Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises

in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;

2nd Edition 2002

15.1.2
The pathways in a formal garden are to be laid out in the form of a wheel
graph Wn , whose vertex set is V = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} and whose edges are

{0, 1}, {0, 2}, . . . , {0, n},

{1, 2}, {2, 3}, . . . , {n − 1, n}, {n, 1}.

Describe a route around the pathways which starts and ends at vertex 0 and
visits every vertex once only.

Solution It is helpful to draw a diagram depicting the graph as a ‘wheel’,

with the vertex 0 at the centre and the other vertices in the order 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
around the rim. Then it is clear that a route of the required form is obtained
by visiting the vertices in the order

0, 1, 2, . . . , n, 0.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.1.3
For each positive integer n we define the complete graph Kn to be the graph
with n vertices in which each pair of vertices is adjacent. How many edges has
Kn ? For which values of n can you find a pictorial representation of Kn with
the property that the lines representing the edges do not cross?

Solution The number of edges is just the number of unordered pairs of ver-
tices, that is
 
n 1
|E(Kn )| = = n(n − 1).
2 2

The graphs K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 can be drawn without crossings fairly easily,

although you will have to be careful with the last edge in K4 .

However, you will not be able to find a drawing of K5 without crossings.

[See the comment on Ex. 15.1.1].
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.2 Isomorphism of graphs

15.2.1
Prove that the graphs shown in Fig. 15.5 are not isomorphic.

Solution The first graph has two 3-cycles (see Ex 15.1.4 for the meaning of
this statement). If it were isomorphic with the second graph, that graph would
have 3-cycles also, but in fact there are none.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.2.2
Find an isomorphism between the graphs defined by the following adjacency
lists. (Both lists specify versions of a famous graph, known as Petersen’s
graph. See also Ex. 15.8.3.)

a b c d e f g h i j 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b a b c d a b c d e 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 2 6
e c d e a h i j f g 5 0 1 2 3 4 4 3 5 7
f g h i j i j f g h 7 6 8 7 6 8 9 9 9 8

Solution In this case there are many possible isomorphisms.

One way to construct one is to start with an arbitrary assignment, say
α(a) = 4. Then it must be the case that the vertices adjacent to a correspond
to the vertices adjacent to 4 in some order; try α(b) = 3, α(e) = 6, α(f ) = 5.
Continuing in this way, and checking the adjacency condition at each stage, it
turns out that the following is an isomorphism.

a b c d e f g h i j
4 3 2 1 6 5 7 8 0 9
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.3 Degree

15.3.1
Is it possible that the following lists are the degrees of all the vertices of a graph?
If so, give a pictorial representation of such a graph. (Remember that there is
at most one edge joining each pair of vertices.)

(i) 2, 2, 2, 3.
(ii) 1, 2, 2, 3, 4.
(iii) 2, 2, 4, 4, 4.
(iv) 1, 2, 3, 4.

Solution

(i) No. There is only one odd value, whereas any graph must have an even
number of vertices with odd degree.

(ii) Yes. If we name the vertices a,b,c,d,e in the given order of degrees, the
following adjacency list has the required property.

a b c d e
e d d b a
e e c b
e c
d

(iii) No. There are five vertices altogether; three of them have degree 4, which
means that each of them must be adjacent to every other vertex. Hence
every vertex must have degree three, at least.

(iv) No. Here there are only four vertices altogether, so none of them can have
degree 4.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.3.2
If G = (V, E) is a graph, the complement Ḡ of G is the graph whose vertex
set is V and whose edges join those pairs of vertices which are not joined in G.
If G has n vertices and their degrees are d1 , d2 , . . . , dn , what are the degrees of
the vertices of Ḡ?

Solution
n − 1 − d1 , n − 1 − d2 , ..., n − 1 − dn .
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.4 Paths and cycles

15.4.1
Find the number of components of the graph whose adjacency list is
a b c d e f g h i j

f c b h c a b d a a
i g e g i c f f
j g j e

Solution In this example, a sketch of the graph will reveal that there are three
components, with vertex-sets {a, f, i, j}, {b, c, e, g}, {d, h}. A general algorithm
will be described in Section 16.4.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.4.2
How many components are there in the graph of April’s party (Section 15.1)?

Solution The vertex of degree 8 is joined to all the other vertices except the
vertex O of degree 0. So there are two components, {O} and the rest.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.4.3
Find a Hamiltonian cycle in the graph formed by the vertices and edges of an
ordinary cube.

Solution Although the general problem of finding a Hamiltonian cycle is

hard, in this case it is easy to find one by trial and error. For example, using
the diagram on p.395, a Hamiltonian cycle is

1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 5, 8, 4, 1.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.6 Colouring the vertices of a graph

15.6.1
Find the chromatic numbers of the following graphs:

(i) a complete graph Kn ;

(ii) a cycle graph C2r with an even number of vertices;
(iii) a cycle graph C2r+1 with an odd number of vertices.

Solution

(i) Since each vertex of Kn is adjacent to every other vertex, all the vertices
must have different colours. Hence χ(Kn ) = n.
(ii) Suppose we try with just two colours. Give the vertices in cyclic or-
der alternate colours: 1, 2, 1, 2, . . .. The only problem might occur when
colouring the last vertex, which is adjacent to the first one; but if the
number of vertices is even, then the last vertex gets colour 2 and the first
vertex colour 1, so we have a proper colouring with two colours.
(iii) Here the method adopted in the previous part fails, because the first
and last vertices both get colour 1. We need a third colour for the last
vertex, and so χ(C2r+1 ) = 3.
 Solutions to Chapter 15 Exercises
in Discrete Mathematics by Norman L. Biggs;
2nd Edition 2002

15.7 The greedy algorithm for vertex colouring

15.7.1
Find orderings of the vertices of the cube graph (Fig. 15.12) for which the greedy
algorithm requires 2, 3, and 4 colours, respectively.

Solution You will need to begin by labelling the vertices of the cube graph in
some arbitrary fashion. For definiteness, we shall use the labeling as in Fig.27.8
(p.395).

Colouring the vertices greedily in the order

13245768
assigns the colours 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1.

Similarly, the order

17234568
assigns the colours 11232233;

and the order

17238564
assigns the colours 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 4.

In fact, any ordering will result in the use of not more than 4 colours (see
Theorem 15.7.1).