Jain manuscript paintings of Western India

(with special reference to

the Kalpasutra)

Shivangi Verma
123102407 / Art and Architecture in Early Medieval India (ca. 600-1300 CE)
3rd May, 2023
There were only two types of miniatures that were discovered in India before the Rajput and
Mughal styles, which date from the late sixteenth century and beyond. One of these thrived in
Nepal and northern Bengal, with dated specimens dating back to the eleventh century; the
other is thought to have existed throughout western India (Gujarat, Kathiawar, and
Rajputana) in the early twelfth century. Other than the fact that they both have a genesis from
a common Indian tradition, these two schools of painting appear to have had no connections
with one another.

With a few very interesting examples reported in secular and Vaishnava Hindu texts, that of
western India is primarily preserved in manuscripts of the Svetambara ("White-clothed")
division of the Jains, while that of eastern India is primarily preserved in Buddhist books. It
has been referred to as "Jaina," "Svetmbara Jaina," and "Gujarat," but "Western Indian" might
be the most accurate description. 1

Early 13th century writings on the lives of Mahavira and Neminatha have the earliest
miniatures that actually appear in texts that can be illustrated, but this chance is not seized,
and the miniatures are just of the Jinas and the benefactors. In actuality, the earliest
manuscript with narrative paintings dates from 1288 and is called a Subahukatha. It contains
23 miniatures. In contrast, the earliest manuscript of the Kalpastra, or life of Jina Mahavira,
which served as the primary source for illustration and presentation in the 15th and 16th
centuries, does not come into existence until 1370. Even this only has six miniatures, and the
next text with a complete set is the nearly contemporaneous Kalpasutra from Idar.2

The Kalpasutra, the sacred text of the Svetambara Jains, is divided into three parts. "Lives of
the Jinas (Victors, Saviours)" by the Jinacarita is the first and by far the most image-rich. It is
less common to see the representation of the Sthaviravali, or "Succession of Pontiffs," which
is the second. The third Samacari, "Rules for Monks at the Paryusana Season," features the
fewest images. The different painters were allowed a lot of latitude to express themselves
even though the motif and composition of the paintings are essentially clichés. As a result, a
single scene, for example, Krishna attempting to bend Aristanemi's arm, could be depicted by
a number of minute differences.3

However, there aren't many examples of this art to be found in Europe, America, or even
India—except in the many Jain ‘bhandars’ (libraries). Additional examples can be found in
England at the British Museum, the India Office Library, the Library of the Royal Asiatic
Society, the Bodleian Library, and the Cambridge University Library. In addition, examples
can be found in Germany at the Staatsbibliothek and the Museum für Völkerhunde, Berlin,
and in Austria at the University of Vienna library. The best collection of specimens outside of
India can be found in the United States at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, at the Art

1
Brown, W. Norman, “Miniature Painting in Western India,” Parnassus 2, no. 7 (1930): p. 34.
2
Jeremiah P. Losty, The Art of the Book in India (London: The British Library, 1982).p. 44.
3
William Norman Brown, A Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature Paintings of the Jaina
Kalpasutra: As Executed in the Early Western Indian Style (Washington, 1934). p.1
Museum in Detroit, the Freer Gallery, in Washington, and the New York-based Metropolitan
Museum.

It was seen as a noble deed to commission a copy of a Jain scripture. For presenting to their
spiritual instructor, it was traditional for a lay donor to order a text to be duplicated and
illustrated. These would then be delivered to the temple library of the monks. Numerous
copies of these texts, which were used to instruct monks and nuns, were donated to libraries
over the years. The study of the sacred scriptures (svadhyaya) was a significant monastic
endeavour, and the libraries served a crucial role in providing books for both academic and
ceremonial purposes.The prominence of the books as sources of canonical authority and
ritual purpose was a major factor in the selection of texts for copying. Jain tradition claims
that the institution of the temple library was established in the sixth century in response to an
increasing concern over the preservation of the textual authority of the religion. Libraries
assumed the role of guardians of sacred texts while simultaneously taking on the role of
keepers of a significant painting heritage.4

Figure 1. Mahavira’s departure with Indra. Uttar Pradesh, Jaunpur; c. 1465

Opaque watercolor and gold on paper. Each 48 x 11½ in. (11.7 x 29.2 cm)
Terence McInerney, New York

On the back of a Kalpasutra folio, Figure 1 depicts a scenario that might show the gods Indra
and Indrani transporting the infant Mahavira to the fabled Mount Meru on a gilded elephant.
The picture has a greater intensity because its vibrant colours have been conserved nicely.
Coomaraswamy immaculately compares the inseparable unity between text and pictures to a
mathematical equation or a composer’s score:

This art is one of pure draughtsmanship, the pictures are brilliant statements of the
facts... where every event is seen in the light of eternity. To call this pure drawing
implies that it is an art of symbols and indifferent to representation. On the other
hand, it is not calligraphic, that is to say, that elegance or an elegant combination of
lines is not deliberately sought, and in this sense, the drawing - is more like script

4
Guy, John “Jain Manuscript Painting.” In The Peaceful Liberators: Jain Art from India, edited by
Pratapaditya Pal.(New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994). p. 92
 (such as that of the accompanying text) made to be clearly and easily read. There is no
preoccupation with pattern, color, or texture for their own sake: but these are achieved
with inevitable assurance in a way that could not have been the case had they been
directly sought.5

The style naturally divides into two periods that may be identified externally by the type of
canvas used and intrinsically by the themes and methods used to execute the works. Paintings
were created on palm-leaf manuscripts during the first period and on paper during the second,
both as illustrations to writings and as standalone, independent images. The paper period
spans from the start of the fifteenth century to the end of the sixteenth, though specimens
continue to appear for another hundred years or more. The palm-leaf period, as evidenced by
dated specimens, runs from approximately the beginning of the twelfth century to
approximately the end of the fourteenth.

The paintings' workmanship appears to have only slightly varied throughout time. Before the
text was copied down, the manuscript's folios were marked off with rectangular spaces for the
paintings. While writing his text on either side of them, the copyist did not touch these. After
completing the copying, he either gave the artist the manuscript or, more often than not, he
did not, leaving the panels blank.

Ajit Ghose writes about the potpourri of colors that adorned these exquisite manuscripts:

The pure blues and whites in the shining gold and red are a delight. Indeed the
outstanding feature of early Jaina art is its decorative splendor. The sumptuous color
scheme of shining gold and vivid scarlet is not subsidiary to the artists' design but is
the very foundation for that design. Again the appreciation of form and balance in
every detail of ornament and figure is guided by the keen decorative instinct of the
artist.6

Faces are always depicted in the older period from a full front view or a three-quarter view,
something just more than a profile. Contemporary and earlier Jain wood and stone sculptures
exhibit this angularity in the facial designs too. The protrusion of the eye is exactly what one
sees when looking at images of Jinas (Saviours) and other significant images in Svetämbara
temples, where additional glass eyes cover the stone eyes. The distant eye is always fully
drawn such that it projects into space and beyond the cheek's outline.

Paintings from the palm-leaf period mostly depict Jinas (Saviours), gods, goddesses, monks,
kings, queens, and patrons who paid to have the manuscripts transcribed. The subjects'
postures are also restricted. The Jinas are only seen seated with their faces turned to the front.
As in early Indian sculpture, the bodies have broad shoulders and narrow waists. Within the
traditional framework, the subsequent illuminations vary in luxury and technical competence.
5
Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston. Part IV. Jaina Paintings and Manuscripts. (Boston: Museum of fine arts, 1924). p. 33.
6
Ghose, Ajit. “The Development of Jaina Painting.” Artibus Asiae 2, no. 3 (1927): p.194.
A few manuscripts are lavishly decorated with more intricate marginal ornaments than others.
It is unknown if this was the result of patrons who were willing to pay more, particular talent
on the part of the artists, a desire to flaunt their abilities, or a mix of the two.7

According to P. Losty, the artist encountered a technical challenge while switching from the
previous works' three-quarter view to the precise profile of the late sixteenth century. There
might have been further factors. An eccentricity in religious art can quickly turn into a
tradition and can have no discernible purpose.8

Form is defined by precisely drawn lines, and colour is added in flat areas of saturated
intensity with little to no tone modelling. The figures are angular and sharp with thin wrists
and ankles, bulging chests, and a recognisable pointy nose and chin. The early commentaries
on painting encourage the artist to seek his understanding of gesture, movement and posture
in the study of dance. This is one way in which the use of the language of dance to depict
movement and expression remained consistent with older traditions. According to what is
known from the available evidence for this time period, these stylistic developments were
widespread throughout most of India. 9

The torso's positions are suggestive of the sculpture's twisted figures. Both male and female
breasts are full. Additionally, attire, ornamentation, and even compositions have ancient
roots. “There is not a single instance of portraiture; only types are depicted, the personalities
represented being indicated only by written names or cognizance. So, too, during the
palm-leaf period there is no case of narrative illustration; the paintings never refer to events
mentioned in the accompanying style.”10

Except for the marks on the forehead, it is not always simple to distinguish between male and
female lay figures. Men typically wear the U-shaped line, which is occasionally crossed by
three horizontal lines, while women typically wear the spot (tilaka). Occasionally, incorrect
interpretation has resulted from failing to make this point clear enough; for instance, it is
obvious that the king's attendants were male, not female as has been claimed. The custom of
forehead marking occasionally has exceptions, such as when King Siddhartha is donning the
tilaka. Monks wear either the tilaka or have no forehead marking at all, while Tirthankaras
wear either the tilaka or the U-sign.

In both this and the paper eras, the painting style is "primitive." The presentation lacks depth
and is flat, and the colour palette is rather limited, containing only red, yellow, blue, white,
and occasionally green in the palm-leaf manuscripts, and the same colours on paper with the
addition of gold and old rose. Although blue is increasingly used in the later paper period, the

7
Pāla Pratāpāditya, Indian Painting (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1993). p.
82
8
Jeremiah P. Losty, The Art of the Book in India (London: The British Library, 1982).p. 44.
9
Guy, John “Jain Manuscript Painting.” In The Peaceful Liberators: Jain Art from India, edited by
Pratapaditya Pal.(New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994). p. 95
10
Brown, W. Norman, “Miniature Painting in Western India,” Parnassus 2, no. 7 (1930): p. 35.
background in older miniatures is typically red, and the same type of background is
frequently used throughout the entire history of the art.

The character of the miniatures significantly changed when paper was used as writing
material. The page was bigger than the short palm-leaf strip, giving the artist additional
space. Compared to palm leaf, paper was more suited to absorbing pigment, making the
craftsmanship more delicate, complex, elegant, and decorative. Previously made in white,
monks' robes are now frequently made with a gold background and white dots set thereto to
indicate the colour of the garments. Green was still uncommon.

The prevailing consensus is that the usage of gold came to be rigorously employed
somewhere in the first half of the fifteenth century, and similarly lapis lazuli and ultramarine
somewhere around 1450. Following that, these two hues gained popularity, while red fell out
of favour. Gold paint and gold leaf were both used. In the instance of the former, gold leaf
was used to cover the entire area that would be painted before black was used to sketch the
contours. Clearly, the benefactors' egos were as delighted as their aesthetic senses were by the
brilliant impact of gold and blue, which must have cost more. Within the traditional
framework, the subsequent illuminations vary in luxury and technical competence.11 M.
Chandra has also commented on the varying calibre of the artists employed:

The absence of architectural and other decorative details in one group and their
presence in the other may also be due to the nature of the carrier and the technical
proficiency of the painters. That Western Indian school in the 13th and 14th centuries
does not follow any universal pattern only shows that the painters of unequal merit
existed. The mass production of Jain iconographic types verging on folk-art was
naturally the work of mediocres, the works of aesthetic merit being executed by the
qualified painters, hence the difference.12

Unquestionably, the use of gold, occasionally silver, and the rich ultramarine blue are a result
of the artist's familiarity with Persian illuminated manuscripts, as well as with Korans and
possibly even Christian texts. Gujarat has always drawn traders and sailors from other
countries to its ports since it has been a commercial hub since ancient times. In addition,
Gujarat had already been incorporated under the Muslim political umbrella by the time paper
was warmly adopted as a medium. Korans and Bibles would not have been foreign to the
local scribes and illuminators as Arabs, Iranians, Armenians, and Jews were undoubtedly
among the visitors to the port cities.13

The paintings' subjects also altered throughout time. The previous subjects were still
displayed, but now the focus of the artwork is unmistakably on narrative illustration. The

11
Pāla Pratāpāditya, Indian Painting (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1993).p.
82
12
Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Painting from Western India (Ahmedabad, 1949). p.36
13
Pāla Pratāpāditya, Indian Painting (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1993).
p.82
Kalpasutra, a biography of the Saviours, and the Kālakacāryakatha, the tale of the master
Kalaka, which typically appears as an appendix to the Kalpasutra, were both written in this
new genre by the Svetāmbaras. There are no other manuscripts among the Jains that feature
narrative images in this style. Unlike the norm with palm-leaf manuscripts, but similar to
modern Persian books, the events of the story are portrayed by paintings in both of these
texts.

It hardly needs to be stressed that only the first two sections of the Kalpasutra, the Jinas' lives
and the seniors' genealogies are often portrayed. Apart from the Eight Great Miracles from
the Buddha's Life, which illustrate a non-narrative philosophical text, most of the illustrations
in these sections of biographies are narrative in nature and closely related to the text as
opposed to the illustrations in Buddhist books, which are hieratic pictures of deities. Like the
scenes from the Buddha's life, those from the Jinas' are also depicted in a mysterious way. No
artist dared, or perhaps even cared, to break from the iconography after it had been
established, not even in the smallest of compositional nuances.14

The craftsmanship of the Kālakācāryakatha scenes is typically less accomplished than that of
the Kalpasutra pictures, maybe because the former scenes dealt with well-known religious
figures who already had a wealth of iconography in the temples and could therefore be built
with less strain on the creative ability of the artist. In comparison to the palm-leaf period,
greenery is utilised much more freely in the paper period to decorate and fill in the
composition, while animals, particularly the horse, are depicted more frequently. Gold and
antique rose are added to the colour scheme, and both gold and silver are used for the writing
ink. Though the gold might not stick to the palm leaf, its decorative effect on the paper
manuscripts was often employed as a substitute to yellow pigments.

In the Kālakācāryakatha drawings, a new facial posture that is just shy of a full face and
doesn't display the protrusion of the eye is present. Brown further talks about, the Sāhis, who
are depicted in the narrative as conquering India from the other side of the Indus. These
aliens have Mongolian features, and their attire and armour frequently resemble those
depicted in Mongol-Persian miniature paintings. Their overlord is referred to as
“sahanusāhi”, a phrase whose Persian ancestry is apparent, and their very name (sāhi), which
is Persian and an Indianization of shah.

The first half of the fifteenth century saw a significant development in Jain manuscript
painting. This was partly a result of the expanding interactions between the Islamic
civilizations of Mamluk Egypt and Timurid Persia and northern India and the Deccan. The
advent of decorated Koranic bindings and illustrated Islamic manuscripts, together with other
luxury items like Timurid carpets, fabrics, and metalware, would have enhanced the Indian
subcontinent's aesthetic landscape. In the middle of the twelfth century, paper introduced
from Persia began to be used in manuscript arts. It wasn't widely used for illustrated

14
Pāla Pratāpāditya, Indian Painting (Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1993).p.
80
manuscripts until the middle of the fourteenth century, and even then it mostly followed the
long, narrow proportions of the palm leaves it was modelled after.15

These western Indian miniatures have issues, including the origin of the style, how it relates
to older styles, and the issue of the introduction of new components during the paper period.
It is feasible, for instance, that some of these originated in Persia and thus represent, as far as
we are aware, the start of Persian influence on Indian painting, impact which came to change
the entire nature of Indian painting during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Nevertheless, we have a truly indigenous art form in these western Indian miniatures, with at
most a few outside influences. It is a form of art that accurately captures the philosophy and
religion of India, it is beautiful and clear while yet being abstract and symbolic. 16

15
Guy, John “Jain Manuscript Painting.” In The Peaceful Liberators: Jain Art from India, edited by
Pratapaditya Pal.(New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994). p. 95
16
Brown, W. Norman, “Miniature Painting in Western India,” Parnassus 2, no. 7 (1930): p. 36.
 Bibliography

Brown, W. Norman. “Miniature Painting in Western India.” Parnassus 2, no. 7 (1930): 34.
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Brown, W. Norman. Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature Paintings of

the Jaina kalpasūtra as Executed in the Early Western Indian Style. Smithsonian
Institution/Freer Gallery of Art, 1934.

Losty, Jeremiah P. The Art of the Book in India. The British Library, 1982.

Guy, John “Jain Manuscript Painting.” In The Peaceful Liberators: Jain Art from India, edited
by Pratapaditya Pal. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994.

Pāla Pratāpāditya. Indian Painting. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1993.

Chandra, Moti. Jain Miniature Painting from Western India, 1949.

Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish. Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum

of Fine Arts, Boston. Museum of Fine Arts, 1923.

Ghose, Ajit. “The Development of Jaina Painting.” Artibus Asiae 2, no. 3 (1927): 187.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3248098.