Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises

in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;

2nd Edition 2002

20.1 The axioms for a group

20.1.1
Let G = Z. Complete the following table, where +, −, and × represent the
usual operations of arithmetic.
∗ Closure Associativity Identity Inverse
√
+ √
− √
×

Solution
∗ Closure Associativity Identity Inverse
√ √ √ √
+ √ √ √
− √ ×
√ √
× ×

So G with the + operation has all four properties, and we have a group. But
the other operations do not give rise to groups.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.1.2
Repeat Ex. 20.1.1 taking G = N, with the same operations.

Solution For N the situation is as follows.

∗ Closure Associativity Identity Inverse
√ √
+ × ×
− ×
√ ×
√ ×
√ ×
× ×

In this case none of the operations give rise to a group.

 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.2 Examples of groups

20.2.1
Write down explicitly the matrices belonging to the group in Example 2 on
p. 262. (There are just six of them.) Find the inverse of each one.

Solution The matrices are:

           
1 0 1 1 1 2 2 0 2 1 2 2
, , , , , .
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Their inverses are:
           
1 0 1 2 1 1 2 0 2 2 2 1
, , , , , .
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.2.2
There are eight symmetry transformations of a square. List them, and draw up
the group table as in Example 1 on p. 261.

Solution Labelling the corners A, B, C, D in clockwise order, we have the

following operations:
i identity;
r rotation through 90◦ clockwise;
s rotation through 180◦ ;
t rotation through 270◦ clockwise;
m1 reflection in the axis joining the midpoints of AB and CD;
m2 reflection in the axis joining the midpoints of AD and BC;
m3 reflection in the axis BD;
m4 reflection in the axis AC.
The group table is as follows.

i r s t m1 m2 m3 m4
i i r s t m1 m2 m3 m4
r r s t i m3 m4 m2 m1
s s t i r m2 m1 m4 m3
t t i r s m4 m3 m1 m2
m1 m1 m4 m2 m3 i s t r
m2 m2 m3 m1 m4 s i r t
m3 m3 m1 m4 m2 r t i s
m4 m4 m2 m3 m1 t r s i
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.3 Basic algebra in groups

20.3.1
Show that the inverse of ab is b−1 a−1 .

Solution This is an application of the group laws, in particular the associative

law.

(ab) b−1 a−1 = a bb−1 a−1 = aa−1 = 1.

 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.3.2
Establish the following implications, where x and y are any elements of a group:

(i) xy = 1 ⇒ yx = 1;
(ii) (xy)2 = x2 y 2 ⇒ xy = yx.

(In part (ii) x2 stands for xx.)

Solution

(i) xy = 1 ⇒ x = y −1 ⇒ yx = yy −1 = 1.
2
(ii) (xy) = x2 y 2 ⇒ xyxy = xxyy ⇒ yx = xy (cancellation).
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.4 The order of a group element

20.4.1
Let α and β denote the permutations of N7 whose representations in cycle
notation are

α = (15)(27436), β = (1372)(46)(5).
Calculate the orders of α and β, considered as elements of the symmetric group
S7 . What are the orders of αβ and βα?

Solution It is clear that α5 = (15), and so α10 = id. The order of α is 10.
Similarly, the order of β is 4.
We have

αβ = (163425)(7), βα = (153476)(2),
and it follows that the order of both αβ and βα is 6.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.4.2
Let x and y be elements of a finite group G. Show that the orders of x and
yxy −1 are the same.

Solution

xm = 1 ⇐⇒ yxm y −1 = 1
⇐⇒ yxy −1 · yxy −1 · · · yxy −1 = 1

m
⇐⇒ yxy −1 = 1.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.5 Isomorphism of groups

20.5.1
Describe the four symmetries of a rectangle, and construct the group table. By
writing down a suitable bijection show that your group is isomorphic to the one
whose group table is Table 20.5.2.

Table 20.5.2
1 a b c
1 1 a b c
a a 1 c b
b b c 1 a
c c b a 1

Solution Label the corners of the rectangle A, B, C, D in clockwise order. The

symmetries are
i identity;
p rotation through 180◦ ;
q reflection in axis joining mid-points of AB, CD;
q reflection in axis joining mid-points of BC, AD.
The group table is

i p q r
i i p q r
p p i r q
q q r i p
r r q p i

By inspection of the tables, an isomorphism is:

i p q r
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ .
1 a b c
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.5.2
By analysing the possible group tables show that, if isomorphic groups are
regarded as the same, then
(i) there is just one group of order 2;
(ii) there is just one group of order 3;
(iii) there are just two groups of order 4.

Solution
(i) There are two elements, one of which must be the identity. If the other
element is x 6= 1, we must have x2 = 1 (why?), and so the group table is
as follows.
1 x
1 1 x
x x 1

(ii) Suppose the elements are 1, x and y. The first row and column of the
group table are forced by the properties of 1. The remaining four entries
can only be as shown below, because of the latin square property.

1 x y
1 1 x y
x x y 1
y y 1 x

(iii) Suppose the elements are 1, x, y and z. Either x2 = 1 or x2 = y (the

possibility x2 = z is not essentially distinct, it can be obtained by renaming
y and z). If x2 = 1 there are two essentially distinct ways of completing
the table, (G1 ) and (G2 ) below. If x2 = y, there is only one way, (G3 ).

1 x y z
1 1 x y z
(G1 ) x x 1 z y
y y z 1 x
z z y x 1

[continued]
 1 x y z
1 1 x y z
(G2 ) x x 1 z y
y y z x 1
z z y 1 x

1 x y z
1 1 x y z
(G3 ) x x y z 1
y y z 1 x
z z 1 x y

In fact, the groups (G2 ) and (G3 ) are the same (isomorphic), using the
isomorphism:
(G2 ) 1 x y z
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(G3 ) 1 y x z
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.6 Cyclic groups

20.6.1
Let U be the subset of Z7 which contains all the elements of Z7 except 0. Show
that multiplication in Z7 defines a group operation for U , and that U ≈ C6 .

Solution The fact that U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a group can be verified by

constructing the group table. It is worth noting that, since 7 is a prime, it
follows from Theorem 13.3.1 that all members of U have a multiplicative inverse.

In order to show that U is a cyclic group we have to find x such that hxi = U .
The element 2 is no good, since

21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 1.
However

31 = 3, 32 = 2, 33 = 6, 34 = 4, 35 = 5, 36 = 1,
so that

U = h3i = {3, 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 } ≈ C6 .
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.7 Subgroups

20.7.1
Which of the following are subgroups of G4 ?

K1 = {i, x}, K2 = {i, x, y}, K3 = {i, r, s, x, y}.

Solution
K1 : is a subgroup (x2 = 1).
K2 : is not a subgroup (xy ∈
/ K2 ).
K3 : is not a subgroup (ry ∈
/ K3 ).
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.7.2
Use the group G4 to provide an example of the fact that if H and K are
subgroups then H ∪ K need not be a subgroup.

Solution A counter-example is provided by the subgroups of G4

H = {i, x}, K = {i, y}.

Here H ∪ K = {i, x, y}, which is not a subgroup (see Ex. 20.7.1).
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.8 Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem

20.8.1
Let H be a subgroup of G, and define a relation ∼ on G by the rule that x ∼ y
means x−1 y ∈ H. Show that ∼ is an equivalence relation and its equivalence
classes are the left cosets of H.

Solution We check the three properties of an equivalence relation.

Reflexive: x−1 x = 1, and 1 ∈ H, therefore x ∼ x.

Symmetric: Suppose x ∼ y, that is, x−1 y ∈ H. Then (x−1 y)−1 ∈ H, that is,
y −1 x ∈ H. Therefore y ∼ x.
Transitive: Suppose x ∼ y and y ∼ z. Then x−1 y ∈ H and y −1 z ∈ H, so
(x−1 y)(y −1 z) ∈ H. That is, x−1 z ∈ H, so x ∼ z.

The class of x is

{y ∈ G | y ∼ x} = {y ∈ G | x ∼ y}
= {y ∈ G | x−1 y ∈ H}
= {y ∈ G | y ∈ xH}
= xH.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.8.2
Describe explicitly the partition of the triangle group by the right cosets of the
subgroup H = {i, x}. Check that the partition is not the same as that given by
the left cosets of H.

Solution The right cosets are:

H = {i, x},
Hr = {ir, xr} = {r, z},
Hs = {is, xs} = {s, y}.

The left cosets are:

H = {i, x},
rH = {ri, rx} = {r, y},
sH = {si, sx} = {s, z}.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.8.6
Sketch the lattice of subgroups of the symmetric group S4 . [Hint: you will need
a large sheet of paper.]

Solution Here is a list of the subgroups, in order of size.

1: the identity {id}.

2: 6 subgroups containing the identity and a single transposition (ab); and 3
containing the identity and a double transposition (ab)(cd).

3: 4 cyclic subgroups {id, (abc), (acb)}.

4: 3 cyclic subgroups {id, (abcd), (ac)(bd), (adcb)}.
1 non-cyclic subgroup {id, (ab)(cd), (ac)(bd), (ad)(bc)}.
6: 4 subgroups isomorphic to S3 , obtained by fixing one symbol, for example

{id, (ab), (ac), (bc), (abc), (acb)}.

8: 3 subgroups isomorphic to the symmetry group of a square.

12: 1 subgroup, the alternating group A4 comprising the even permutations.
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.9 Characterization of cyclic groups

20.9.1
Sketch the lattice of subgroups of the cyclic group C24 . If z is a generator of
C24 , identify the subgroups generated by z 7 , z 8 , and z 9 .

Solution As explained in the text, the lattice of subgroups is the same as the
lattice of divisors of 24 (there is just one subgroup for each divisor).

Since 7 is coprime with 24, hz 7 i = C24 . The numbers 8, 9 are not coprime
with 24, and

hz 8 i = {z 8 , z 16 , 1} = C3 ;

hz 9 i = {z 9 , z 18 , z 3 , z 12 , z 21 , z 6 , z 15 , 1} = C8 .
 Solutions to Chapter 20 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

20.9.2
How many elements of C60 generate the whole group?

Solution According to Theorem 20.9 the number is φ(60), and by Theorem

11.5.1 φ(60) is equal to
   
1 1 1 1 2 4
60 1 − 1− 1− = 60 × × × = 16.
2 3 5 2 3 5