reduced by
allowing the station to put a new token back onto the ring as soon as it has
finished transmitting its frames. In a large ring, several frames may be on the
ring at the same time.
8.3 LAN design
A properly Network architecture is a fundamental requirement for any
organization well designed LAN is and be able to select appropriate devices to
support the network specifications of a small- or medium-sized business.
8.3.1 Switched LAN Architecture
Compared to other network designs, a hierarchical network is easier to manage
and expand, and problems are solved more quickly. Hierarchical network design
involves dividing the network into discrete layers. Each layer provides specific
functions that define its role within the overall network. By separating the
various functions that exist on a network, the network design becomes modular,
which facilitates scalability and performance.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 160 OF 216

The typical hierarchical design model is broken into three layers:
i) Access
ii) Distribution
iii) Core
8.3.2 Access Layer
The access layer interfaces with end devices, such as PCs, printers, and IP
phones, to provide access to the rest of the network. The access layer can
include routers, switches, bridges, hubs, and wireless access points. The main
purpose of the access layer is to provide a means of connecting devices to the
network and controlling which devices are allowed to communicate on the
network.
8.3.3 Distribution Layer
The distribution layer aggregates the data received from the access layer
switches before it is transmitted to the core layer for routing to its final
destination. The distribution layer controls the flow of network traffic using
policies and delineates broadcast domains by performing routing functions
between virtual LANs (VLANs) defined at the access layer. VLANs allow you to
segment the traffic on a switch into separate sub-networks. For example, in a
university you might separate traffic according to faculty, students, and guests.
Distribution layer switches are typically high-performance devices that have
high availability and redundancy to ensure reliability.
8.3.4 Core Layer
The core layer of the hierarchical design is the high-speed backbone of the
internetwork. The core layer is critical for interconnectivity between distribution
layer devices, so it is important for the core to be highly available and
redundant. The core area can also connect to Internet resources. The core
aggregates the traffic from all the distribution layer devices, so it must be
capable of forwarding large amounts of data quickly. E.g. routers

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 161 OF 216

Benefits of a Hierarchical Network
i) Scalability: Hierarchical networks scale very well. The modularity of the
design allows you to replicate design elements as the network grows.
Because each instance of the module is consistent, expansion is easy to
plan and implement.
ii) Redundancy: As a network grows, availability becomes more important.
You can dramatically increase availability through easy redundant
implementations with hierarchical networks. Access layer switches are
connected to two different distribution layer switches to ensure path
redundancy. If one of the distribution layer switches fails, the access layer
switch can switch to the other distribution layer switch. If an access layer
switch fails, just the devices connected to that one switch would be
affected by the outage. The rest of the network would continue to function
unaffected.
iii) Performance: Communication performance is enhanced by avoiding the
transmission of data through low performing, intermediary switches. Data
is sent through aggregated switch port links from the access layer to the
distribution layer at near wire speed in most cases. The distribution layer
then uses its high-performance switching capabilities to forward the traffic
up to the core, where it is routed to its final destination. Because the core
and distribution layers perform their operations at very high speeds, no
contention for network bandwidth occurs. As a result, properly designed
hierarchical networks can achieve near wire speed between all devices.
iv) Security: Security is improved and easier to manage. Access layer
switches can be configured with various port security options that provide
control over which devices are allowed to connect to the network. You also
have the flexibility to use more advanced security policies at the
distribution layer. You may apply access control policies that define which
communication protocols are deployed on your network and where they

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 162 OF 216

are permitted to go. Data security has two elements and two models. Data
security elements
a. Ensuring that the data is safe from intruders
b. . Ensuring that you can replace destroyed data
Security models
1. Physical model
2. Software model
i) Physical models involve keeping intruders way form network devices
and transmission media. i.e cables cannot be trap, isolation, devices
access e.t.c
ii) Software models involves shared oriented and user oriented security
Share oriented security the security information is attached to the object
and apples to everyone who might access that object User oriented
security focuses on the right and permission of each user. A table attached
to every object lists who can do what the object permits and keep track
of every user. E.g WIN XP and WIN 2000/2003/2007 server security
models
v) Manageability: Manageability is relatively simple on a hierarchical
network. Each layer of the hierarchical design performs specific functions
that are consistent throughout that layer. Therefore, if the need to change
the functionality of an access layer switch, you could repeat that change
across all access layer switches in the network because they presumably
perform the same functions at their layer. Deployment of new switches is
also simplified because switch configurations can be copied between
devices with very few modifications. Consistency between the switches at
each layer allows for rapid recovery and simplified troubleshooting. In
some special situations, configuration inconsistencies could exist between
devices, so you should ensure that configurations are well documented so
that you can compare them before deployment.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 163 OF 216

vi) Maintainability: Hierarchical networks are modular in nature and scale
very easily, they are easy to maintain. With other network topology
designs, maintainability becomes increasingly complicated as the network
grows. Also, in some network design models, there is a finite limit to how
large the network can grow before it becomes too complicated and
expensive to maintain. In the hierarchical design model, switch functions
are defined at each layer, making the selection of the correct switch
easier. Adding switches to one layer does not necessarily mean there will
not be a bottleneck or other limitation at another layer. For a full mesh
network topology to achieve maximum performance, all switches need to
be high-performance switches because each switch needs to be capable
of performing all the functions on the network. In the hierarchical model,
switch functions are different at each layer.
8.3.5 Principles of Hierarchical LAN Design
i) Network Diameter: When designing a hierarchical network topology, the
first thing to consider is network diameter, Network diameter is the
number of devices that a packet has to cross before it reaches its
destination. Keeping the network diameter low ensures low and
predictable latency between devices.
ii) Bandwidth Aggregation: Each layer in the hierarchical network model
is a possible candidate for bandwidth aggregation. Bandwidth aggregation
is the combining of two or more connections to create a logically singular
higher bandwidth connection. After bandwidth requirements of the
network are known, links between specific switches can be aggregated,
which is called link aggregation. Link aggregation allows multiple switch
port links to be combined so as to achieve higher throughput between
switches.
iii) Redundancy: Redundancy is one part of creating a highly available
network. Redundancy can be provided in a number of ways .This protects
network if one of the distribution switches fails. In case of a failure, the

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 164 OF 216

access layer switch adjusts its transmission path and forwards the traffic
through the other distribution switch.
8.4 Converged Network
Convergence is the process of combining voice and video communications on
a data network. Converged networks have existed for a while now, but were
feasible only in large enterprise organizations because of the network
infrastructure requirements and complex management that was involved to
make them work seamlessly. High network costs were associated with
convergence because more expensive switch hardware was required to
support the additional bandwidth requirements. Converged networks also
required extensive management in relation to quality of service (QoS),
because voice and video data traffic needed to be classified and prioritized
on the network.
Benefit of a Converged Network
i) In converged network is that there is just one network to manage. With
separate voice, video, and data networks, changes to the network have
to be coordinated across networks. 2.
ii) Lower implementation and management costs. It is less expensive to
implement a single network infrastructure than three distinct network
infrastructures. Managing a single network is also less expensive.
8.5 Considerations of LAN Design
i) Traffic Flow Analysis: It is the process of measuring the bandwidth
usage on a network and analyzing the data for the purpose of performance
tuning, capacity planning, and making hardware improvement decisions
ii) Analysis Tools: Many traffic flow analysis tools that automatically record
traffic flow data to a database and perform a trend analysis are available.
In large networks, software collection solutions are the only effective
method for performing traffic flow analysis.
iii) User Community: Analysis User community analysis is the process of
identifying various groupings of users and their impact on network

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 165 OF 216

performance. The way users are grouped affects issues related to port
density and traffic flow, which, in turn, influence the selection of network
switches.
iv) Data Stores and Data Servers Analysis: When analyzing traffic on a
network, consider where the data stores and servers are located so that
you can determine the impact of traffic on the network. Data stores can
be servers, storage area networks (SANs), network-attached storage
(NAS), tape backup units, or any other device or component where large
quantities of data are stored.
v) Topology Diagrams: A topology diagram is a graphical representation
of a network infrastructure. A topology diagram shows how all switches
are interconnected, detailed down to which switch port Interconnects the
devices
8.6 Network topologies
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
which are shown in the following figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 166 OF 216

8.6.1 Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device. The dedicated link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects. The number of physical links needed in a fully connected mesh
network with n nodes are, n(n - 1). However, if each physical link allows
communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -
1) /2 duplex-mode links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the
network must have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other
n - 1 stations which are shown in the following figure:

Advantages:
The different advantages of Mesh topology are as follows:
i) The dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
ii) A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
iii) Another advantage of Mesh topology is advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining
access to messages.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 167 OF 216

iv) Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This helps
to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause
and solution.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages are as follows.
i) Every device must be connected to every other device. So large amount
of cabling and the number of I/O ports are required. So, the installation
and reconnection are difficult.
ii) The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in
walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
iii) The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive.
8.6.2 Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device as shown in the following Figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 168 OF 216

Advantages:
i) A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each
device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number
of others.
ii) A star topology is robust. Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is
affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy
fault identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages:
i) One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
ii) Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in
a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
8.6.3 Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology,
on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network which is shown in the following figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 169 OF 216

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector
that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to
create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone,
some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and
weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the
number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
Advantages:
i) The main advantages of a bus topology is ease of installation. Backbone
cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the
nodes by drop lines of various lengths.
Disadvantages:
i) The disadvantage of bus topology is difficult reconnection and fault
isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation.
It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the
taps can cause degradation in quality.
ii) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects
signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.

8.6.4 Ring Topology:

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in
the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along. A
typical ring topology is as shown in the figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 170 OF 216

Advantages:
i) A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to
only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or
delete a device requires changing only two connections.
ii) A signal is circulating at all times (token) if one device does not receive a
signal within specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages:
i) The main disadvantage of ring topology is unidirectional traffic can be a
disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled
station) can disable the entire network.
8.6.5 Hybrid Topology:
A network can be hybrid. It compose of combination of more than one type of
topologies. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in the following figure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 171 OF 216

Mostly this type topology is practically used in real working network. It is
impossible to implement only one type of topology in practical working network.
8.7 Network Control Access Method.
In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. The role
of access methods is concerned with how data is put and traffic control on a
network cable. Multiple computers must share access to the cable that connects
them. However, if two computers were to put data onto the cable at the same
time, the data packets from one computer would collide with the packets from
the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be destroyed. If data
is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or accessed from
a server, there must be some way for the data to access the cable without
running into other data. And the receiving computer must have reasonable
assurance that the data has not been destroyed in a data collision during
transmission.
Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different
computers were to use different access methods, the network would fail because
some methods would dominate the cable.
Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the
cable. By making sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the
network cable, access methods ensure that the sending and receiving of
network data is an orderly process.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 172 OF 216
There are five access methods:
i) Contention Methods
a. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Access Method
b. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Access Method
ii) Token passing,
iii) Demand priority.
iv) Polling
v) Switching
The Function of Access Methods
The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable
and takes data from the cable is called an access method. Once data is moving
on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of network traffic.
8.7.1 CONTENTION METHOD
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Access Method
Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD), each computer on the network, including clients and
servers, checks the cable for network traffic. Only when a computer "senses"
that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send data.
Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can
transmit data until the original data has reached its destination and the cable is
free again. Remember, if two or more computers happen to send data at exactly
the same time, there will be a data collision. When that happens, the two
computers involved stop transmitting for a random period of time and then
attempt to retransmit. Each computer determines its own waiting period; this
reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit simultaneously.
With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-sense
multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense. Computers

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 173 OF 216

listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-sense). Commonly, many computers on
the network attempt to transmit data (multiple access); each one first listens to
detect any possible collisions. If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits
for a random period of time before retransmitting (collision detection).
CSMA/CD Considerations
The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic there
will be. With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase,
which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a slow-access method.
After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit their data.
If the network is very busy, there is a chance that the attempts by both
computers will result in collisions with packets from other computers on the
network. If this happens, four computers (the two original computers and the
two computers whose transmitted packets collided with the original computer's
retransmitted packets) will have to attempt to retransmit. These proliferating
retransmissions can slow the network to a near standstill.
The occurrence of this problem depends on the number of users attempting to
use the network and which applications they are using. Database applications
tend to put more traffic on the network than word-processing applications do.
Depending on the hardware components, the cabling, and the networking
software, using a CSMA/CD network with many users running several database
applications can be very frustrating because of heavy network traffic.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 174 OF 216

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least
popular of the three major access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals
its intent to transmit before it actually transmits data. In this way, computers
sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission
collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the
amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network performance.
8.7.2 Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called
a token, circulates around a cable ring from computer to computer. When any
computer on the ring needs to send data across the network, it must wait for a
free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it
if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and
additional information, such as addressing, is attached to the frame in the form
of headers and trailers,
While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot transmit
data. Because only one computer at a time can use the token, no contention
and no collision take place, and no time is spent waiting for computers to resend
tokens due to network traffic on the cable.

Token-passing is a method that uses an electronic signal called a token.

Possession of the token gives a device exclusive use of the transmission
channel. The token travels along the channel and stops at each device. A device
with a message to send will pick up the token and use it in order to send its
message.
When token-passing is used, the device gains access to the transmission
channel as follows:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 175 OF 216

• A network device with a message to send captures the available token as
it passes by on the channel.
• The message is attached to the token.
• The message-bearing token continues to circulate on the channel.
• As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is for
the device—this destination device will recognize its address and will read
the message.
• The destination device then attaches an acknowledgment of receipt to the
token which continues to circulate.
• When the sending device eventually receives the acknowledgment, it
clears the
• Token so it may be used by another device.
The token-passing scheme is most commonly used in ring or bus topologies.
8.7.3 Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps
Ethernet standard known as 100VG-AnyLAN. Standardized by (IEEE) in its
802.12 specification. This access method is based on the fact that repeaters and
end nodes are the two components that make up all 100VG-AnyLAN networks.
The repeaters manage network access by doing round-robin searches for
requests to send from all nodes on the network. The repeater, or hub, is
responsible for noting all addresses, links, and end nodes and verifying that they
are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN definition, an end node can
be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.

Demand-Priority Contention
As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can
cause contention by transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with
demand priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in which certain types of
data will be given priority if there is contention. If the hub or repeater receives
two requests at the same time, the highest priority request is serviced first. If

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 176 OF 216

the two requests are of the same priority, both requests are serviced by
alternating between the two.
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same
time because of the cabling scheme defined for this access method. In this
method, four pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet signalling,
transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the cable.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending
computer, the hub, and the destination computer. This is more efficient than
CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the entire network. In demand
priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and repeaters directly
connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the
address of every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:
 The use of four pairs of wires.
By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the
same time.
 Transmissions through the hub.
Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the
network. The computers do not contend on their own for access to the
cable, but operate under the centralized control of the hub.
Simple LANs generally consist of one or more switches. A switch can be
connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access.
Complex LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches
using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage
differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with
VLANs. A LAN can include a wide variety of network devices such as switches,
firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.
8.7.4 Polling

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 177 OF 216

Polling requires that each device on the network be asked if it has a message
to transmit. To ensure that each device is given an equal opportunity to speak,
polling must be under central control.
Most commonly found on networks with a central controlling device such as that
found in a star topology.
When polling is used, the device gains access to the transmission channels as
follows:
• The central controlling device checks with, or polls, each station regularly
to see if it has a message to send.
• If the station has a message to send, and the transmission channel is
clear, the station receives exclusive use of the channel and sends its
message.
• As soon as the station has sent its message, the channel is free for another
device to use.
8.7.5 Switching
While not strictly an access control scheme, switching provides a mechanism
where a station does not have to share a transmission channel. Switching
provides a dedicated transmission channel to each port of a switching hub. Each
transmission channel can have multiple stations attached to it, but in high traffic
environments, each station can be assigned its own dedicated channel to the
switching hub. The switching hub is responsible for providing communications
between the channels.
Traditionally, if a network is experiencing excessive traffic—slow performance
the network is split into smaller segments, each with its own hub and with fewer
attached stations. A switching hub performs this type of segmentation inside a
single chassis. It has a number of ports, each of which is a dedicated LAN
segment. When switching is used, stations access the transmission channel and
communicate as
follows:
• The sending station puts its data onto the transmission channel.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 178 OF 216

• The switching devices handles the connection to other stations.
• The switching devices handles intersegment traffic via an internal matrix
switch.
• When a packet arrives at the switch, its destination address is noted and
a connection is made to the destination station.
• The packet is then switched to the destination station.
• Subsequent packets are relayed through the switch automatically
There are two types of switching as discuss in topic 9
i) Packet switching:
ii) Circuit switching :
8.8 Network security
Basic concepts
Security: attempt to protect the services and data it offers against security
threats
Confidentiality: the property of a computer system whereby its information is
disclosed only to authorized parties.
Integrity: the characteristic that alterations to a system’s assets can be made
only in an authorized way.
8.8.1 Types of Threats
a) Interception is an unauthorized party has gained access to a service or
data!
b) Interruption is services or data become unavailable, unusable, destroyed
and so on.
c) Modification is unauthorized changing of data or tampering with a service
so that it no longer adheres to its original specifications!
d) Fabrication refers to the situation in which additional data or activity are
generated that would normally not exist!
8.8.2 Methods of Attack
a) Eavesdropping is obtaining copies of messages without authority!

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 179 OF 216

b) Masquerading: Sending or receiving messages using the identity of
another principal without their authority.
c) Message tampering/Man-in-the-middle attack: Intercepting
messages and altering their contents before passing them on to the
intended recipient.
d) Replaying: Storing intercepted messages and sending them out at a later
time!
e) Denial of Service (DoS) is flooding a communication channel or a
system resource with messages in order to deny access for others.

8.9 Security Mechanisms

Security mechanisms means of enforcing that policy by
a) Encryption:
i) Transform data into something an attacker cannot understand
ii) Provides a means to implement conﬁdentiality
iii) Provides support for integrity
b) Authentication: Verify the claimed identity of a user, client, and server
and so on!
c) Authorization: Check whether the client is authorized to perform the
action requested.
d) Auditing: Auditing tools are used to trace which clients accessed what,
and which way
8.10 Security Services
8.10.1 Design Issues
a) Focus of Control: Decide the focus of control: data, operations or users
b) Layering of security mechanisms: Decide at which level security
mechanisms should be placed.
c) Simplicity: Simplicity will contribute to the trust that end users will put
into the application and, more importantly, will contribute to convincing
the designers that the system has no security holes.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 180 OF 216

8.10.2: Cryptography

The three different attacks( passive intruder ailter messages and active intruder
insert messages need to protect against these forms of attacks for which
encryption helps by used of Cryptography
8.11 Secure Channels
Secure communication requires authentication of the communicating parties,
but also ensuring message integrity and possibly confidentiality as well. A secure
channel protects senders and receivers against interception, modification, and
fabrication of messages. It does not necessarily protect against
interruption.Protecting messages against interception is done by ensuring
confidentiality. Protecting messages against modification and fabrication is done
through protocols for mutual authentication and message integrity.
8.11.1 Authentication
Authentication and message integrity cannot do without each other.
The combination works as follows:-
 Alice starts by sending a message to Bob to set up a channel.
 Once the channel has been set up, Alice knows for sure that she is talking
to Bob, and Bob knows for sure that he is talking to Alice, they can
exchange messages.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 181 OF 216

 To subsequently ensure integrity it is common practice to use secret-key
cryptography by means of session keys.

Authentication based on a shared secret key. Also known as challenge-response

protocol as shown below

Consider this “optimization”: Authentication based on a shared secret key, but

using three instead of ﬁve messages as shown below.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 182 OF 216

The reﬂection attack.

Tweaking an existing protocol to improve its performance, can easily affect its
correctness

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 183 OF 216

8.11.2 Authentication Using Public-Key Cryptography

8.12 Message Integrity and Conﬁdentiality

Besides authentication, a secure channel should also provide guarantees for
message integrity and confidentiality. Confidentiality is easily established by
simply encrypting a message before sending it. Protecting a message against
modifications is somewhat more complicated.
Digital Signatures: Digitally sign a message in such a way that the signature
is uniquely tied to its content.
Several ways to place digital signatures:
i) Use a public-key cryptosystem such as RSA.
ii) Use a message digest.
8.12.1 Digital Signatures
a) Digital signing a message using public-key cryptography.

Problems with this scheme:

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 184 OF 216
i) The validity of the signature holds only as long as the private key remains
secret
ii) What if Alice decides to change her private key
iii) Encryption of the entire message may be costly in terms of processing
requirements and is actually unnecessary
b) Digitally signing a message using a message digest.

8.12.2 Session Keys

During the establishment of a secure channel, after the authentication phase
has completed, the communicating parties generally use a unique shared
session key for conﬁdentiality.The session key is safely discarded when the
channel is no longer used.
Why not use the same keys for conﬁdentiality as those that are used for
setting up the secure channel?
 Cryptographic keys are subject to “wear and tear” just like ordinary
keys.
 Protection against replay attacks
 If a key is compromised, only a single session is affected
The combination of a long-lasting keys with the much cheaper and more
temporary session keys is often a good choice for implementing secure channels
for exchanging data.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 185 OF 216

8.13 Access Control
In the client-server model, once a client and a server have set up a secure
channel, the client can issue requests that are to be carried out by the server.
A request involve carrying out operations on resources that are controlled by
the server. Such a request can be carried out only if the client has sufﬁcient
access rights for that request. Verifying access rights is referred to as access
control, whereas authorization is about granting access rights.
8.13.1 General Issues in Access Control
General model of controlling access to objects.

 Controlling the access to an object is all about protecting the object against
invocations by subjects that are not allowed to have specific methods carried
out
 Also, protection may include object management issues
8.13.2 Access Control Matrix
A common approach to modeling the access rights of subjects with respect to
objects, is to construct an access control matrix M[s,o]={m1,m2,…}
 Access Control List: The matrix is distributed columnwise
 Capabilities: The matrix is distributed row-wise
The two access control matrix are shown below (a) Access Control List (b)
Capabilities

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 186 OF 216

(a) Access Control List

(b) Capabilities

8.13.2 Role-Based Access Control

Related to having groups as protection domains, it is also possible to implement
protection domains as roles. In role-based access control, a user always logs
into the system with a speciﬁc role, which is often associated with a function
the user has in an organization.
A user may have several functions. Depending on the role the user takes when
logging in, he may be assigned different privileges (i.e. his role determines the
protection domain in which he will operate).

In summary, you learned the following concepts on this topic

i) Network technologies
• ISDN, ATM, Ethernet, FDDI, Token ring, SONET, HIPPI e.tc,
ii) Network design
• Hierarchical design and converged network
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 187 OF 216
iii) Network topologies
• Bus, star, ring, mesh and Hybrid.
iv) Network control access method.
• Contention Methods, Token passing, Demand priority, Polling and
Switching
v) Network security
• Security basic concepts, types of threats, security mechanisms,
secure channels, security services ,message integrity and
conﬁdentiality secure channels and access control.
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
Glossary
Network architecture is global view of network that describes how various
operation are organised in network and data communication.
ISDN is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission
of multimedia and other network services over the public switched telephone
network (PSTN).
ATM is the leased service that can provide a high-speed connection for data
transfer between two points either locally or over long distances.
FDDI is high-performance fiber optic token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps
over distances up to 200 km with up to 1000 stations connected.

Hierarchical network design involves dividing the network into discrete

layers

Convergence network is the process of combining voice and video

communications on a data network.

TOPIC ACTIVITIES
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 188 OF 216
Activity
Read and make briefly on
i) SONET network architecture, define, implementation, protocol use,
access control method, application
ii) HIPPI network architecture define, implementation, protocol use, access
control method, application.
TIPS
Refer to these network architecture terms and apply to figure out how to apply
in the topic activity:-
i) Network architecture
ii) Protocol
iii) Access control method
Review
i) The basic rate interface (BRI) is the service for homes and small
businesses, while the primary rate interface (PRI) is the service for larger
businesses. Compute the full capacity of the following service types.
i) BRI= 2B+D
ii) PRI=23B+D
ii) Fibre distributed data interface (FDDI) is used as backbone to connect
copper LANs to connect many link. Explain which network topology,
network access control and network device is used to share a common
link.
iii) An airline seat reservation system is being designed in a new airport. One
problem that existed in the old location is that some of fast computers on
the network could monopolize the bandwidth, causing agents with slower
computer to miss seating opportunities Recommend and explain network
topology could you use that creates a far environment in which all
computer have equal access to the available bandwidth?

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 189 OF 216

iv) Discuss types of connection that ATM utilizes to implement connectivity
and manage data transfer between two endpoints either locally or over
long distances.
v) A properly designed LAN is a fundamental requirement for any
organization well designed LAN is and be able to select appropriate
devices to support the network specifications of a small- or medium-sized
business. The typical hierarchical design model is broken into three layers
namely;
 Access layer
 Distributed layer
 Core layer
a) Write short notes on each hierarchical layer above
b) State three key principles of hierarchical LAN Design

iv) A secure channel protects senders and receivers against the types of
threats. Discuss types of security threats
v) Explain mechanisms use to build secure channels
vi) Discuss main protocols used in securing traffic
vii) Describe approaches used by the receiver to verify the sender traffic.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 190 OF 216

TOPIC NINE: PACKET AND CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Introduction
Welcome to topic nine. This topic is aimed an overview packet and circuit
switching and packet switching techniques.
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
of circuit switching, packet switching, datagram and virtual circuit approaches.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i) Explain concepts of circuit switching

ii) Explain concepts of packet switching
iii) Describe switched communications networks
iv) Discuss packet switching techniques
v) Explain datagram approach
vi) Explain virtual circuit approach

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 191 OF 216

Topic contents
9.1 Introduction
Networks are used to interconnect many devices. We have discussed with
Local Area Networks. Now will shall discuss wide area networks
Since the invention of the telephone, circuit switching has been the
dominant technology for voice communications.
Since 1970, packet switching has evolved substantially for digital data
communications. It was designed to provide a more efficient facility than
circuit switching for bursty data traffic.Two types of packet switching:
i) Datagram (such as today’s Internet)
ii) Virtual circuit (such as Frame Relay, ATM)

9.2 Switched Communications Networks

Long distance transmission between stations (called―end devices) is typically

done over a network of switching nodes. Switching nodes do not concern with
content of data. Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move
the data from node to node until they reach their destination (the end device).A
collection of nodes and connections forms a communications network. In a
switched communications network, data entering the network from a station are
routed to the destination by being switched from node to node.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 192 OF 216

Simple Switching Network

Switching nodes

Nodes may connect to other nodes, or to some stations. Network is usually

partially connected. However, some redundant connections are desirable for
reliability. Two different switching technologies

i) Circuit switching
ii) Packet switching

9.3 Circuit switching

In circuit switching there is a dedicated communication path between two
stations (end-to-end).The path is a connected sequence of links between
network nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the
connection. Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
i) Circuit establishment (link by link)
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 193 OF 216
 Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
ii) Data transfer
iii) Circuit disconnect

• De-allocate the dedicated resources

The switches must know how to find the route to the destination and how to
allocate bandwidth (channel) to establish a connection.
Circuit switching properties
i) Inefficiency
 Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole
duration of a connection
 If no data, capacity is wasted
ii) Delay
 Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
 Low data delay: after the circuit establishment,
information is transmitted at a fixed data rate
with no delay other than the propagation delay.
The delay at each node is negligible.
iii) Developed for voice traffic (public telephone network)
but can also applied to data traffic.
 For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy
a high percentage of utilization because most of the
time one party or the other is talking.
 But how about data connections?

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 194 OF 216

Public Circuit Switched Network

Public Circuit Switched Network operations

 Subscribers: the device that attach to the network
 Subscriber loop: the link between the subscriber and the network.
Exchanges: the switching centers in the network.
 End office: the switching center that directly supports subscribers.
 Trunks: the branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-
frequency circuits using either FDM or synchronous TDM
Disadvantages of circuit switching
i) Designed for voice service
ii) Resources dedicated to a particular call
iii) For data transmission, much of the time the
connection is idle (say, web browsing)
iv) Data rate is fixed
 Both ends must operate at the same rate during the entire period
of connection

9.4 Packet switching

Packet switching is designed to address disadvantages of circuit switching

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 195 OF 216

Basic operations of packet switching

i) Data are transmitted in short packets

 Typically at the order of 1000 bytes
 Longer messages are split into series of packets
 Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some
control info
ii) Control info contains at least
 Routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the
intended destination
 Recall the content of an IP header!
iii) Store and forward
 On each switching node, packets are received, stored briefly
(buffered) and passed on to the next node.
Use of Packets

Advantages of Packet Switching

i) Line efficiency
 Single node-to-node link can be dynamically shared by
many packets over time
 Packets are queued up and transmitted as fast as possible
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 196 OF 216
ii) Data rate conversion
 Each station connects to the local node at its own speed
iii) In circuit-switching, a connection could be blocked if there lacks free
resources. On a packet-switching network, even with heavy traffic,
packets are still accepted, by delivery delay increases.
iv) Priorities can be used
i) On each node, packets with higher priority can be forwarded first.
They will experience less delay than lower-priority packets.
Packet Switching Technique

i) A station breaks long message into packets

ii) Packets are sent out to the network sequentially, one at a time
How will the network handle this stream of packets as it attempts to route them
through the network and deliver them to the intended destination?
15
Two approaches
i) Datagram approach
ii) Virtual circuit approach

9.4.1 Datagram
Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets that have
gone before. Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path. Packets can
take any possible route and may arrive at the receiver out of order. Also packets
may go missing. It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets. Good example of this approach of switching is Internet.
Example of datagram illustrations of how 3 packets are sent over network

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 197 OF 216

9.4.2 Virtual Circuit
In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent,
then all packets follow the same route. Each packet contains a virtual circuit
identifier instead of destination address, and each node on the pre-established
route knows where to forward such packets.The node need not make a routing
decision for each packet. Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM e.t.c

Example of Virtual Circuit illustrations of how 3 packets are sent over

network

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 198 OF 216

Virtual Circuit Vs. Datagram
Virtual circuits
i) Network can provide sequencing (packets arrive at the same
order) and error control (retransmission between two nodes).
ii) Packets are forwarded more quickly
 Based on the virtual circuit identifier
 No routing decisions to make
iii) Less reliable
 If a node fails, all virtual circuits that pass through that
node fail.
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 199 OF 216
Datagram
i) No call setup phase
 Good for bursty data, such as Web applications

ii) More flexible

 If a node fails, packets may find an alternate route

 Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the network

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 200 OF 216

The diagram below illustrates an event timing of circuit switching and packet
switching

a) Circuit switching b)Virtual circuit switching c) Datagram packet switching

Propagation delay Processing Delay

Call request
Signal CCall request
SSignal

C Call accept Call accept

Signal Signal

AAcknownledge
-ment
S Signal
nn

AAcknownl
edge-
ment
S Signal
nn

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 201 OF 216

Comparison of Communication Switching Techniques

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 202 OF 216

In summary, you learned the following concepts on this topic

i) Circuit switching
ii) Packet switching
iii) Switched communications networks
iv) Packet switching techniques
v) Datagram approach
vi) Virtual circuit approach
vii) Comparison between the network switching approaches

Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals, articles
e.t.c
Glossary
Circuit switching: is a dedicated communication path between two stations
(end-to-end)
Circuit switching is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On
each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection.
Packet switching is switching where data are transmitted in short packets,
routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the intended destination and On
each switching node, packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and passed
on to the next node.
Datagram approach each packet is treated independently, with no reference
to packets that have gone before.
Virtual circuit is preplanned route is established before any packets are sent,
then all packets follow the same route.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 203 OF 216

TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Transmission of information in any network involves end-to-end addressing and
sometimes local addressing .The table below shows the types of networks and
the addressing mechanism used in each of them.

Network Setup Data Transfer Teardown

Circuit-switched End-to-end End-to-end

Datagram End-to-end

Using the table above for the following activities

i) Does a circuit-switched network need end-to-end addressing during the
setup and teardown phases? Why are no addresses needed during the
data transfer phase for this type of network?
ii) Does a datagram network need only end-to-end addressing during the
data transfer phase, but no addressing during the setup and teardown
phases?
iii) Does a virtual-circuit network need addresses during all three phases?

TIPS
Review the three switching techniques
Review
i) Compare and contrast a circuit-switched network and a packet-switched
network.
ii) What is the principal application that has driven the design of circuit-
switching networks?
iii) Datagram and virtual-circuit are packet switching techniques. There need
a routing or switching table to find the output port from which the
information belonging to a destination should be sent out, but a circuit-
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 204 OF 216
switched network has no need for such a table. Give reasons as to why
there is this difference between the two switching techniques.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 205 OF 216

TOPIC TEN: WIRELESS LAN
Introduction
Welcome to topic ten. This topic is aimed introducing main goals of wireless
LAN, concept of IEEE 802.11 and standards, architecture of wireless LAN,
Wireless LAN standard services and Wireless LAN station types
The topic is, therefore designed to prepare you to have a clear understanding
Impacts of Wireless LAN and Application of wireless LAN.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice
exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)
 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.
 Timely submission of the assignments
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to outline:-
i) Main goals of Wireless LAN
ii) Concept of IEEE 802.11 and standards
iii) Architecture of Wireless LAN
iv) Wireless LAN standard services
v) Wireless LAN station types
vi) Impacts of Wireless LAN
vii) Application of wireless LAN

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 206 OF 216

Topic Concepts
10.1 Introduction
The demand for connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing
everywhere.
Goals

i) To deliver services in wired networks

ii) To achieve high throughput
iii) To achieve highly reliable data delivery
iv) To achieve continuous network connection

Two promising wireless technologies for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs,
sometimes called wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for small
wireless LANs.
10.2 IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11,
which covers the physical and data link layers.
Architecture
i) IEEE 802.11 is devoted to wireless LANs.
— Consists of MAC and physical layer protocols for wireless LANs
ii) The Wi-Fi Alliance (Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity)
— An industry consortium
— To certify interoperability for 802.11 products
iii) IEEE 802.11 Architecture
— The smallest building block is Basic Service Set (BSS)
• A number of stations executing the same MAC protocol
• Shared wireless medium
• BSS corresponds to a cell
— A BSS may be isolated, or may connect to a Backbone
Distribution System (DS) through an Access Point (AP)
• AP functions as a bridge and a relay point
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 207 OF 216
• AP could be a station which has the logic to provide DS
services
• AP corresponds to a Control Module (CM)
• DS can be a switch, wired network, or wireless network
— An Extended Service Set (ESS) consists of two or more BSSs
interconnected by a DS.
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set
(BSS) and the extended Service set (ESS).
10.3 Basic Service Set
IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a
wireless LAN. A basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless
stations and an optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).
The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other
BSSs. It is called an ad hoc architecture. In this architecture, stations can form
a network without the need of an AP; they can locate one another and agree
to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as an
infrastructure network.
10.4 Extended Service Set
An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In
this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is
usually a wired LAN. The distribution system connects the APs in the BSSs.
IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it can be any IEEE LAN
such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of
stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside
a BSS. The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
Figure below shows an ESS.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 208 OF 216

BSS BSS BSS
When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can
communicate without the use of an AP. However, communication between two
stations in two different BSSs usually occurs via two APs. The idea is similar
to communication in a cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell
and each AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to
more than one BSS at the same time.
10.5 Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a
wireless LAN: no transition, BSS· transition, and ESS-transition mobility. A
station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or moving
only inside a BSS. A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one
BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS. A station with
ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another. However, IEEE
802.11 does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the
move.
Services
 Station services:
 authentication,
 de-authentication,
 privacy,
 delivery of data
 Distribution Services ( A thin layer between MAC and LLC sublayer)
ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 209 OF 216
 association
 disassociation
 re-association
 distribution
 Integration

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 210 OF 216

The following are among the most important requirements for wireless LANs:
i) Throughput: The medium access control protocol should make
as efficient use as possible of the wireless medium to maximize
capacity.
ii) Number of nodes: Wireless LANs may need to support
hundreds of nodes across multiple cells
iii) Connection to backbone LAN: In most cases, interconnection with
stations on a wired backbone LAN is required. For infrastructure
wireless LANs, this is easily accomplished through the use of control
modules that connect to both types of LANs. There may also need to
be accommodation for mobile users and ad hoc wireless networks.
iv) Service area: A typical coverage area for a wireless LAN has a
diameter of 100 to 300 m.
v) Battery power consumption: Mobile workers use battery-
powered workstations that need to have a long battery life when
used with wireless adapters. This suggests that a MAC protocol that
requires mobile nodes to monitor access points constantly or
engage in frequent handshakes with a base station is inappropriate.
Typical wireless LAN implementations have features to reduce
power consumption while not using the network, such as a sleep
mode.
vi) Transmission robustness and security: Unless properly designed,
a wireless LAN may be especially vulnerable to interference and
eavesdropping. The design of a wireless LAN must permit reliable
transmission even in a noisy environment and should provide some
level of security from eavesdropping.
vii)Collocated network operation: As wireless LANs become more
popular, it is quite likely for two or more wireless LANs to operate in
the same area or in some area where interference between the LANs
is possible. Such interference may thwart the normal operation of a

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 211 OF 216

MAC algorithm and may allow unauthorized access to a particular
LAN.
viii) License-free operation: Users would prefer to buy and operate
wireless LAN products without having to secure a license for the
frequency band used by the LAN.
ix) Handoff/roaming: The MAC protocol used in the wireless LAN
should enable mobile stations to move from one cell to another.
x) Dynamic configuration: The MAC addressing and network
management aspects of the LAN should permit dynamic and
automated addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without
disruption to other users.

10.6 IEEE 802.11 Standards

Standard Scope
Medium access control (MAC): One common MAC for WLAN applications as
follows:-
IEEE 802.11 Physical layer: Infrared at 1 and 2 Mbps
IEEE 802.11 Physical layer: 2.4-GHz FHSS at 1and 2 Mbps
IEEE 802.11 Physical layer: 2.4-GHz DSSS at 1 and 2 Mbps
There are categories based on data rate as well as services as follows:-
i) IEEE 802.11a Physical layer: 5-GHz OFDM at rates from 6 to 54 Mbps
ii) IEEE 802.11b Physical layer: 2.4-GHz DSSS at 5.5 and 11 Mbps
iii) IEEE 802.11c Bridge operation at 802.11 MAC layer
iv) IEEE 802.11d Physical layer: Extend operation of 802.11 WLANs to
new regulatory domains (countries)
v) IEEE 802.11e MAC: Enhance to improve quality of service and
enhance security mechanisms
vi) IEEE 802.11f Recommended practices for multivendor access point
interoperability
vii)IEEE 802.11g Physical layer: Extend 802.11b to data rates>20 Mbps

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 212 OF 216

10.7 Impact of wireless environment on networks
i) The wireless spectrum: Different frequency ranges i.e Wireless LAN
(IEEE 802.11b/g), 2.4 GHz, Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11a) 5 GHz,
Bluetooth 2.45 GHz Local Multipoint Distribution Services (LMDS) 27.5-
31.3 GHz e.t.c
ii) Physical impairments: Noise, Interference, fading - Unwanted
signals added to the message signal
iii) Diversity: A diversity scheme extracts information from multiple
signals transmitted over different fading paths
iv) Contention for the shared medium: Need for medium access
control mechanisms to establish what to do in this case (also, to
maximize aggregate utilization of available capacity
v) Effects of mobility: Resource management and QoS are directly
affected by route changes
vi) Restrictions on terminal equipment: Form factors (size, power
dissipation, ergonomics, etc.) play an important part in mobility and
nomadicity
vii) Security: Safeguards for physical security must be even greater in
wireless communications: Encryption: intercepted communications
must not be easily interpreted
10.8 Application of wireless LAN
i) Wireless LAN Applications: wireless LAN saves the cost of the
installation of LAN cabling and eases the task of relocation and other
modifications to network structure.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 213 OF 216

ii) Cross-Building Interconnect Another use of wireless LAN
technology is to connect LANs in nearby buildings, be they wired or
wireless LANs. In this case, a point-to-point wireless link is used
between two buildings.The devices so connected are typically bridges
or routers. This single point-to-point link is not a LAN per se,but it is
usual to include this application under the heading of wireless LAN.
iii) Nomadic access: provides a wireless link between a LAN hub and a
mobile data terminal equipped with an antenna, such as a laptop
computer or notepad computer. One example of the utility of such a
connection is to enable an employee returning from a trip to transfer
data from a personal portable computer to a server in the office.
Nomadic access is also useful in an extended environment such as a
campus or a business operating out of a cluster of buildings. In both
of these cases, users may move around with their portable computers
and may wish access to the servers on a wired LAN from various
locations.
iv) Ad Hoc Networking An ad hoc network is a peer-to-peer network
(no centralized server) set up temporarily to meet some immediate
need. For example, a group of employees, each with a laptop or
palmtop computer, may convene in a conference room for a business
or classroom meeting. The employees link their computers in a
temporary network just for the duration of the meeting.
In summary, you learned the following concepts on this topic
i) Main goals of Wireless LAN
ii) Concept of IEEE 802.11 and standards
iii) Architecture of Wireless LAN
iv) Wireless LAN standard services
v) Wireless LAN station types
vi) Impacts of Wireless LAN

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 214 OF

216
vii) Application of wireless LAN
Further Reading
Data & Computer networks, Prakash Gupta
William Stallings, Data & Computer networks 10th edition
Any other data communication and networking relevant books, journals,
articles e.t.c
Glossary
Wireless LAN connecting devices without the use of cables
A basic service set (BSS) is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations
and an optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).
An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.
In this case, the BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is
usually a wired LAN.
A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or
moving only inside a BSS
A station with BSS-transition mobility can move from one BSS to another,
but the movement is confined inside one ESS,
A station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Use the knowledge you have acquired from the topic to figure out how your
normally access internet using you mobile phone or laptop without connecting
physical cable. Determine the phone/labtop standard services
TIPS
Review Wireless LAN standard services and how the mobile services providers
offer internet services to their clients.

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 215 OF

216
Review
i) You want your laptop and cell phone to exchange information wireless.
What networking technology might you want as a feature of both your
laptop and phone to accomplish this?
ii) Explain two main goals of IEEE 802.11 and one impact of wireless
environment as mode of channel data communication and networks.
iii) IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11.
a) State two main OSI layers which covers wireless LAN technology
b) What is the difference between a BSS and an ESS?
c) Discuss any two types of mobility in a wireless LAN.
iv) A broadcast network is one in which a transmission from any one attached
station is received by all other attached stations over a shared medium.
Examples are a bus-topology local area network, such as Ethernet and a
wireless radio network. Discuss the need or lack of need for a network layer
and in a broadcast network.

END

THANKS

ACMP271: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS PAGE 216 OF

216

Data Communication and Networks (PDFDrive)
No ratings yet
Data Communication and Networks (PDFDrive)
392 pages
Cosc 407 Note
No ratings yet
Cosc 407 Note
219 pages
1.CN DC Unit 1
No ratings yet
1.CN DC Unit 1
92 pages
Unit 1
No ratings yet
Unit 1
107 pages
Computer Networks For Beginners
No ratings yet
Computer Networks For Beginners
99 pages
2425 - Lecture Notes - DCN112 - Fundamentals of Data Com
No ratings yet
2425 - Lecture Notes - DCN112 - Fundamentals of Data Com
30 pages
DCN Handbook
No ratings yet
DCN Handbook
23 pages
UNIT I Computer Networks
No ratings yet
UNIT I Computer Networks
92 pages
Content Server 20.3 Administration Guide
No ratings yet
Content Server 20.3 Administration Guide
578 pages
Lecture 1
No ratings yet
Lecture 1
22 pages
Compiler Design: Syntax-Directed Translation Sample Exercises and Solutions
100% (1)
Compiler Design: Syntax-Directed Translation Sample Exercises and Solutions
16 pages
Eec 312 Data
No ratings yet
Eec 312 Data
8 pages
Data Communication Fast Engineering Module 45
No ratings yet
Data Communication Fast Engineering Module 45
13 pages
ENEL4DT H1 Course Outline 2025 v1
No ratings yet
ENEL4DT H1 Course Outline 2025 v1
6 pages
COM 312-Data Communication and Networking-2019 First Semester
No ratings yet
COM 312-Data Communication and Networking-2019 First Semester
7 pages
Lecture 1
No ratings yet
Lecture 1
68 pages
Course Syllabus NC 101
No ratings yet
Course Syllabus NC 101
12 pages
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network
100% (1)
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network
8 pages
7R108 DCN PDF
No ratings yet
7R108 DCN PDF
6 pages
Data Communications Syllabus
No ratings yet
Data Communications Syllabus
2 pages
S S U E & T E E D: IR YED Niversity of Ngineering Echnology Lectronic Ngineering Epartment
No ratings yet
S S U E & T E E D: IR YED Niversity of Ngineering Echnology Lectronic Ngineering Epartment
6 pages
DataCommun 6thct1minorDataCommunicationandNetworks
No ratings yet
DataCommun 6thct1minorDataCommunicationandNetworks
2 pages
2CS304 Digital Communications
No ratings yet
2CS304 Digital Communications
51 pages
Course Outline Data Com I Sem I
No ratings yet
Course Outline Data Com I Sem I
3 pages
Course Code Course Title LTPC 1151EC111 Data Communication Networks 2 2 0 3 Course Category: A. Preamble
No ratings yet
Course Code Course Title LTPC 1151EC111 Data Communication Networks 2 2 0 3 Course Category: A. Preamble
2 pages
DCN Notes
No ratings yet
DCN Notes
131 pages
Computer Communication and Networks
No ratings yet
Computer Communication and Networks
5 pages
Course Outline - AMU - AMIT - ECE - COMM - DATA - COMM@2024
No ratings yet
Course Outline - AMU - AMIT - ECE - COMM - DATA - COMM@2024
2 pages
DCN Course Module - Sep 2013
No ratings yet
DCN Course Module - Sep 2013
30 pages
Data Comm and Networking 1
No ratings yet
Data Comm and Networking 1
27 pages
OSN 8800 6800 3800 V100R011C10 Trouble Shooting 01
100% (1)
OSN 8800 6800 3800 V100R011C10 Trouble Shooting 01
273 pages
EIE418 - All Together Course Compact
No ratings yet
EIE418 - All Together Course Compact
14 pages
5A CN Lessonplan New
No ratings yet
5A CN Lessonplan New
6 pages
Module ETE 4163: Computer Networks: Lecturer
No ratings yet
Module ETE 4163: Computer Networks: Lecturer
55 pages
DCCN Lectures OBE SP18 Done
No ratings yet
DCCN Lectures OBE SP18 Done
5 pages
Major (Data Comm & Networks)
No ratings yet
Major (Data Comm & Networks)
3 pages
Data Communication and Computer Network
No ratings yet
Data Communication and Computer Network
9 pages
ACMP 271 - Foundations of Data Communication and Networks
No ratings yet
ACMP 271 - Foundations of Data Communication and Networks
2 pages
CC201 Data Communication Course Outline
100% (1)
CC201 Data Communication Course Outline
2 pages
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network
No ratings yet
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network
8 pages
Syllabus - ICT303 - Data Communication - (2022-2023)
100% (1)
Syllabus - ICT303 - Data Communication - (2022-2023)
2 pages
It Syllabus
No ratings yet
It Syllabus
2 pages
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network 281124
No ratings yet
314318-Data Communication and Computer Network 281124
9 pages
Lesson Plan Btech Tce TE1022
No ratings yet
Lesson Plan Btech Tce TE1022
4 pages
AASTU Course Outline Datacom &com Net
No ratings yet
AASTU Course Outline Datacom &com Net
2 pages
Dccnetwork
No ratings yet
Dccnetwork
2 pages
EC1027 Computer Communication (Jun 2016) : Page 1 of 8
No ratings yet
EC1027 Computer Communication (Jun 2016) : Page 1 of 8
8 pages
Course Outline
No ratings yet
Course Outline
3 pages
Isilon - Backend Switches-Backend Switch Upgrade-Replace
No ratings yet
Isilon - Backend Switches-Backend Switch Upgrade-Replace
8 pages
0 Syllabuskpi
No ratings yet
0 Syllabuskpi
2 pages
Course Outline
100% (1)
Course Outline
5 pages
CMCA508 - CSET508 - Course Plan
No ratings yet
CMCA508 - CSET508 - Course Plan
9 pages
DCN Syllabus
No ratings yet
DCN Syllabus
1 page
Data Communications and Networks: Course Description
No ratings yet
Data Communications and Networks: Course Description
4 pages
Fundamentals of Networking Course Outline
No ratings yet
Fundamentals of Networking Course Outline
4 pages
Course Outline - Introduction To Networks and Systems
No ratings yet
Course Outline - Introduction To Networks and Systems
3 pages
Datacomnetwork Courseoutline2
No ratings yet
Datacomnetwork Courseoutline2
2 pages
DCCN Cource Outline (Syllabus)
No ratings yet
DCCN Cource Outline (Syllabus)
3 pages
Troubleshooting
No ratings yet
Troubleshooting
100 pages
Course Outline (DCN)
No ratings yet
Course Outline (DCN)
4 pages
Currency Tally Spreadsheet V4f Instructions 4f
100% (1)
Currency Tally Spreadsheet V4f Instructions 4f
7 pages
Data Communication and Computer Networks
No ratings yet
Data Communication and Computer Networks
8 pages
NI Tutorial 6628 en
No ratings yet
NI Tutorial 6628 en
6 pages
Powerpoint Tabs
No ratings yet
Powerpoint Tabs
5 pages
Data and Comp Comm Fall 2014
No ratings yet
Data and Comp Comm Fall 2014
5 pages
Ruijie RG-WLAN Series Access Points RGOS Configuration Guide, Release 11.1 (5) B40P2
No ratings yet
Ruijie RG-WLAN Series Access Points RGOS Configuration Guide, Release 11.1 (5) B40P2
1,249 pages
SLG Module 10.2.1 Smplifying and Evaluating Rational Expressions (Casas, Albiso)
No ratings yet
SLG Module 10.2.1 Smplifying and Evaluating Rational Expressions (Casas, Albiso)
5 pages
Unit 6 Advanced Databases
No ratings yet
Unit 6 Advanced Databases
108 pages
Group3 Amazon Report
No ratings yet
Group3 Amazon Report
7 pages
Ai 1
No ratings yet
Ai 1
3 pages
Sipass Ac5160: Installation Instructions
No ratings yet
Sipass Ac5160: Installation Instructions
28 pages
Barrons November 62023
No ratings yet
Barrons November 62023
53 pages
Cyber Security Module 2 3
No ratings yet
Cyber Security Module 2 3
2 pages
1 Goal Programming
No ratings yet
1 Goal Programming
9 pages
Brain CT and MRI Medical Image Fusion Using Convolutional Neural Networks and A Dual-Channel Spiking Cortical Model
No ratings yet
Brain CT and MRI Medical Image Fusion Using Convolutional Neural Networks and A Dual-Channel Spiking Cortical Model
14 pages
Adam: A Method For Stochastic Optimization: Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Lei Ba
No ratings yet
Adam: A Method For Stochastic Optimization: Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Lei Ba
41 pages
Paper 4
No ratings yet
Paper 4
33 pages
Chapter 21
No ratings yet
Chapter 21
22 pages
QA6
No ratings yet
QA6
8 pages
Field / Campo Profibus Pa Junction Box / Caja de Conexiones Profibus Pa
No ratings yet
Field / Campo Profibus Pa Junction Box / Caja de Conexiones Profibus Pa
2 pages
SIFT Detector FPCV-2-3
No ratings yet
SIFT Detector FPCV-2-3
22 pages
Entegra
No ratings yet
Entegra
4 pages
Sce5401 Ay21-22-S2 Tutr7-Sol (R0)
No ratings yet
Sce5401 Ay21-22-S2 Tutr7-Sol (R0)
7 pages
Yashwanth Kumar G N: Mob No:-9980703082 Email ID
No ratings yet
Yashwanth Kumar G N: Mob No:-9980703082 Email ID
2 pages
Cyberark Identity Adaptive Multi Factor Authentication Solution Brief
No ratings yet
Cyberark Identity Adaptive Multi Factor Authentication Solution Brief
2 pages
A Detection System For Stolen Vehicles Using Vehicle Attributes With Deep Learning
No ratings yet
A Detection System For Stolen Vehicles Using Vehicle Attributes With Deep Learning
4 pages
Gmail - Booking Confirmation On IRCTC, Train - 22643, 06-Sep-2022, SL, TUP - PNBE
No ratings yet
Gmail - Booking Confirmation On IRCTC, Train - 22643, 06-Sep-2022, SL, TUP - PNBE
1 page