Classification of Network

 Network can broadly classified based on two dimensions namely

Transmission Technology and Scale.
 Classification Based on Transmission Technology
 Broadcast networks
 Point-to-point networks
 Broadcast networks
 Broadcast network have a single communication channel that is shared
by all the machines on the network as shown in Fig .

Fig: Example of a broadcast network based on shared bus

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  All the machines on the network receive short messages, called
packets in certain contexts, sent by any machine.
 An address field within the packet specifies the intended recipient
 Upon receiving a packet, machine checks the address field.
 If packet is intended for itself, it processes the packet; if packet is
not intended for itself it is simply ignored.

 This focuses on the basic underlying physical network, for e.g.

whether the nodes share a communication media or each pair of
node has a separate dedicated link.
 This system generally also allows possibility of addressing the packet
to all destinations (all nodes on the network).
 When such a packet is transmitted and received by all the machines
on the network. This mode of operation is known as Broadcast Mode

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 Point to Point Network

Figure: Communication network based on point-to-point communication

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  A network based on point-to-point communication is shown
in above Fig.
 The end devices that wish to communicate are called stations.
 The switching devices are called nodes.
 Some Nodes connect to other nodes and some to attached
stations. It uses FDM or TDM for node-to-node
communication.
 There may exist multiple paths between a source-destination
pair for better network reliability.
 The switching nodes are not concerned with the contents of
data. Their purpose is to provide a switching facility that
will move data from node to node until they reach the
destination.

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 Classification based on Scale
 Alternative criteria for classifying networks are their scale.
 It focuses on the scale of network how large is your network.
They are divided into
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and
 Wide Area Networks (WAN).

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
 LAN is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building or campus of up to few kms in size.
 These are used to share resources (may be hardware or
software resources) and to exchange information.
 Topologies: bus, star, & ring
 LAN typically used transmission technology consisting of
single cable to which all machines are connected
 Length is about 10 m to few kilometres.
 Operates at high speed like 10 mbps to 1000 mbps.
 It has very low error rate(1:1011) i.e. reliability is high.

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN
 MAN is designed to extend over the entire city
 A company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its offices
in a city.
 MAN is wholly owned and operated by a private company or
may be a service provided by a public company
 The main reason for distinguishing MANs as a special category is
that a standard has been adopted for them.
 It is DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or IEEE 802.6.
 Speed is about 10 mbps
 Its reliability is moderate.

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 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and
information over large geographical areas that may comprise a
country, continent or even the whole world .
 A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often
referred to as enterprise network.
 Data transfer rate is much low(few kbps to 10 mbps)
 Error rate is much higher.

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 Question related to topology design
 For n devices in a network, what is the number of
cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star
topology?
 Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology.
How many cables are needed? How many ports are
needed for each device?

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 Multiple Choices:
 Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves
______________
transmission.
A) simplex.
B) half-duplex.
C) full-duplex.
D) automatic.
 A television broadcast is an example of _______ transmission.
A) simplex.
B) half-duplex.
C) full-duplex.
D) Automatic.
 A _______ connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices.
A) point-to-point.
B) multipoint.
C) primary.
D) secondary.

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  In a _______ connection, more than two devices can share a single link
A) point-to-point.
B) multipoint.
C) primary.
D) secondary.
 A _______ is a data communication system within a building, plant, or campus, or
between nearby buildings.
A) MAN.
B) LAN.
C) WAN.
D) None of the above.
 Devices may be arranged in a _____ topology.
A) Mesh.
B) Ring.
C) Bus.
D) All of the above.
 A ________ is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A) Forum.
B) Protocol.
C) Standard.
D) None of the above.

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 Protocol
 A set of rules for communication, there is a need to be
agreed on both sender and receiver .
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
 For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol.
 A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated and when it is communicated.
 Key Features of a protocol are given below:
 Syntax: Structure or format of data
 Semantics: Meaning and action, includes control information
for coordination and error handling.
 Timing:When & How fast , includes speed matching and
sequencing.

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 Standard
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers and also in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability(ability to
exchange and use information) of data and telecommunications
technology and processes.
 They provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today’s marketplace and in
international communications .
 Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto
(meaning “by fact” or “by convention”) and de jure (meaning “by
law” or “by regulation”).

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  De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body
but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de
facto standards.
 De facto standards are often established originally by manufacturers that
seek to define the functionality of a new product or technology.
 Examples: MS Office and The QWERTY system was one of several
options for the layout of letters on typewriter (and later keyboard) keys.
It was developed to prevent adjacent keys from jamming on early and
later mechanical typewriters, often attributed to the typist's speed. It
became a de facto standard because it was used on the most commercially
successful early typewriters.
 De jure. De jure standards are those that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body.
 PDF (portable file format) was first created in 1993 by Adobe. PDF
eventually became the de facto standard for printable documents. In
2005, PDF/A became a de jure standard as ISO 19005-1:2005.

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 Standard Organization
 International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunications Union–
Telecommunications Standards Sector (ITU-T)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
 Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

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 Layered Architecture

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 OSI Reference Model

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 Why layered network?
 To make the design process easy by breaking unmanageable
tasks into several smaller and manageable tasks (by divide-
and-conquer approach).
 Modularity and clear interfaces, so as to provide
comparability between the different providers' components.
 Ensure independence of layers, so that implementation of
each layer can be changed or modified without affecting
other layers.
 Each layer can be analyzed and tested independently of all
other layers
 Any facility implemented in one layer can be made visible to
all other layers.
 Layers can be simplified, extended or deleted at any time

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 Physical Layer
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission media. It
also defines the type of transmission media.
 Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence
of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into
signals—electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s
and 1s are changed to signals).
 Data rate. The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second—is also
defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a
bit, which is how long it lasts.
 Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver must not only use the same bit
rate but must also be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and
the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
 Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared between several devices.
 Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network.
 Transmission mode. Simplex,Half duplex, full duplex

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 Data Link Layer
 The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network
layer.
 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s
network, the receiver address is the address of the connecting device that connects
the network to the next one.
 Flow control. If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than
the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism
to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a
trailer added to the end of the frame.
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

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 Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links) .
 Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by
the data link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a
packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The
network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected
together to create internetworks (network of networks) or a
large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route or switch the packets to their final destination.

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 Transport Layer
 Service-point addressing. . The transport layer header must include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address) . The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments,
with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent
packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at
the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.

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 Session Layer
 The session layer is the network dialog controller.
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating systems.
 Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take place
in either halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a
time) mode.
 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints (synchronization points) into a stream of data.
 For example, if a system is sending a file of 2,000 pages, it is advisable
to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page
unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to
be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to
501 need not be resent.

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 Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.
 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information
should be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different
computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer
at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form
and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original
process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

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 Application Layer
 The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of
distributed information services.
 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the
application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user’s
computer talks to the software terminal, which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice
versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows you to log on.
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM). This application allows a user
to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from
a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.
 E-mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI
model.
 Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not match
exactly with those in the OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware.
 Today, however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model with
the layers named similarly to the ones in the OSI model

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 Similarities between OSI &TCP/IP
Reference Model
 Both are layered architecture.
 Layers provide similar functionalities.
 Both are protocol stack.
 Both are reference models.
 Share common Application layer: Both models share a
common ‘application layer’. However, this layer contains
different services, which depends upon each model.

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 Comparison of OSI Reference Model
and TCP/IP Reference Model

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