CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

BIOLOGY CLASS VIII 2023

THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR CLASS VIII,IX, X .CLASS VIII
students only read the topics ehich are part of syllabus and
discussed in class.
Difference Between Plant, Animal and Bacterial Cell

Characteristic Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell

Animal cells
are generally
small in size
Plant cells are The bacterial cell is very
when
large. small.
compared to
The average size It is about 0.5 - 5.0 μm
Size the plant cell,
of a plant cell is in diameter almost
on average
10 - 100 μm in about one-tenth the
they are 10 -
diameter size of a eukaryotic cell.
20 μm
(micrometers)
in diameter.

Type Eukaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell Prokaryotic cell

Animal cells
vary in shape
and are
Bacterial cells are of
generally
Plant cells are different shapes such
irregular due
similar and as spherical (cocci),
to the lack of
Shape typically rod (bacilli), spiral
a cell wall.
rectangular or (spirilla), comma
They can be
cube-shaped. (vibrios) and corkscrew
flat, round,
(spirochaetes).
oval,
rectangular,
concave, rod-
 shaped, or
spherical and
are mostly
defined by the
function they
perform.

Plant cells have

Animal cells rigid cell walls
lack cell walls that surround
but the cell the plasma
membrane membrane. It
protects the provides tensile Bacterial cells have a
cell from strength and cell wall surrounding
external protection the inner components
damage and against of the cell. Apart from
also plays a mechanical and providing strength to
Cell Wall
major role in osmotic stress. the cell, it also helps in
selective Plant cell walls maintaining the cell
permeability are made up of shape. Bacterial cell
for the inflow pectic walls are made of
and outflow of polysaccharides, peptidoglycan(murein).
nutrients, proteins,
water, and cellulose,
other phenolic
molecules. compounds,
and water.

The animal The plant cell

Bacterial cells lack
cell has a has a well-
membrane-bound
Nucleus well-defined defined nucleus
nuclei. The genetic
nucleus and that stores the
material lies
comprises genetic material
 genetic and also suspended in the
material. It coordinates the cytoplasm.
also controls cell’s activities
the activities such as cell
of the cell by division,
regulating metabolism,
gene growth, and
expression, protein
hence known synthesis.
as the control
center of the
cell.

Animal cells
generally
Plant cells have Bacterial cells have
have smaller
larger vacuoles larger vacuoles and
vacuoles
vacuoles that help help to store ions and
which
maintain water maintain water
sequester
balance. balance.
waste
products.

Large 80S Large 80S

Ribosomes Small 70s ribosomes.
ribosomes ribosomes

Animal cells Lysosomes are

have many small and less in
lysosomes plant cells and
that contain are not needed A lysosome is absent in
Lysosomes digestive as they have a bacterial cells.
enzymes to rigid cell wall .
break down that protects
the molecules from foreign
and protect bodies that
 them from lysosomes
foreign digest.
bodies.

Mitochondria Present Present Absent

Animal cells
have
centrioles
located in the
cytoplasm
near the
nucleus. They Centrioles are Centrioles are not
Centrioles are made of absent in plant present in bacterial
microtubules cells. cells.
and their
major
function is to
assist the cell
division
process.

Animal cells Plant cells have

Golgi have larger small and larger There are no Golgi
apparatus and fewer numbers of bodies in bacteria.
Golgi bodies. Golgi bodies.

Animals
Plants make Bacteria can obtain
cannot
their food in the energy from the
produce their
Method of presence of decomposition of dead
food from
nutrition sunlight and organisms or by
simple
hence are called performing
inorganic
autotrophs. photosynthesis. They
substances
 like carbon- are both heterotrophs
di-oxide and and autotrophs.
water and
depend on
other
organisms for
food. Hence
they are
called
heterotrophs.

Present in plant
cells, they give
pigmentation
color and also
Plastids Absent Absent.
facilitate the
trapping of
sunlight for
photosynthesis.
 The ribosome is the only common organelle of animal, plant and
bacterial cells. The purpose of the ribosome is to synthesize proteins
by linking together amino acids according to the instruction specified
by the messenger RNA. The ribosomes in plant and animal cells are
larger then the ones in bacterial cells.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1

What is a Prokaryotic cell?

A prokaryotic cell is a primitive type of cell that is characterized by the
absence of a nucleus. Furthermore, prokaryotes do not possess membrane-
bound cellular organelles. Prokaryotes are exclusively unicellular.
Q2

What is a Eukaryotic cell?

Eukaryotic cells are cells that possess a true nucleus along with membrane-
bound organelles. Eukaryotes can either be unicellular or multicellular.
Q3

What is the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?

The defining characteristic feature that distinguishes between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cell is the nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, the true nucleus is
absent, moreover, membrane-bound organelles are present only
in eukaryotic cells.
Another major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that
prokaryotic cells are exclusively unicellular, while the same does not apply to
eukaryotic cells.
Q4

Define Cell?
The cell is the basic functional and structural unit of life. Cell plays a vital role
in all biological activities and include membrane-bound organelles, which
perform several individual functions to keep the cell alive and active.
Q5

What is Ribosome?
The ribosome is a multi-component cell organelle consisting of RNA and
protein. Therefore, it is called the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes are
present both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Compared to prokaryotes,
eukaryotes have larger ribosomes in their cells.
Q6
List out the unique features of Animal and Plant Cells.
Both animal and plant cells have several unique features. Listed below are
some important features:

• In structure, both animal and plant cells are quite similar.

• Both possess nucleus and plasma membrane, a selectively
permeable membrane of the cell.
• Both animal and plant cells include membrane-bound organelles with their
specialized functions.
• Animal and plant cells have vacuoles, which serve as the storage unit and
maintain the shape of the cell.
• Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. It stores and provide energy for
different cellular activities and is found both in both animal and plant cells.

Q7

List out the functions of Chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts are the plastids found in all plant cells. These cell organelles
comprise the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll and are involved in
synthesizing food by the process of photosynthesis.
Q8

Who discovered Cell and Cell Theory?

The cell was first discovered in the year 1665 by an English natural philosopher
Robert Hooke. The Cell Theory was explained by Theodor Schwann and
Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the year 1830.
 SPECIALISED CELLS

Where are cilia located? Motile cilia are located on the epithelial cells
of several internal organs such as lungs, trachea, digestive system,
etc. They are also found on the protozoans such as paramecium and
help them in locomotion. The non-motile cilia can be found in the
dendritic knob of the olfactory neuron.
 Specialised Animal Cells
GCSE Biology Cell Biology Specialised Animal Cells

Most animal cells are specialised. They have adaptations that help them perform specific functions.
Humans are made up of trillions of cells; however, there are only about 200 different types.
o The process in which cells become specialised is called differentiation
 Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body for aerobic respiration. They have no nucleus, so they
can contain more oxygen-carrying haemoglobin. As red blood cells have no nucleus, they also have
no DNA.
Also, red blood cells are a biconcave disc shape to make them more flexible and allow the cells to
move smoothly through the circulatory system. This shape also maximises the absorption of oxygen.

Nerve Cells
The function of nerve cells is to carry electrical impulses around the body. A nerve cell has a cell
body which contains most of the subcellular structures. There are extensions connected to the cell
body:
o Dendrites receive signals from other neurons and carry them inwards.
o Axons carry electrical impulses away from the cell body, so they can be received by other neurons.
The axon is covered in a fatty myelin sheath, which increases the speed of nerve impulses.
 Ciliated Epithelial Cells
Ciliated epithelial cells move particles or fluid over the epithelial surface. They are found in the lungs
and fallopian tubes. They have many cilia on the top surface of each cell.
o In the lungs, these cilia help move mucus out of the lungs
o In the fallopian tubes, they help with the movement of the egg cell toward the uterus
 Summary of cells

Structure

• Cells are the smallest units of living things. They are too small to be
seen with the naked eye, so we need to use microscopes to see their
structures.
 • Cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus. Plant cells
also have a cell wall, and oft en have chloroplasts and a
large vacuole containing cell sap.

• The cell membrane is partially permeable, and it controls what

enters and leaves the cell.

• The cytoplasm is a jelly-like solution of many different substances in

water. It is the site of many different metabolic reactions.

• The nucleus contains the chromosomes, which are made of DNA.

This is the genetic information and it controls the activities of the cell.

• The cell wall of a plant cell is made of criss-crossing fibres

of cellulose. It is fully permeable. It helps to support the cell,
and prevents the cell bursting if it absorbs a lot of water.

• The vacuole of a plant cell contains cell sap, which is a solution

of sugars and other substances in water.

• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs

sunlight for photosynthesis. There may be starch grains inside the
chloroplasts, which are the form in which plants store the food that
they make in photosynthesis.

• A tissue is a group of similar cells which work together to carry out a

particular function. Tissues are grouped into organs, and organs are
grouped into organ systems.

Movement in and out of cells

• Particles in gases, liquids and solutions are in constant random motion.

As a result of this, there is a net movement from where they are in
a high concentration to where they are in a low concentration.
This is diffusion.

• Diffusion is important to cells. For example, oxygen enters a

respiring cell by diffusion, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of it.

• Water molecules are small and can diffuse through a partially

permeable membrane. Larger molecules dissolved in the water
 cannot do this. The diffusion of water through a partially permeable
membrane is called osmosis.

• Osmosis is important to cells. In a dilute solution, water passes into

a cell through its partially permeable cell membrane. The cell gets
bigger. Animal cells may burst, but plant cells do not because of
their strong cell wall.

• In a concentrated solution, water passes out of a cell by osmosis

through its partially permeable membrane. The cell shrinks. Plant
cells may become plasmolysed – that is, the cell membrane pulls
away from the cell wall.

• A solution containing a lot of water is said to have a high water

potential. A solution containing only a little water has a low water
potential. Water moves by osmosis down a water potential
gradient, from a high water potential to a low water potential.

• Cells can use energy to move substances up their concentration

gradient, from a low concentration to a high concentration. This is
called active transport. It uses energy that the cells release
by respiration.

Cell structure
Most living things are made of cells. Cell shape varies according to its function. Plant and animal cells differ
in size, shape and structure (plants cells are usually larger than animal cells).

Similarities and differences between animal cell and plant cell

 Cell functions
Multicelullar plants and animals contain many different types of cell. Each type of cell is design for a
particular function.

Here are examples of cells and their functions in tissues.

1. Ciliated cells in respiratory tract

Features: tiny hairs called cilia which can move mucus.
Function: waft mucus with bacteria and dust away from the lungs.

3. Red blood cells

Features: have no nucleus, contain hemoglobin

Function: transport oxygen around the body

4. Root hair cell (plants)

 Features: the hair gives a large surface area
Function: absorb water and mineral ions; anchor the plant firmly in the soil

Tissues, Organs and organ Systems

Cells are organized to form tissue, organs, and organ systems. In a healthy
organism, all the systems work together.

Key definitions

• Organells: a structure within a cell (e.g. nucleus, vacuole, cytoplasm

and chloroplast are all organelles of a plant cell).
 • Tissue: a group of cells with similar structures, working together to
perform a shared function.
• Organ: a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to
perform specific functions.
• Organ system: a group of organs with related functions, working
together to perform body functions.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of

its higher concentration to a region of
its lower concentration. Molecules move down a concentration gradient,
as a result of their random movement.

For living cells, the principle of the movement down a concentration

gradient is the same, but there is one problem:

The cell is surrounded by a cell membrane, which can restrict the free
movement of the molecules --> This is a selective permeable
membrane: the composition of the membrane (lipid and protein) allows
some molecules to cross with ease, but others with difficulty or not at all.
The simplest sort of selection is based on the size of the molecules.

Importance of gaseous and solute diffusion

Diffusion helps living organisms to:

• obtain many of their requirements

 • get rid of many of their waste products
• gas exchange for respiration

Examples

• CO2 uses by plants for photosynthesis is diffuses from the air into the
leaves, through the stomata (pores at the surface of leaves). There is
a lower concentration of CO2 inside the leaf, as the cells are using it
up. O2 (waist product of photosynthesis diffuses out in the same way).
• Flowering plants use diffusion to attract pollinators like bees.
• Some of the products of digestion are absorbed from the ileum of
mammals by diffusion.
 Gas exchange between alveolar spaces and capillaries.

Factors favoring diffusion

• Distance (the shorter the better), e.g. thin walls of alveoli and
capillaries.
• Concentration gradient (the bigger the better). This can be
maintained by removing the substance as it passes across the diffusion
surface. (Think about oxygenated blood being carried away from the
surface of alveoli).
• Size of the molecules (the smaller the better).
• Surface area for diffusion (the larger the better).
• Temperature (molecules have more kinetic energy at higher
temperature).
Importance of water as a solvent

• Most cells contain about 75% of water.

• Many substances move around a cell dissolved in water.
• Many important reactions take place in water.
 Osmosis
Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of
its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration, through
a partially permeable membrane.

Osmosis is a special form of diffusion and always involves the movement

of H2O across a membrane. Osmosis is:

• the movement of H2O

• across a selectively permeable membrane
• down a water potential gradient.

In the picture below

- The concentration of sugar molecules is higher on

the concentrated solution (L) and lower on the diluted one (R).
- The concentration of water molecules is higher on the (R) and lower on
the (L) (a lot of place is taken up by sugar molecules).

It is confusing to talk about the 'concentration of water', so we can say

that a diluted solution (R) has a high water potential and a concentrated
solution (L) has a low water potential.

There is a water potential gradient between the 2 sides. The water

molecules diffuse down this gradient, from a high water potential (R) to a
low water potential (L).

Cell membranes

• partially permeable (let some substances pass through, but not

others).
• separate 2 solutions: cytoplasm and solution around the cell.
• If the solutions are of different concentrations, osmosis will occur.
Effect of Osmosis on plant and animal cells

1. When placed in H2O:

Concentration of H2O outside the cell is higher than inside it. Cells
will take in H2O by osmosis:

• plant cells become turgid (swollen) but do not burst (have

tough cell wall which is fully permeable).

• animal cells will burst (no cell wall).

2. When placed in concentrated sugar or salt solutions:

Concentration of H2O inside the cell is higher than outside it. H2O get
out of the cells by osmosis:

• plant cells become flaccid (soft and limp), cytoplasm is no longer

pressed against the cell wall. The plant loses it firmness and begin
to wilt.
• animal cells shrink, become crenated.

Common misconceptions

Sugar and salt do not move by osmosis. Cell membranes prevent them
entering or leaving the cell.

Try this

A potato was set up as shown in the figure below (left-hand side). The
investigation was left for several hours. The results are shown on the right-
hand side of the figure.

1. Describe what happened to

a. the water in the disk
b. the salt solution in the hollow in the
potato. [2 marks]

2.
a. Name the process that is responsible for the changes that have
occurred. [1 mark]

b. Explain why these changes have

occurred. [3 mark]

c. Where does this process occur in a

plant? [1 mark]

d. What is the importance to the plant of this

process? [1 mark]

Answers
1. a. The volume of water in the dish decreased.
b. The volume of salt solution in the potato increased.
2. a. Osmosis
b. 3 points from:
- there was a higher concentration of water in the dish than in the potato
- so water moved into the potato.
- from a high concentration of water to a lower concentration of water
- by osmosis.
c. Root hairs, or in the roots.
d. Osmosis enables the plant to absorb water to maintain cell turgidity (or to
replace water lost by transpiration).

Active trasport
Sometimes substances are required to be
moved against the Concentration Gradient, or faster than they would by
Passive Transport. In these cases, Active Processes are used, which
require energy.

There are many occasions when cells need to take in substances which are
only present in small quantities around them.

E.g. root hair cells in plants take in nitrate ions from the soil. Their
concentration are often higher inside the root hair cell than in the soil, so
the diffusion gradient is from the root hair à the soil. Despite this, the root
hair cells still can take nitrate ions in, by active transport.

This active transport

• requires energy as ATP from respiration to 'drive' the molecules

'uphill'
• is affected by factors
affecting respiration (temperature, O2 concentration)
The importance of active transport: energy-consuming process by which
substances are transported against a concentration gradient, e.g. ion uptake
by root hairs and glucose uptake by epithelial cells of villi.
 Two big differences between diffusion and active transport:

• direction of movement (down or up a gradient)

• use of energy for movement

The active transport is carried out by ‘carrier proteins’ in the membrane,

which bind to the solute molecule, change shape and carry the molecule
across the membrane.

Try this
Figure above shows root hair cells.

1. Explain how the presence of root hair cells on roots enables the
efficient absorption of water and minerals. [2 marks]
2. Root hair cells can absorb mineral ions by diffusion and active
transport.

a)Define the term active transport [2 marks]

b)Explain why respiration rates may increase in root hair cells during
the uptake of mineral ions [1 mark]

Answers

1. - Large number of root hair cells give a large surface area to the root.
- Mitochondria are present to provide energy for active transport.

2. a) active transport is absorption of a substance into a cell or across a

membrane
- against (up) a concentration gradient.
- using energy
b) active transport requires energy