Steady flow: Measurable property, such as

Do you know? pressure or velocity of the fluid at a given

point is constant over time.
Einstein's first ever published
scientific article deals with capillary
action? Published in German in 1901,
it was entitled Folegerungen aus den
capillaritatserscheinungen (conclusions
drawn from the phenomena of capillarity).
2.5 Fluids in Motion: Fig. 2.26: Flow lines and flow tube.
We come across moving fluids in our day Flow line: It is the path of an individual particle
to day life. The flow of water through our taps, in a moving fluid as shown in Fig. 2.26.
the flow of cooking gas through tubes, or the Streamline: It is a curve whose tangent at
flow of water through a river or a canal can any point in the flow is in the direction of the
be understood using the concepts developed in velocity of the flow at that point. Streamlines
this section. and flow lines are identical for a steady flow.
The branch of Physics which deals with Flow tube: It is an imaginary bundle of flow
the study of properties of fluids in motion is lines bound by an imaginary wall. For a steady
called hydrodynamics. As the study of motion flow, the fluid cannot cross the walls of a flow
of real fluid is very complicated, we shall limit tube. Fluids in adjacent flow tubes cannot mix.
our study to the motion of an ideal fluid. We Laminar flow/Streamline flow: It is a steady
have discussed an ideal fluid in the beginning flow in which adjacent layers of a fluid
of this Chapter. Study of a fluid in motion is move smoothly over each other as shown in
Fig. 2.27 (a). A steady flow of river can be
very important.
assumed to be a laminar flow.
Consider Fig. 2.26 which shows a pipe
Turbulent flow: It is a flow at a very high
whose direction and cross sectional area
flow rate so that there is no steady flow and the
change arbitrarily. The direction of flow of the
flow pattern changes continuously as shown in
fluid in pipe is as shown. We assume an ideal Fig. 2.27 (b). A flooded river flow or a tap
fluid to flow through the pipe. We define a few running very fast is a turbulent flow.
terms used to describe flow of a fluid.
Table 2.3 Streamline Flow and Turbulent Flow
Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1) The smooth flow of a fluid, with velocity 1) The irregular and unsteady flow of a fluid
smaller than certain critical velocity (limiting when its velocity increases beyond critical
value of velocity) is called streamline flow or velocity is called turbulent flow.
laminar flow of a fluid.
2) In a streamline flow, velocity of a fluid at a 2) In a turbulent flow, the velocity of a fluid
given point is always constant. at any point does not remain constant.
3) Two streamlines can never intersect, i.e., they3) In a turbulent flow, at some points, the
are always parallel. fluid may have rotational motion which
gives rise to eddies.
4) Streamline flow over a plane surface can be 4) A flow tube loses its order and particles
assumed to be divided into a number of plane move in random direction.
layers. In a flow of liquid through a pipe of
uniform cross sectional area, all the streamlines
will be parallel to the axis of the tube.

44
 less than 1000, the flow of a fluid is streamline
while for Rn greater than 2000, the flow of
fluid is turbulent. When Rn is between 1000
and 2000, the flow of fluid becomes unsteady,
i.e., it changes from a streamline flow to a
turbulent flow.
Fig. 2.27 (a): Streamline flow. 2.6.1 Viscosity:
When we pour water from a glass, it flows
freely and quickly. But when we pour syrup
or honey, it flows slowly and sticks to the
container. The difference is due to fluid friction.
This friction is both within the fluid itself and
between the fluid and its surroundings. This
Fig. 2.27 (b): Turbulent flow.
property of fluids is called viscosity. Water
Can you tell? has low viscosity, whereas syrup or honey has
high viscosity. Figure 2.28 shows a schematic
What would happen if two streamlines section of viscous flow and Fig. 2.29 that of a
intersect? non viscous flow. Note that there is no dragging
force in the non-viscous flow, and all layers are
Activity moving with the same velocity.

Identify some examples of streamline flow

and turbulent flow in every day life. How
would you explain them? When would
your prefer a stream line flow?
Fig. 2.28: Viscous flow. Different layers flow with
2.6 Critical Velocity and Reynolds number: different velocities. The central layer flows the
The flow of a fluid, whether streamline fastest and the outermost layers flow the slowest.
or turbulent, is differentiated on the basis Viscosity of such fluid is zero. The only
of velocity of the flow. The velocity beyond fluid that is almost non-viscous is liquid
which a streamline flow becomes turbulent is helium at about 2K. In this section, we will
called critical velocity. study viscosity of a fluid and how it affects the
According to Osborne Reynolds (1842 - flow of a fluid.
1912), critical velocity is given by
R
v c  n , --- (2.32)
d
where,
vc= critical velocity of the fluid
Rn= Reynolds number Fig. 2.29: Non-viscous flow. Different layers
η = coefficient of viscosity flow with the same velocity.
ρ = density of fluid If we observe the flow of river water, it
d = diameter of tube is found that the water near both sides of the
From Eq. (2.32) equation for Reynolds number river bank flows slow and as we move towards
can be written as, the center of the river, the water flows faster
gradually. At the centre, the flow is the fastest.
v d
Rn  c --- (2.33) From this observation it is clear that there is
 some opposing force between two adjacent
Reynolds number is a pure number. It has layers of fluids which affects their relative
no unit and dimensions. It is found that for Rn motion.
45
 Viscosity is that property of fluid, by virtue The coefficient of viscosity can be
of which, the relative motion between different defined as the viscous force per unit area per
layers of a fluid experience a dragging force. unit velocity gradient. S.I. unit of viscosity is
This force is called the viscous drag. This is Ns/m2.
shown schematically in Fig. 2.30.
Use your brain power

CGS unit of viscosity is Poise. Find the

relation between Poise and the SI unit of
viscosity.
A Microsopic View of Viscosity:
Viscosity of a fluid can be explained
Fig. 2.30: Change in velocity of layer as its on the basic of molecular motion as follow.
distance from a referee layer changes. Consider the laminar flow between plats
In liquids, the viscous drag is due to short X and Y as shown in the figure. Plate X is
range molecular cohesive forces, and in gases stationary and plate Y moves with a velocity
it is due to collisions between fast moving v0. Layers a, b, and c move with velocity,
v-dv, v, and v + dv respectively. Consider
molecules. In both liquids and gases, as long
two adjacent layers, b and c. The velocity
as the relative velocity between the layers is
of the fluid is equal to mean velocity of the
small, the viscous drag is proportional to the
molecules contained in that layer. Thus,
relative velocity. However, in a turbulent flow,
the mean velocity of the molecules in
the viscous drag increases rapidly and is not
layer b is v, while the molecules in layers
proportional to relative velocity but proportional
c have a slightly greater mean velocity
to higher powers of relative velocity. v + dv. As you will learn in the next
Velocity gradient: The rate of change of chapter, each molecule possesses a random
velocity (dv) with distance (dx) measured velocity whose magnitude is usually larger
from a stationary layer is called velocity than that of the mean velocity. As a result,
gradient (dv/dx). molecules are continually transferred in
2.6.2 Coefficient of viscosity: large numbers between the two layers. On
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the average, molecules passing from layer
for a streamline flow, viscous force (f) acting
on any layer is directly proportional to the
area (A) of the layer and the velocity gradient
(dv/dx) i.e.,
 dv 
f  A 
 dx 
 dv 
 f   A  --- (2.34)
 dx  c to layer b will be moving too fast for
where η is a constant, called coefficient of their 'new' layer by an amount dv and will
viscosity of the liquid. From Eq. (2.34) we can slow down as a result of collisions with the
write, molecules in layer b. The result is a transfer
f of momentum from faster-moving layers c
   to their neighboring slower-moving layers
 dv 
A   --- (2.35) such as b and thus eventually to plate X.
 dx  Because the original source of this transfer
Note: ‘A’ in this expression is not the cross of momentum is plate Y, the overall result
sectional area, it is the area of the layer, is a transfer of momentum from plate Y
parallel to the direction of the flow.

46
 2.7 Stokes’ Law:
to plate X. If there are no external forces
In 1845, Sir George Gabriel Stokes (1819-
applied, this momentum transfer would
1903) stated the law which gives the viscous
reduce speed of the plate Y to zero with
force acting on a spherical object falling
respect to the plate X.
through a viscous medium (see Fig. 2.31).
Reduction in the velocity of the
molecules in the direction of laminar flow
is due to the fact that their directions after
collision are random. This randomness, to be
discussed in Chapter 3, results in an increase
in the thermal energy of the fluid at the cost
of its macrosopic kinetic energy. That is, the
process is dissipative, or frictional.
In liquids there is an additional, Fig 2.31: Spherical object moving through a
stronger interaction between molecules in viscous medium.
adjacent layers, due to the intermolecular The law states that, “The viscous force
forces that distinguish liquid from gases. (Fv) acting on a small sphere falling through
As a result, there is a transfer of momentum a viscous medium is directly proportional
from faster-moving layers to slower-moving to the radius of the sphere (r), its velocity
layers, which results in a viscous drag. (v) through the fluid, and the coefficient of
viscosity (η) of the fluid”.
 Fv   rv
Remember this
The empirically obtained constant of
Coefficient of viscosity of a fluid changes proportionality is 6π .
with change in its temperature. For  Fv  6 rv --- (2.36)
most liquids, the coefficient of viscosity This is the expression for viscous force
decreases with increase in their temperature. acting on a spherical object moving through
a viscous medium. The above formula can be
It probably depends on the fact that at
higher temperatures, the molecules are derived using dimensional analysis.
farther apart and the cohesive forces or
Example 2.8: A steel ball with radius
inter-molecular forces are, therefore, less
effective. Whereas, in gases, the coefficient 0.3 mm is falling with velocity of 2 m/s at
of viscosity increases with the increase a time t, through a tube filled with glycerin,
in temperature. This is because, at high having coefficient of viscosity 0.833 Ns/m2.
temperatures, the molecules move faster Determine viscous force acting on the steel
and collide more often with each other, ball at that time.
giving rise to increased internal friction. Solution: Given
r = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10-3 m, v = 2 m/s,
Table 2.4 Coefficient of viscosity at different
temperatures. η = 0.833 Ns/m2.
Coefficient of We have, F  6 rv
Fluid Temperature Viscosity F = 6 × 3.142 × 0.833 x 0.3 × 10-3 × 2
Ns/m2 Therefore, F = 9.422 × 10-3 N
00C 0.017 x 10-3 2.7.1 Terminal Velocity:
Air
40 C
0
0.019 x 10-3 Consider a spherical object falling
200C 1 x 10-3 through a viscous fluid. Forces experienced by
Water
100 C
0
0.3 x 10-3 it during its downward motion are,
Machine 160C 0.113 x 10-3 1. Viscous force (Fv), directed upwards.
oil 380C 0.034 x 10-3 Its magnitude goes on increasing with
increase in its velocity.
47
2. Gravitational force, or its weight (Fg), This is the expression for the terminal velocity
directed downwards, and of the sphere. From Eq. (2.37) we can also write,
3. Buoyant force or upthrust (Fu), directed 2 r    g
2

upwards.   --- (2.38)

9 v
Net downward force given by The above equation gives coefficient of
f = Fg - (Fv+ Fu), is responsible for initial increase viscosity of a fluid.
in the velocity. Among the given forces, Fg and
Fu are constant while Fv increases with increase Example 2.9: A spherical drop of oil falls
in velocity. Thus, a stage is reached when at a constant speed of 4 cm/s in steady air.
the net force f becomes zero. At this stage, Calculate the radius of the drop. The density
Fg = Fv + Fu. After that, the downward velocity of the oil is 0.9 g/cm3, density of air is
remains constant. This constant downward 1.0 g/cm3 aud the coefficient of viscosity of
velocity is called terminal velocity. Obviously, air is 1.8 × 10-4 poise, (g = 980 cm/s2)
now onwards, the viscous force Fv is also Solution: Given,
constant. The entire discussion necessarily v = 4 cm/s
applies to streamline flow only. η = 1.8 × 10-4 Poise
σ = 0. 9 g/cm3
ρ = 1 g/cm3
We have,
2 r    g
2

 
9 v

Fig. 2.32: Forces acting on object moving 9 v

r 
through a viscous medium. 2   g
Consider a spherical object falling under
9  1.8 10 4  4
gravity through a viscous medium as shown in r 
Fig. 2.32. Let the radius of the sphere be r, its 2  1  0.9   980
mass m and density ρ. Let the density of the r = 0.574 cm
medium be σ and its coefficient of viscosity
be η. When the sphere attains the terminal
velocity, the total downward force acting on Remember this
the sphere is balanced by the total upward The velocity with which an object can
force acting on the sphere. move through a viscous fluid is always less
Total downward force = Total upward force than or equal to the terminal velocity in that
weight of sphere (mg) = fluid for that object.
viscous force + by out ant to due to the medium
4 3 4 2.8 Equation of Continuity:
 r  g  6 rv    r 3 g Consider a steady flow of an
3 3
incompressible fluid as shown in Fig. 2.33. For
 4   4 
6 rv    r 3  g     r 3 g  a steady flow, the velocity of a particle remains
3  3  constant at a given point but it can vary from
4 point to point. For example, consider section
6 rv     r 3 g     
3 A1 and A2 in Fig. 2.33. Section A1 has larger
cross sectional area than the section A2. Let v1
4 1
v     r 3 g       and v2 be the velocities of the fluid at sections
3 6 r A1 and A2 respectively.
 2  r g   
2
This is because, a particle has to move
v    --- (2.37) faster in the narrower section (where there is
9 

48
 Av is the volume rate of flow of a fluid,
i.e.,
dV dV
Av = . The quantity is the volume
dt dt
of a fluid per unit time passing through any
Fig. 2.33: Steady
cross section of the tube of flow. It is called
flow fluid.
the volume flux. Similarly, ρdV/dt =dm/dt is
called mass flux.
Equation (2.40) is called the equation of
less space) to accommodate particles behind continuity in fluid dynamics. The continuity
it hence its velocity increases. When a particle equation says that the volume rate of flow of
enters a wider section, it slows down because an incompressible fluid for a steady flow is
there is more space. Because the fluid is the same throughout the flow.
incompressible, the particles moves faster
through a narrow section and slow down while Do you know?
moving through wider section. If the fluid does
When water is released from a dam, the
not move faster in a narrow regain, it will be
amount of water is mentioned in terms of
compressed to fit into the narrow space.
Thousand Million Cubic feet (TMC). One
Consider a tube of flow as shown in
TMC is 109 cubic feet of water per second.
Fig. 2.33. All the fluid that passes through
Basic unit of measuring flow is cusec. One
a tube of flow must pass through any cross
cusec is one cubic feet per sec (28.317 lit
section that cuts the tube of flow. We know per sec).
that all the fluid is confined to the tube of flow.
Fluid can not leave the tube or enter the tube. Example 2.11: As shown in the given figure,
Consider section A1 and A2 located at a piston of cross sectional area 2 cm2 pushes
points A and B respectively as shown in the liquid out of a tube whose area at the
Fig. 2.33. Matter is neither created nor outlet is 40 mm2. The piston is pushed at a
destroyed within the tube enclosed between rate of 2 cm/s. Determine the speed at which
section A1 and A2. Therefore, the mass of the the fluid leaves the tube.
fluid within this region is constant over time.
That means, if mass m of the fluid enters the
section A1 then equal mas of fluid should leave
the section A2.
Let the speed of the fluid which crosses
the section EFGH at point A in time interval Solution: Given,
∆t be v1. Thus, the volume of the fluid entering A1 = 2 cm2 = 2 × 10-4 m2
the tube through the cross section at point A v1 = 2 cm/s = 2 × 10-2 m/s
is ρA1v1∆t. Similarly, let the speed of the fluid A2 = 40 mm2 = 40 × 10-6 m2
be v2 at point B. The fluid crosses the section From equation of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2
PQRS of area A2 in time interval ∆t. Thus, the Therefore,
A v 2 10 4 2 10 2
mass of the fluid leaving the tube through the v 2  1 1   0.1m / s
cross section at B is ρA2v2∆t. A2 40 10 6
As fluid is incompressible, the mass of the
fluid entering the tube at point A is the same as
Use your brain power
the mass leaving the tube at B.
Mass of the fluid in section EFGH = mass A water pipe with a diameter of 5.0 cm is
of fluid in section PQRS connected to another pipe of diameter 2.5
ρA1v1∆t = ρA2v2∆t --- (2.39) cm. How would the speeds of the water flow
A1v1 = A2v2 or, Av = constant --- (2.40) compare?

49
 surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of the
Do you know? change in the kinetic energy and the change in
the gravitational potential energy.
1. How does an aeroplane take off? Figure 2.34 shows flow of an ideal fluid
2. Why do racer cars and birds have typical through a tube of varying cross section and
shape? height. Consider an element of fluid that lies
3. Have you experienced a sideways jerk between cross sections P and R.
while driving a two wheller when a Let,
heavy vehicle overtakes you? • v1 and v2 be the speed the fluid at the lower
4. Why does dust get deposited only on one
end P and the upper end R respectively.
side of the blades of a fan?
• A1 and A2 be the cross section area of the
5. Why helmets have specific shape?
fluid at the lower end P and the upper end
2.9 Bernoulli Equation: R respectively.
On observing a river, we notice that the • p1 and p2 be the pressures of the fluid at the
speed of the water decreases in wider region lower end P and the upper R respectively.
whereas the speed of water increases in the • d1 and d2 be the distances travelled by the
regions where the river is narrow. From this fluid at the lower and P and the upper and
we might think that the pressure in narrower R during the time interval dt with velocities
regions is more than that in the wider region. v1 and v2 respectively.
However, the pressure within the fluid in the • p1 A1 and p2 A2 be the forces acting on the
narrower parts is less while that in wider parts equation of continuity, (Eq.   2.40), the
is more. volume dV of the fluid passing through any
Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1700- cross section during time interval dt is the
1782), while experimenting with fluid inside same; i.e.,
pipes led to the discovery of the concept dV = A1d1 = A2d2 --- (2.41)
mentioned above. He observed, in his There is no internal friction in the fluid as
experiment, that the speed of a fluid in a narrow the fluid is ideal. In practice also, for a fluid like
region increases but the internal pressure of a water, the loss in energy due to viscous force is
fluid in the same narrow region decreases. This negligible. So the only non-gravitational force
phenomenon is called Bernoulli’s principle. that does work on the fluid element is due to the
pressure of the surrounding fluid. Therefore,
the net work, W, done on the element by the
surrounding fluid during the flow from P to R
is,
W = p1A1d1 – p2A2d2
The second term in the above equation has
a negative sign because the force at R opposes
the displacement of the fluid. From Eq. (2.41)
the above equation can be written as,
W = p1dV – p2dV
Fig. 2.34: Flow of fluid through a tube of ∴ W = (p1-p2) dV --- (2.42)
varying cross section and height. As the work W is due to forces other than
Bernoulli’s equation relates the speed of a the conservative force of gravity, it equals the
fluid at a point, the pressure at that point and change in the total mechanical energy i.e.,
the height of that point above a reference level. kinetic energy plus gravitational potential
It is an application of work – energy theorem energy associated with the fluid element.
for a fluid in flow. While deriving Bernoulli’s i.e., W = ∆K.E. + ∆P.E. --- (2.43)
equation, we will prove that the net work The mechanical energy for the fluid
done on a fluid element by the pressure of the between sections Q and R does not change.
50
 At the beginning of the time interval
dt, the mass and the kinetic energy A different way of interpreting the
Bernoulli’s equation:
of the fluid between P and Q is, ρ 1
A1d1, and
1
  A1d1  v12 respectively. At
 p1  p2      v 22  v12    g  h2  h1 
2
2 Dimensionally, pressure is energy per unit
the end of the time interval dt, the kinetic volume. Both terms on the right side of the
energy of the fluid between section R and S is above equation have dimensions of energy
1 per unit volume. Hence, quite often, the
  A2 d2  v 22 . Therefore, the net change in the left side is referred to as pressure energy
2 per unit volume. The left side of equation
kinetic energy, ∆K.E., during time interval dt is called pressure head. The first term on
is, the right side is called the velocity head
1 1 and the second term is called the potential
∆K.E. =   A2 d2  v 2     A1d1  v1
2 2

2 2 head.
1 1 In other words, the Bernoulli’s principle
∆K.E. = 2  dVv 2  2  dVv1
2 2
is thus consistent with the principle of
conservation of energy.
1
2

∆K.E. =  dV v 2  v1
2
2
--- (2.44) Example 2.12: The given figure shows a
Also, at the beginning of the time interval streamline flow of a non-viscous liquid
dt, the gravitational potential energy of the having density 1000 kg/m3. The cross
mass m between P and Q is mgh1 = ρdVgh1. sectional area at point A is 2 cm2 and at
At the end of the interval dt, the gravitational point B is 1 cm2. The speed of liquid at the
potential energy of the mass m between R and point A is 5 cm/s. Both points A and B are
S is mgh2 = ρdVgh2. Therefore, the net change at the same horizontal level. Calculate the
in the gravitational potential energy, ∆P.E., difference in pressure at A and B.
during time interval dt is,
∆P.E. = ρdVgh2 - ρdVgh1
∆P.E. = ρdVg (h2- h1) --- (2.45) Solution: Given,
Substituting Eq. (2.42), (2.44) and (2.45) in ρ = 1000 kg/m3, A1 = 2 cm2 = 2 × 10-2 m2
Eq. (2.43) we get, A2 = 1 cm2 = 10-2 m2, v1 = 5 cm/s = 5 × 10-2
1 m/s and h1= h2

 p1  p2  dV    dV v 22  v12
2
 From the equation of continuity,
A1v1 = A2v2
  dVg  h2  h1 
Av  2 = 10 m/s
 v 2   1 1 = 2 5 10
1
2

  p1  p2     v 22  v12  A2 10 2
By Bernoulli’s equation,
  g  h2  h1  1
--- (2.46) 
 p1  p2  dV    dV v 22  v12
2

This is Bernoulli’s equation. It states that
the work done per unit volume of a fluid by   dVg  h2  h1 
the surrounding fluid is equal to the sum of (since, h2  h1  0 )
the changes in kinetic and potential energies 1
per unit volume that occur during the flow.  p1  p2  dV    dV  v 22  v12 
2
Equation (2.46) can also be written as,
1
1 1
p1   v12   gh1  p2   v22   gh2 ---(2.47)   1000 100  0.0025 
2 2 2
= 500 × 99.99
1 2 p1 - p2 = 49998.75, Pa = 4.99 × 105 Pa
or, p  v   gh  constant --- (2.48)
2
51
   A 2 
Use your brain power  1   2   v 22  2gh
Does the Bernoulli’s equation change when   A1  
the fluid is at rest? How? If A2<<A1, the above equation reduces to,
Applications of Bernoulli’s equation: v 2 = 2 gh --- (2.50)
a) Speed of efflux: This is the equation of the speed of a
The word efflux means fluid out flow. liquid flowing out through an orifice at a depth
Torricelli discovered that the speed of efflux ‘h’ below the free surface. It is the same as that
from an open tank is given by a formula of a particle falling freely through the height
identical to that of a freely falling body. ‘h’ under gravity.
Example 2.13: Doors of a dam are 20 m
below the surface of water in the dam. If
one door is opened, what will be the speed
of the water that flows out of the door?
(g = 9.8 m/s2)
Solution: Given, h = 20 m
From Toricelli’s law,
v = 2gh = 2 ×9.8 ×20 = 392
= 19.79 m/s
Fig. 2.35: Efflux of fluid from an orifice.
Consider a liquid of density ‘ρ’ filled in a b) Ventury tube:
tank of large cross-sectional area A1 having an A ventury tube is used to measure the
orifice of cross-sectional area A2 at the bottom speed of flow of a fluid in a tube. It has a
as shown in Fig. 2.35. Let A2<<A1. The liquid constriction in the tube. As the fluid passes
flows out of the tank through the orifice. Let through the constriction, its speed increases
v1 and v2 be the speeds of the liquid at A1 and in accordance with the equation of continuity.
A2 respectively. As both, inlet and outlet, are The pressure thus decreases as required by the
exposed to the atmosphere, the pressure at Bernoulli equation.
these position equals the atmosphere pressure
p0. If the height of the free surface above the
orifice is h, Bernoulli’s equation gives us,
1 1
p0   v12   gh  p0    v 22 --- (2.49)
2 2
Using equation the of continuity we can write,
A Fig. 2.36: Ventury tube.
v1 = 2 v 2
A1 The fluid of density ρ flows through the
Substituting v1 in Eq.(2.49) we get, Ventury tube. The area of cross section is A1
2 at wider part and A2 at the constriction. Let the
1  A2  2 1 speeds of the fluid at A1 and A2 be v1 and v2,
   v 2   gh    v 22
2  A1  2 and the pressures, be p1 and p2 respectively.
2 From Bernoulli’s equation,
 A2  2 1 1
  v 2  2 gh  v 2
2
p1    v12  p2    v 22
A
 1 2 2
1
 p1  p2      v 22  v12 
2
A  --- (2.51)
2 gh  v   2  v 22
2
2 2
 A1  Figure 2.36 shows two vertical tubes connected

52
to the Ventury tube at A1 and A2. If the difference that below the wings increases. Due to this
in height of the liquid levels in the tubes is h, pressure difference, an upward force called the
we have, dynamic lift acts on the bottom of the wings of
 p1  p2 )   gh  a plane. When this force becomes greater than
the weight of aeroplane, the aeroplane takes
Substituting above equation in Eq. (2.51) we
off.
get,
d) Working of an atomizer:
2 gh  v 22  v12 --- (2.52)
From the equation of continuity, A1v1 = A2v2,
substituting v1 in terms of v2 or vice versa in
Eq. (2.52) the rate of flow of liquid passing
through a cross section can be calculated by Fig. 2.38: Atomizer.
knowing the areas A1and A2.
The action of the carburetor of an
Example 2.13: Water flows through a automobile engine, paint-gun, scent-spray
tube as shown in the given figure. Find the or insect-sprayer is based on the Bernoulli’s
difference in mercury level, if the speed of principle. In all these, a tube T is dipped in a
flow of water at point A is 2 m/s and at point liquid as shown in Fig. 2.38. Air is blown at
B is 5 m/s. (g = 9.8 m/s) high speed over the tip of this tube with the help
Solution: Given, v1 = 2 m/s, v2 = 5 m/s of a piston P in the cylinder C. This high speed
We have, air creates low pressure over the tube, due to
2gh = v 22 −v12 which the liquid rises in it and is then blown off
therefore, in very small droplets with expelled air.
v 2 −v 2 25  4 21 e) Blowing off of roofs by stormy wind:
h= 2 1 = = 19.6 = 1.07 m
2g 2 9.8

c) Lifting up of an aeroplane:
Fig. 2.39: Airflow along a roof.
When high speed, stormy wind blows
over a roof top, it causes low pressure p above
the roof in accordance with the Bernoulli’s
principle. However, the air below the roof
(i.e. inside the room) is still at the atmospheric
Fig. 2.37: Airflow along an aerofoil. pressure p0. So, due to this difference in
The shape of cross section of wings pressure, the roof is lifted up and is then blown
of an aeroplane is as shown in Fig. 2.37. off by the wind as shown in Fig. 2.39.
When an aeroplane runs on a runway, due to
aerodynamic shape of its wings, the streamlines Observe and discuss
of air are crowded above the wings compared
to those below the wings. Thus, the air above Observe the shape of blades of a fan and
the wings moves faster than that below the discuss the nature of the air flow when fan
wings. According to the Bernoulli’s principle, is switched on.
the pressure above the wings decreases and

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