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ADMATHS
SECTION: GRAPH THEORY AND MATRICES
MODULE: GRAPH THEORY

LESSON 9MGT1: DEFINITIONS AND ISOMORPHIC

GRAPHS
______________________________________________________________

Graph Theory is one of the optional modules in the Advanced

Programme Mathematics course and may be answered in the
gr. 12 IEB exam.
This lesson, as well as the next lesson, serves as exposure to this
subject.

INTRODUCTION

The term “graph” in Graph Theory bears no relation to the “graph of a

function” as in Algebra.
In Graph Theory we find familiar words that have a different meaning in this
context.

Real-life Applications of Graph Theory:

• Computer network design.
• Urban planning.
• Molecular Biology.
• Schedule of airplanes and the best route.
• Inventing of a secret code that no one can crack etc.

We need to look at the definitions of all the words that we are going to use in
Graph Theory.
DEFINITIONS
Definition 1
In Graph Theory a graph is a collection of dots called vertices.

Vertex: singular
Vertices: plural

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Example 1

⦁
⦁ ⦁
NOTE
A connection between the dots is not essential.

Definition 2
These connecting lines are called edges.
Example 2.1

vertex edge vertex

● ●
edge
edge
edge

●
vertex

● ●
edge
vertex vertex

NOTATION
• A set of vertices will be written as {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, . . . }
• A sequence of edges will be written as 𝐴 → 𝐵 → 𝐶 →. ..
• An edge joins at most two vertices

Example 2.2

•
vertex An edge can also be a loop!
loop

NOTE

A loop is an edge that starts and ends at the same vertex.

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Definition 3
The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges that touch it.
The degree is indicated by 𝑑(𝑣).

𝑑(𝑣) = 2 𝑑(𝑣) = 1 𝑑(𝑣) = 2

𝑑(𝑣) = 3 𝑑(𝑣) = 4

NOTE

The numbers on the vertices are the degrees of the vertices.

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Example 3

Below is a graph showing the relationships between five grade 10 pupils.

The vertices that are connected represent the children who are friends.

Carl Carl
John
Betty
Peter Anne
Anne
John
Peter
Betty

NOTATION:
degree of Anne = 1

Anne only has one friend: Carl 𝑑(𝐴) = 1

Peter has two friends: Carl and John 𝑑(𝑃) = 2
John has three friends: Carl, Peter and Betty 𝑑(𝐽) = 3
Betty has two friends: Carl and John 𝑑(𝐵) = 2
Carl has four friends: Anne, Peter, Betty and John 𝑑(𝐶) = 4

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Definition 4
A simple graph is a graph with no multiple edges between any two
vertices and no loops.

Example 4.1

Simple graph.

Example 4.2

Not a simple graph.

Example 4.3

Not a simple graph.

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Definition 5
A regular graph is a graph in which all the vertices have the same degree.

Example 5.1

degree is 2 degree is 3 degree is 3

degree is 5

Example 5.2: The Petersen graph

𝐹 𝑑(𝐴) = 3 𝑑(𝐸) = 3 𝑑(𝐽) = 3

𝐵 𝐺 𝐸 𝑑(𝐵) = 3 𝑑(𝐹) = 3 𝑑(𝐾) = 3
𝐾 𝑑(𝐶) = 3 𝑑(𝐺) = 3
𝐻 𝑑(𝐷) = 3 𝑑(𝐻) = 3
𝐽

𝐶 𝐷
(The degree of every vertex is three.)

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NOTE

In a regular graph every vertex has the same degree.

3
• •2
•3

3
• •3
This graph is not a regular graph, because the degrees of the vertices are
different.

EXERCISE 1

1. In each of the following graphs, write down the...

1.1) number of vertices

1.2) number of edges

1.3) degree of each vertex

𝑃 𝑅 𝑋 𝑌
A. • • B. • •
𝑉 𝑍
𝑅
• • •
• •𝑇 • • 𝐹
𝑆
𝑊
𝐴 𝐻 𝐾
C. • •
𝐷
D. • 𝐺
• •

𝑃 • •𝐽
𝐵
•
• •𝐿
𝑀
•𝐶
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2. Which of the graphs in Question 1 on the previous page are...

2.1 simple graphs

2.2 regular graphs

(Give reasons for your answers.)

Definition 6
A walk/route in a graph is any sequence of edges and vertices that you
travel along.

Example 6

𝐶
𝐷

𝐶→𝐴→𝐶→𝐵→𝐷→𝐶→𝐵

NOTE:

Edges and vertices can be repeated in a walk.

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Definition 7
A path is a route that you travel along edges and vertices in a graph, but no
edge is travelled more than once.

Use the graph in Example 6 to find the path:

𝐴→𝐶→𝐴→𝐵→𝐶→𝐷→𝐵 You cannot travel

“edge 𝐵 → 𝐴” twice when it
is a path, but you can do it
if it is a walk.

Definition 8
A circuit (closed path or cycle) is a path which begins and ends at the
same vertex.
Remember a path only travels once along an edge.

Example 8

𝐴 𝐵
• • 𝐸 → 𝐷 → 𝐴 → 𝐸 → 𝐵 → 𝐶 → 𝐷 → 𝐵 is
an example of a path that is not a
circuit, because it starts at vertex 𝐸
and ends at vertex 𝐵.

𝐷
• •𝐶 The edge 𝐵 → 𝐸 cannot be repeated.

•
𝐸

𝐴→𝐸→𝐷→𝐵→𝐶→𝐷→𝐴
is an example of a circuit, because it starts and ends at the same vertex.
(The edge 𝐵 → 𝐸 is not included in this circuit.)

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Definition 9
A graph is connected if there is a path (not an edge necessarily) between
every pair of vertices.

Example 9.1 Example 9.2

• • • •

• • • •
Connected graph
•
Connected graph
Example 9.3

𝐴
• •𝐷

• • 𝐶
𝐵

This graph is not a connected graph, because there is no path to connect

vertices 𝐴, 𝐷 and 𝐵 with vertex 𝐶.

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Definition 10

**
Two graphs are *isomorphic if you can redraw them so that the same
vertices are still connected.

*
This means that the same vertices are still connected, but no
edges are cut and no additional edges are inserted.

**
To redraw a graph, it helps to imagine the edges as infinitely
stretchable rubber bands. You can move the vertices around and
stretch the edges any way you like as long as they stay connected.

Example 10.1

𝐴
•
𝐴
•
𝐴
•

•𝐵 •𝐵 •𝐶
• •
• 𝐶 𝐵
𝐶

𝐶
• 𝐵

•𝐴
𝐴

𝐵
𝐶

Although the five graphs above look different, the same

vertices in each graph are still connected. In other words,
they are ISOMORPHIC GRAPHS.

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Example 10.2

Examples of isomorphic graphs with 𝟑 vertices and one edge

• •

Examples of isomorphic graphs with 𝟒 vertices and 𝟐 edges

● ●

● ● ●

● ● ●

In the examples above, the same vertices stay connected throughout, but the
graph is rotated in a 3-dimensional space and the vertices can move around.

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Example 10.3

Each of the following 3 graphs has 6 vertices but they are not necessarily
isomorphic.
The same vertices must stay connected to be isomorphic.

Figure 1:

• 6 vertices, 8 edges
• Each of the 𝟒 vertices with a degree 3 is
connected to 2 other vertices of
degree 3 and 1 vertex of degree 2.
3
(The so-called neighbouring of the vertices.)
3

Figure 2:

• • 6 vertices, 8 edges
• The 4 vertices with a degree of 3:
only 𝟐 are connected to 2 other
vertices of degree 3 and 1
vertex of degree 2

Figure 3:
2
• 6 vertices, 8 edges
3 3 • Each of the 4 vertices with a
degree of 3 is connected to 2
other vertices of degree 3 and 1
3 3 vertex of degree 2

2 3

Figure 1 and Figure 3 are isomorphic graphs, because:

• both graphs have the same number of vertices and edges.
• the same vertices are connected in both.

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PLEASE NOTE:
It is not sufficient enough to compare the number of edges only.
Check also whether the same vertices are still connected. (i.e. the
neighbourhood of the vertices does not change if they are isomorphic
graphs.)

Sometimes it is very hard to tell whether two graphs are isomorphic or not. In
fact, there is no simple method to determine quickly whether two graphs are
isomorphic or not.

Of course, you can learn about graphs by studying them, but a much easier
way to begin to understand them, is by playing games. Google “planarity”
and click on “games”.

Go ahead and enjoy!

Remember:
In Graph Theory, we are only interested in the network.
That means we only look at which vertices are connected or not.

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EXERCISE 2

1. Below are given the graphs 1.1 to 1.4

Find the graphs that are not connected.

(Give a reason for each answer.)

𝑃 𝑄 𝑀
1.1 • • 1.2 • •𝑁
𝑉
• • • •
𝑅 𝑇 𝑂

1.3 •𝑊 1.4
𝐸
• •𝐻
𝐹 𝐺
• • • • •
𝑋 𝑌 𝑍
𝐵• •𝐽
• •
𝐾 𝐿

2. Only two of the following three graphs are isomorphic.

Find the two graphs that are isomorphic.

(Motivate your answer.)

2.1 2.2 2.3

𝐵 𝐵
• • •𝐸 𝐵
• •𝐷

𝐸
•

𝐷• •𝐹 • •𝐹 • •𝐹
𝐷 𝐸

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Definition 11

The girth of a graph is the shortest circuit of the graph.

Example 11

𝐵 𝐸
𝐹

𝐶 𝐷

Possible girths:

𝐴→𝐵→𝐹→𝐴

𝐴→𝐹→𝐸→𝐴

𝐸→𝐹→𝐷→𝐸

𝐶→𝐹→𝐷→𝐶

𝐶→𝐹→𝐵→𝐶

The girth of each of the circuits above is 3.

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Example 12

In diagram 1 you see an island 𝐶 and land masses 𝐴 , 𝐵, 𝐷, 𝐸 connected

by 5 bridges.
Draw this diagram as a graph with vertices and edges.
Diagram 1

𝐴
river
𝐷
river
Eiland
𝐶 river
𝐵
river
𝐸

Solution

GRAPH 1

Bridge Bridge
between between
𝐴 and 𝐶 𝐴 and 𝐷
𝐴 𝐷
Bridge • •
between •𝐶 Bridge
between
𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐵
• •𝐸 𝐶 and 𝐸

Bridge between
𝐵 and 𝐸

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Alternative Solution
GRAPH 2

𝐴
• •𝐷
𝐶
•

• •𝐸
𝐵

NOTE

• There is no bridge between 𝐷 and 𝐸 and therefore no edge (connection)

between 𝐷 and 𝐸 in the graph.
Also no bridges between 𝐵 & 𝐶 and 𝐶 & 𝐷.
• Graph 1 and 2 are isomorphic graphs because the same vertices are still
connected.
• The edges need not to be straight lines.

BE CAREFUL!!

The following graph is not a graph that resembles the connections in

diagram 1 on the previous page.

𝐴
• •𝐷

𝐶
•

• •
𝐵 𝐸

• 𝐷 and 𝐶 are connected, but there is no bridge between

𝐷 and 𝐶 in graph 1.

• 𝐶 and 𝐸 should be connected, because there is a bridge between them

in graph 1.
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THE KÖNIGSBERG BRIDGE PROBLEM

In the 18th century, in the time of Leonhard Euler, there was a river containing
two islands (② and ④ in the diagram below) in the town of Königsberg in
Prussia. The islands were connected to the banks of the river (① and ③) by
seven bridges (𝐴 – 𝐺). The bridges were very beautiful, and on their days off,
people would spend time walking over the bridges. As time passed, a
question arose: “Is it possible to plan a walk so that you cross each bridge
once and only once?”

Leonhard Euler was ‘n Swiss mathematician and first studied Graph Theory
in 1735. He was also able to answer this question.

Here you can see the islands ② and ④, and the land masses ① and ③,
connected by 7 bridges 𝐴 – 𝐺.

𝐷 1 𝐹
𝐴

𝐸
river 4 river
2
river

𝐵 3 𝐶 𝐺

EXERCISE 3

1. Draw the Königsberg bridge problem as a graph with vertices and

edges. (Use the letters 𝐴 – 𝐺 and the numbers ① − ④ on your graph.)

2. Now answer the following questions:

2.1 Does the width of the river matter?

2.2 Do the shapes of the land masses matter?

(That is, suppose we make region ② look more like an
oval, but keep it surrounded by a river and connected with
the same bridges; does this change of shape alter your
graph?)

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HOMEWORK

1. Which of the following graphs...

1.1 contain multiple edges

1.2 contain a loop

1.3 are simple

1.4 are connected

1.5 are regular graphs?

A. • • B. •

• • • •

• • • •

C. D. • •
•
• •
• • •

E. • •

• • • • • •

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2. Find circuits in the Petersen graph (below) of lengths 5, 6, 8 and 9

respectively.
𝐴
•

𝐵• 𝐺 •𝐹 •𝐸
• •𝐾
𝐻•
•
𝐽
• •𝐷
𝐶

3. Find the isomorphic graphs in each of the following questions.

(Motivate your answers.)

3.1 A. • B. • C. • • •

• •
• •
•
• •
• • •

3.2 D. E. •
•
• • • • • • •

• • • •
•

F.
• •
•
•
•
•
• •

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4. Draw all the simple graphs that are not isomorphic on ...

4.1 three vertices

4.2 four vertices

5. Draw a simple graph with 5 vertices and 6 edges.

6. Draw two different regular graphs with 5 vertices.

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