FINALS

CHAPTER 6
CARTRIDGE CASE/SHELL/CASING

CARTRIDGE CASE/SHELL/CASING
- Is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.
- The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and these remains at the scene of the crime.

FUNCTIONS:
1. It serves as means whereby the bullet, Gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced
against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the gas seal at the breech end of
the barrel.

PARTS of a CARTRIDGE CASE:

1. Rim – serves the purpose of limiting the forward travel of cartridge into their chambers and this also
limit the clearance, if any, between the heads and the supporting surface of the bolt or breech
block.
2. Primer pocket – performs triple functions;
a. holding primer securely in central position.
b. provides a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the
cartridge;
c. provides a solid support of primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. Vents or flash holes – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket through which the
primer “flash” imparts ignition to the powder charge.
- the “opening” or canal that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. The Head and body – constitute the cock that plugs the breach of the barrel against the escape of
the gas.
5. Neck – the part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet.
6. Crimp –is that part of mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullets.

Two-fold function:
a. it aids in holding the bullet in place.
b. It offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of
the gunpowder.
8. Base – the bottom portion of the case which contains;
a. the primer which contains the priming mixture.
b. the shellhead which contains the priming mixture
c. the shellhead which contains the headstamp, caliber and the year of manufacture.

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 Headstamp – where the manufacturers identification are imprinted, it also give the caliber and the
name of the cartridge.

9. Shoulder – that portion which support the neck.

10. Extracting groove – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for automatic
withdrawal of the case after firing.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE AND HEAD FORM:

Shape:
a) Straight – always in pistol ammunitions.
b) Bottleneck – always in rifle ammunition.
c) Tapered – “obsolete”

Note: Cartridge cases of all types are made by a machine operation known as “drawing”

Drawing – is the process of making cartridge cases by punching disc from a sheet of brass and then
making this discs out into tubes closed to one end.
THE PRIMER

PRIMER
- The priming in a cartridge or shotgun shell is the chemical compound which ignites the propellant charge. A
blow from the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming composition to detonate. This detonation
produces flame which passes through the vent or flash hole in the cartridge case igniting the gunpowder.

- First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate, antimony sulfide, and fulminate of
mercury which is actually very corrosive.

Function: explodes on compression igniting the propellant.

Composition:
- Commonly lead styphnate, barium nitrate, antimony sulphide. Typically all 3 elements (lead, barium,
antimony) in centerfire ammunition but sometimes lead only or lead and barium in rimfire
ammunition. Elemental trace tests used to determine if person fired a weapon.

Three (3) basic types of modern center fire primers:

1. Boxer Type (American Type) – invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer.

- may be identified by the fact that the anvil is a separate piece of metal in the primer.
- This type may also be called the SEPARATED ANVIL TYPE.
- the anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly
- there is only one flash hole and this is the center of the primer cup.
- can be reloaded
2. Berdan Type (European type) – invented by col. Hiram Berdan
- the anvil is part of the cartridge case
ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
- it has two or three flash holes that are not centered in the case’s base.
- not generally reloaded.
3. Battery Cup type – generally used for shotgun shells, simply a variation of the boxer type.

PARTS OF A PRIMER:

1. Primer cup – refers to the container of the priming mixture that is made up of brass, gilding metal or
copper.
2. Priming mixture – refers to the highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
3. Anvil – the portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the
firing pin.

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
Disc – piece of small paper or disc of tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture.

PRIMING COMPOUNDS:

Classes:
1. Corrosive primers (potassium chlorate) – if ignited, it produces potassium chloride, draws moisture
from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and potassium chlorate is eliminated.

Ingredients:
a. potassium chlorate – 45%
b. antimony sulfide – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury – 32%
2. Non-corrosive primers – potassium chlorate was replaced by barium nitrate.

What is Corrosion and Erosion?

Corrosion – the chemical wear and tear of the inside of a gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical
reactions by the products of combustion after firing.

Erosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction.

GUNPOWDER/PROPELLANTS
ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 CHAPTER VII
PROPELLANT/GUNPOWDER

- The propellant in a cartridge or shotgun shell is the gunpowder which, when ignited by the primer
flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the
barrel and to the target.
- Refer to the chemical substances of various compositions, sizes, shapes and colors that on ignition,
serve as a propellant.

Berthold Schwartz – credited for the application of gunpowder in propelling a missile.

Roger Bacon – Credited for identifying the chemicals needed for gunpowder.

Note: The Chinese were believed to be the first to invent gunpowder.

Function of Gunpowder: it burns to produce large volumes of gases under pressure that propels
projectiles.

Two Types of Gunpowder:

1. Black Powder – consists of jet black and rather shiny grains. Although black powder has been in use
for about six centuries, and although improved methods of manufacture have
naturally lead to greater efficiency in action, its composition has remained
practically the same in all countries.
- Most dangerous explosive to handle and store because it is easily ignited upon by heat, friction, flame
or spark.
- Oldest propellant

Composition:
1. Potassium Nitrate – 75%
2. Charcoal – 15%
3. Sulfur – 10%
Disadvantages:
1. it produces large volume of white smoke.
2. fouls the bore of firearms after relatively few shots.
3. it readily attracts moisture, hence, “keep your powder dry.”
Advantages or Qualities:
1. when ignited it will burn by itself without air from the outside air.
2. in burning, it gives off a large volume of gas.
3. a considerable heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder – the term smokeless powder is a misnomer for they are neither powder nor
smokeless, the latter term is being applied only because they are entirely smokeless
not like the black powder.
- It is the most powerful propellant as well as being the cleanest.

4 main classes of smokeless powder:

1. Single-base propellant or nitrocellulose – it contains only pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with
nitrocellulose.
2. Double-base propellant – its major component are (1) nitrocellulose and (2) nitroglycerine
accompanied one or more minor ingredients such as:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esthers
c. inorganic salts
- Double-base propellants are gray green to black in color and the grains are similar in size and
shape to the single based propellants.
3. Triple base propellant – it uses 3 principal ingredients.
a. nitrocellulose
b. nitroglycerine
c. nitro-guanidine

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 4. High Ignition Temperature Propellant – the main constituent is from RDX group of high
explosives.
Gunshot Residue Analysis:
When the primer is detonated, microscopic particles of gunshot residue (GSR) are deposited on the hands of
the shooter. These particles adhere to the hands in the pockets and even handcuffing behind the back. Studies
have shown that the GSR will remain on the shooter’s hand for up to about 6 hours.

Three (3) methods for testing GSR: (actually a color test)

1. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
2. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS)
3. Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (SEM/EDX)

- Barium, antimony and lead are the traces of metals being detected originating from the
primer of the cartridge.
- The so-called “dermal nitrate test” or “paraffin test” is no longer used and is generally
considered unreliable in GSR testing because of its no specificity. The main problem it was recently
realized cosmetics and other everyday preparations as well as being present in cigarettes and cigars, so
that the value of a swab as a positive indication of recent gun handling is lost. This kind of test was
developed by Teodoro Gonzales of Mexico in 1933.

CHAPTER VIII
ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES RELATED TO FIREARMS

Barrel Manufacturing:
All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for which they are manufactured are selected from a solid piece
of metal. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical
structure, thus assuring a high quality product after the various machine operations and heat treatment are
completed.

Steps:
1. Drilling the Hole
2. Reaming the Hole
3. Cutting or Putting the Rifling – if a barrel to be made is to be rifled, this operation follows after the
reaming operation.

RIFLING – refers to the helical lines cut in the interior of the bore of a gun barrel. Rifling consists of
grooves cut or formed in a spiral nature, lengthwise down the barrel of the firearm.

Purpose of Rifling: rifling is placed in the barrels of firearms to impart a spin or

stability in flight on the bullets that pass through it.

- In firearm examiner lingo, rifling refers to the LANDS and GROOVES. The lands are the raised portion
between two grooves, while the grooves are the depressed portion.

4. Lapping – it follows after the rifling operation is completed. This is the smoothening of the inner
surface of the gun barrel. Polishing the inside of the barrel like a mirror with a polishing compound.
5. Chambering – the final step is the chambering or cutting away the breech end of the barrel where
the cartridge or shotgun shell is to fit.

Composition of Rifling:
number of lands
a. number of grooves
b. width of lands
c. depth of grooves
d. pitch of rifling – the number of inches traveled by the bullet to make one complete turn.
e. Twist of rifling – the direction of twist whether right or left.

Marks Found on Fired Bullets:

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
A bullet is slightly larger in diameter than the bore diameter of the barrel in which it is designed to be fired. As
a result, a rifled barrel will impress a negative impression of itself on the sides of the bullet.

a. Land marks
b. Groove marks

Land and groove marks together are called rifling marks. These are striations found on the
periphery/bearing or cylindrical surface of the fired bullets.

c. Skid marks
d. Slippage/Stripping Marks
e. Shaving Marks

Marks Found on fired Cartridge Case:

1. Firing Pin impression
2. Breechface markings
3. Chamber marks
4. Extractor marks
5. Ejector marks
6. Shear marks or the secondary firing pin marks
7. Firing pin drag marks

Other Marks found on fired shells:

1. Pivotal marks
2. Magazine lip marks
3. Breech Closure or Anvil Marks

1. Individual characteristics – are those characteristics which are determinable only after the manufacture
of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of man. These are the
irregularities found in the inner surface of the barrel and on the breech face of the breechblock of the
firearm.

Class characteristics according to Types of Rifling:

1. Steyr type – 4 lands, 4 grooves, right hand twist and lands and grooves are of equal width. (4-R-
G=L)
2. Smith and Wesson type – 5 lands and grooves, right hand twist, and lands and grooves of equal
width. (5-R-G=L)
3. Browning type – 6 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands and broad grooves. (6-R- G-2x)
4. Colt type – 6 lands and grooves, left twist, narrow lands and broad grooves (6-L-G-2x)
5. Webley type – 7 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow lands and broad grooves (7-R-G3x)
(6). Army type – 4 lands and grooves, right twist, narrow land and broad grooves (4-R-G3x)

Principles of Firearm Investigation:

1. Principles of Identification of Fired Bullet

a. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their bore all posses individual
characteristics and marking of their own;
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel it becomes engraved by the rifling and this engraving
will vary its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the
bullet fired from the barrel will be different from that of the bullet fired from another barrel.
And conversely, the engraving on the bullets fired from the same barrel will be the same;
c. Every barrel leave its thumb mark on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every breech
face leave its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridge case.

2. Principles of Identification of fired Shells

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 a. the breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities of
their own;
b. the firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb marks on every cartridge cases which it fires;
c. the whole principle of identification base on the fact that since the breech face of every
weapon must be individually distinct the cartridge cases which it fired are imprinted with this
individuality. The imprint on all cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are always the
same, those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be different.

Techniques of Examination:

1. Physical Examination

Test Bullets – are those recovered from recovery box for comparison purposes with the evidence
bullet.

Evidence bullet – are those recovered from the crime scene.

2. Microscopic Examination
Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are examined in a juxtaposition -
that is, the two objects- evidence and the test bullet are examined and compared:
- at the same time
- at the same place or level
- at the same direction
- at the same magnification
- at the same image

Note: for conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least three test bullets that should be
compared.

First, 1 for comparison/preliminary

Second, 1 for confirmation
Third, 1 for conclusion

Note: 8 or more striations – accepted by the court.

SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION:

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope

2. Stereoscopic Microscope 10. helixometer
3. CP-6 Comparison Projector 11. chronograph
4. Bullet Recovery Box
5. Measuring Projector MP-6
6. Vernier Caliper
7. Analytical Balance
8. Taper Gauge
9. Onoscope
CRIME SCENE PROCEDURE FOR SHOOTING INCIDENT

Upon receiving a call to the scene of the shooting, the officer should always take along a loose-leaf
notebook and pen to make notes at the time and on the place and not trust his memory to reconstruct the
situation for his future convenience.
When the officer is summoned on such errand, his procedure should follow a logical pattern. His observations
should be put in writing at the time of his investigation for future reference and to produce in court if
necessary.

Steps:
1. Note accurately in writing the time the call was received and by whom it was sent.
2. Note accurately the time of arrival at the scene and the correct address.
3. The investigator should ascertain if the victim is dead and if not, summon medical aid or bring the
victim to the hospital. Otherwise the body should not be disturbed.
ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 4. Immediately clear the premises of all by-standers and under no circumstances allow anyone to
touch or remove anything in the vicinity.
5. use every effort and means to identify the deceased
6. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take written notes on the statements of as
many persons as possible.
7. Measure the exact distance of the body in relation to the previously mentioned fixtures of the
premises.
8. Examine the ceiling, floors, and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains, fired bullets, fired shells or
shotgun wadding.
9. If there is a firearm at the scene, he should note in writing the following observations:
a. Exactly where found.
b. Type of weapon, caliber or gauge designation
c. Note the serial number; mark his initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future
identification.
d. Note other distinctive features.
10. Note down where the empty shells, bullets and/or firearms were found and make a diagram to
illustrate the same to show their relative distances from the body of the victim and take a
photograph of it.
11. Mark the found evidences for future identification, use your initials and state the date and place
where recovered.
12. After marking the evidence, wrap them separately and individually with soft tissue paper and note
down on the wrapper where each item was found indicating the date and time.
13. Transport the recovered evidences to the crime laboratory for examination.

NOTE:

- When an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an automatics pistol, or
automatic weapon was used.
- When no empty shell is found, the presumption is that a revolver was used.
- In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves and the raised portions are the lands.
- On a fired bullet, it is the reverse, the landmarks are the depressed portions, and the groove marks
are the raised portions.
- to determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land
or groove on the top and look away from you. If the land or the groove inclines to the right,
then it has a right twist, and if it inclines to the left it is a left twist.
- To determine the twist of a bullet, look on the bullet in an elongated position. If the lands and
grooves incline to the right it is a right twist, if it incline to the left it is a left twist.
- It is the rifling of a bore that marks a fired bullet.
- A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the barrel from which it was fired.
Therefore, if a bore has a class characteristics of a .45 caliber, 6 lands, 6 grooves, right twist,
grove wider than the land such characteristics will be impressed on the bullet it fires.
- So, if a fatal bullet will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the suspected firearm, then
it is possible that the bullet could have been fired from the suspected gun.
- To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from the suspected gun, then the case
must be sent to a forensic ballistics expert who will conduct the proper examination.
- If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, definitely and conclusively the bullets were
not fired from the barrel.

Specimen subject for Processing/Recovery from the Crime Scene:

a. Firearms
b. Ammunition
c. Ammunition Components, such as:
1. bullet
2. pellet
3. cartridge cases
4. primer
5. propellant
6. wads
7. bullet fragment
8. other related specimen
ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1
 PROPER LIFTING OF EVIDENCE FIREARM:
In 1933, Churchhill advised scene of crime officers that a weapon found at the crime scene should be lifted by
passing a metal rod down the muzzle.
Today, such practice is absolute anathema “DO NOT” handle by means of inserting a pencil or similar article
in the barrel. This is because the modern helixometer and similar instruments are capable of detecting
minute clues from the interior of the gun.
The proper lifting of an evidence firearm is to insert a string in the trigger guard then lift it.

TYPES OF PROBLEMS IN BALLISTICS:

1. Given a bullet, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from which it was
fired.
When a bullet is submitted for comparison to a firearm, one of the first
examinations conducted will be to determine the bullets caliber in any of the following
means;
- measuring the bullets diameter with the use of caliper;
- weighing the bullet; and
- comparing the bullet with known standards
2. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm.
3. Given a cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired.
4. Given two or more cartridge cases to determine whether or not they were fired from one
and the same firearm.
5. Given cartridge case and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the cartridge case
was fired from the suspected firearm.
6. Given bullets and suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullets was fired
from the suspected firearm.
(7) Given firearms/arms to determine whether they are serviceable or not.

Prepared by: Checked by: Noted by:

GERALD C. BIMBO RCrim. NELMAR P. AGUB RCRIM, PhD. CHARIBEL R. SARTE MST.
Subject Teacher Program Chair, BS-Criminology Director Academic Affairs

ISUR-BSC-InM-065
Effectivity: Feb, 8, 2021
Revision: 1