SHELL MODEL:

L E
S

Soft ware :
Maintenance procedure , manuals , check list
Hard ware :
Tools , test equipment , physical structure of air craft.
Envioment :
Conditions in hanger, line
Live ware :
The person ,maintenance engineer ,supervisors

Human factors concentrate on the interface between human & element of SHEL
from safety view point
Explain SHELL MODEL & it is element can be deficint ?
S:
Misinteruuption of procedures , badely written manules , poor design , check list ,
difficulty to use computer soft ware
H:
Not enough tools , inappropartion equipment.
E:
Uncomfortable work place , inadequate hanger space , extreme temperature ,
excessive noise , poor lighting.
L:
Relationship with other people , shortage of manpower.

Incidents & accidents attributable to human factors/ errors:

Approximately 70% of all aircraft accidents were attributable to man performance "
human errors "

Maintenance & inspection dificienties are one of major contributary factors to

accidents 12%.

Series of human factors problem which formed error chain

If any one of the links in this chain had been broken by building in measures which
may have prevented a problem at one or more of these stages, These incidents may
have been prevented.
Murphy law:
There is a tendency among human being towards complacency. "If something can go
wrong , it will "

If everyone could be persuaded to acknowledge Murphy law, this might help

overcome the " it will never happen to me "

CHAPTEER 2

Human performance & limitations

Audiable frequency range that ayoung person can hear 20 hz : 20 khz with great
sensitivity 3 khz

Noise dose :
The combination of duration & intensity of noise

Exposure to any sound over 80db constitute noise dose and can be measured over the
day as an 8 hour Time Weighted Average (TWA) sound level .

Example :
Person subjected to 95 db for 3.5 hour , then 105 db for 0.5 hour , then 85 db for
4hour
TWA of 93.5 db which exceed the recommended maximum TWA of 90 db

Permanent hearing loss may occur if TWA is above the recommended maximum

It is normally accepted that TWA noise level exceeding 85 db for 8 h is hazardous &
potentially damaging to inner ear.

Exposure to noise in excess of 115 db without ear protection even for short duration
is not recommended.

Noise level can be reduced by 20db using ear plugs, and 40 db using ear muffs.

Protection should always be used for noise, using some form of hearing protection
when in reasonably close proximity
(200:300 m) to A/C whose engines are running.

Routine test:
Ability to hear an average conversational voice in a quite room at a distance of 2 m (6
feet), Failure of this test would require audiogram be carried.

Information process
Process of receiving information through the sense analy zing it & making it
meaningful.
Attention
Having detected information, our mental resources are concentrated on specific
element.
Perception
Process assembling sensations into a useable mental representation of the world
Concentration of mental efforts on sensory or mental events.
State the three formes of memory ?
1- Ultra short term memory (up to 2 sec .).

2- Short term memory (10:20 sec store small amount of information at one time
).
3- Long term memory ( unlimited ).

Motor programmes
If tasks is performed often enough,it may eventually became automatic .Required
skills &action are stored inlong term memory.
The use of motor programme reduces the load on the central decision maker.,allow us
to carry out simultaneous activites.
Situation awareness
The synthesis of an accurate and up to- date mental model of one is environment &
state and the ability to use this to make predictions of possible future states.
For AME can be summarized as :
1- Status of systems the engineer is working on.

2- Possible effect on this work on other system.

3- The effect of this work on that being done by others & effect of their work on
this work.
4- Relationship between reported defect & the intended rectification.

* It is generally better to use manuals and temporary aids memories rather

than to rely upon memory.
Claustrophobia:
Abnormal fear of being in an enclosed space.
Not apparent at the start of employment, it may come about for the first time
because of an incident when working within a confined space.

CHAPTER THREE Social Environment

Organization Culture:
Every organization or company employing A/C maintenance engineers will have
different "ways of doing things" They will have their own company philosophy,
policies, producers, selection & training criteria & quality assurance methods.

Responsibility:
If someone is considered responsible, they are liable to be called to account as
being in charge or control of or answerable for something.
Responsibility should be spread across all those who play apart in the activity
- Accountable manger, management, supervisors.

- Teams of engineer.
 - Flight crew also play apart as they are responsible for carrying out preflight
checks &work around & high lighting A/C fault to maintenance personnel.

Compare between Individual & Group responsibility?

Advantage Disadvantage
Individual Engineer understands Cleary Emphasis upon personal
Responsibility that one or more tasks have been responsibility.
assigned to him , also can be The importance of working together
strong incentive to an engineer as a cohesive team or group to
to do work correctly achieve goals
Group Each member of group ought to It can potentially act against safety
Responsibility feel responsible for output of to such an extent that no-one feels
that group and work towards personally responsible for safety.
ensuring that the whole product
is safe.

Diffusion Reponsibility:
no-one feels personally responsible for safety

What is the difference between Group polarization & Social loafing ?

Group Polarization:
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual
members initial positions (Risky shift, Group think).
Social Loafing
The tendency for some individual to work less hard on task when they believe others
are working on it.
Responsibility is an Important issue in A/C maintenance & ought to be addressed
not only by licensing regulation & procedures , but also by eduction &
training, Attempting to engender a culture of shared , but not diffused
responsibility.

State definition of Peer Pressure?

Actual or perceived pressure which an individual may feel to confirm to what he
believes that his peers or colleagues expect.
Conformity:
The tendency to allow one is opinion , attitudes , actions and even perception to be
effected by prevailing opinions , attitudes , actions and perception.

Degree of individual view affected by peer pressure depend on:

-Culture
-Gender
- Self-esteem
- Familiarity of the individual with the subject matter.
- The expertise of the group members.
- The relationship between the individual & group members

Countering peer pressure and conformity:

a- Individual airs their views puplicly from the outset.
 b- Organization has to engender a positive approach to safety through out their
work force.

Group or Organization culture:

The way we do things here, it is a group or company norm.

Safety Culture:
Set of beliefs, norms attitudes, roles and social and technical practices concerned
with minimizing exposure of employees managers, customers and members of the
general public to conditions considered dangerous or hazardous.

The concepts of team

May comprise a number of individuals working together towards one shared goal.
Number of individuals working in parallel to achieve one commen goal.

Advantage (working as part of team has number of potential benefits )

- Individual can share resources.

- They can discuss problems and arrive at shared solutions.

- They can check each others work.
Importance Element of team working
a- Communication

Team leader must ensure that a team member has not just heard an instruction,
but understood what is meant by it, a team leader must high light problems to
his colleagues and /or team leader.
b- Co-operation
Fairness and openness within the team encourage cohesiveness and mutual
respect, disagreement must be handeled sensitively by the team leader.
C- Mutual support
The heart of the team s identity, The team leader must engender this in his
team.
e.g
If mistakes are made , these should be discussed & corrected constructively.
Managers and supervisors have a key role to play in ensuring that work is carried out
safely,
It is no good instilling the engineers & technicians with good safety , practice
concepts, if these are not supported by their supervisors and managers.
Characterstics of leader
The person officially assigned the team leader role, an individual within a group that
the rest of the group tend to follow
A leader in a given situation is a person whose idea & actions influence the thought
&the behavior of others.
Mention theQualities of good leader?
1- Motivating his team

2- Reinforcing good attitudes

3- Demonstrating by example
4- Maintaining the group
5- Fulfilling a management role.
Maintenance Resources Management MRM
Is not about addressing the individual human factors of the engineer or his manger
rather, it looks at the larger system of human factors, concerns involving engineers ,
mangers and others , working together to promote safety.

The Dirty Dozen

12 areas of potential problem in human factors
Problem Example Potential Solutions
Lack of Use logbooks ,Worksheets
Communication Discuss work to be done or what has been completed
Distraction Use a detailed check sheet
Lack of team work Be sure that everyone understands and agrees
Fatigue Be aware of the symptoms and look for them in yourself and
others.
Plan to avoid complex tasks at the bottom of your circadian
rhythm.
Sleep and exercise regularly
Ask others to check your work
Pressure Communicate your concerns.
Ask for extra help.
Just say No.
Stress Ask fellow workers to monitor your work.
Lack of awareness Think of what may occur in the event of an accident.
Ask others if they can see any problem with the work done.
CHAPTER FOUR
Stress:
Any force that when applied to a system, causes some significant modification of its
form, where forces can be physical, psychological or due to social pressure.
Kinds of Time pressure due to dead line
1- Actual pressure

2- Perceived
3- Self imposed
Time Pressure cause problem.
A/C maintenance engineer have 2 driving forces
a- The dead lines handed down to them.
b- The responsibilities to carry out a safe job.

The potential conflict between these 2 driving pressure can cause problems

Effect of time pressure & dead line

Excessive time pressure mean due care and attention when carrying out tasks
diminishes & more errors will be made.

Managing Time Pressure & dead line:

1- Prioritizing various pieces of work that need to be done

2- The actual time available to carry out work

3- The personnel available throughout the whole job
4- The most appropriate utilization of staff
5- Availability of parts and spares.
Arousal:
Sense refers to readiness of person for performing work , to achieve an optimum
level of task performance.
It is necessary to have a certain level of stimulation or arousal.
Advantages of shift work:
1- More days off.

2- Avoiding peak traffic.

Disadvantages of shift work:
1- Working when human performance is known to be poor ( 4 am to 6 am )

2- Working unsociable hours.

Shift handover is potentially an area where human errors can occur., Whilst longer
shift may result in greater fatigue.
Good Rule of thumb is:
One hour of high quality sleep is good for 2 h of activities.

CHAPTER 5
Noise:
The noise environment in which AME works can vary considerably
It isn't unusual for this to exceed 85 db -90 db which can cause hearing damage if the
time of exposure is prolonged.
It is very important that AME remain aware of the extent of the noise around them. It
is likely that some form of hearing protection should be carried with them at all times
and , as a rule of thumb, used when remaining in an area where normal speech cannot
be heard clearly at 2 meters.
Climate and temperature
Good performance ( Warm / Dry )
Confined Spaces
Claustrophobia being a problem in AME working in any confined space, Good
illumination & ventilation within the confined space will reduce any feeling of
discomfort
AME requires 3 components ( physical environment , social environment ,tasks ) of
the working environment to be managed carefully in order to achieve a safe &
efficient system.
Good maintenance organizations do their best to support this dedication by providing
the necessary conditions for safe and efficient work.

CHAPTER 6
Tasks
Information about specific tasks should be detailed on
Job cards or task sheets
The job of shift supervisors:
Ensure that the resources are available for his staff to carry out their tasks.
Management have responsibility to ensure that their engineer have suitable training.
The main danger with repetitive tasks is that engineers may become so practiced at
such tasks that they may cease to consult the maintenance manual, complacency is
also danger

CHAPTER 7
Communication
Verbal & written communication
Speaking, verbal and written communication are purposeful
For spoken or written message to be understood, the sender has to make sure that:
1- Using the same channel of communication

2- Recognizes & understands his language

3- Able to make sense of the message meaning

The channel of communication is the medium used to convey the message. For
spoken communication, this might be face-to – face ,or via the telephone.
Spoken communication rely on:
◼ Clear transmission of the message

◼ Ability of the recipient of the message to hear it

Information communicated at shift handover ensures good continuity. it is important
that handovers are not rushed.
Problems with assumptions can be minimized if messages are unambiguous and
proper feedback is given
Basic rules of thumb to help AME minimize poor communication are:
◼ Think about what you want to say before speaking or writing.
 ◼ Speak or write clearly
◼ Listen or read carefully
◼ Seek clarification wherever necessary

The engineer needs to keep his knowledge and skills up-to-date. To maintain his
currency he must keep abreast of pertinent information relating to
◼ New A/C types

◼ New technologies
◼ New tools and maintenance practices
◼ Modifications to current A/C and systems he works on
◼ Revised maintenance procedures and practices

Engineers are likely to keep up-to- date by:

1- Undertaking update courses
2- Reading briefing material , memos and bulletins
3- Studying maintenance manuals amendments

Responsibility for maintaining currency lies with both the individual engineer
and the maintenance organization for which he works.

Good dissemination of information within an organization forms part of its

safety culture..

Chapter 8
Human Error :
Error will be taken as a generic term to encompass all those occasions in
which a planned sequence of mental or physical activities fails to achieve its
intended outcome, and when these failure cannot be attributed to the
intervention of some chance agency.

Constant errors may be predicted and therefore controlled.

If we know enough about the nature of task, the environment it is performed in
, the mechanisms governing performance, and the nature of the individual, we
have a great chance of predicting an error.
Lapses are missed actions and omissions,
i.e. . :
When somebody has failed to do something due to lapses of memory and / or
attention or because they have forgotten something ( forgotten to replace an
engine cowling ).

Violations sometimes appear to be human errors, but they differ from slips,
lapses and mistakes because they are illegal actions.

Examples of skill-based errors

Action slip , Environmental capture , Reversion

Environmental capture may occur when an engineer carries out a certain task
very frequently in a certain location.
Explain reason Swiss cheese Model & kind of failure in it ?
Reason has highlighted the concept of defenses against human error within an
organization
Defenses are
( decision makers , line management, preconditions , productive activates )
Failures are
( latent failure , active failure )
The more holes in system defenses , the more errors result.

Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks

1- An error that results in a specific A/C problem that was not there
before the maintenance task was initiated.
2- An error that result in an unwanted or unsafe condition remaining
undetected while performing maintenance task designed to detect A/C
problem

Mention the four Types of violations?

1- Routine violations
2- Situational violations
3- Optimizing violations
4- Exceptional violations
Reasons Study of AME
1- Omissions (56% )
2- Incorrect installation ( 30 % )
3- Wrong parts ( 8% )
4- Others ( 6%)
Omissions can occur for a verity of reasons , such as forgetting deviation from
procedure

All Maintenance incidents have to be reported to the UK Civil Aviation

Authority Mandatory Occurrence Reporting Scheme (MORS )

Error management seek to :

1- Prevent errors from occurring.
2- Eliminate the bad effects of errors.

To prevent errors from occurring , it is necessary to predict where they are

most likely to occur and then to put I place preventative measures,
Incidents reporting schemes MORS
Within maintenance organization, data on errors, incidents and accidents
should be captured with Safety Management System SMS

Physical Hazards may include:

1- Very bright light
2- Very loud sounds
3- Enclosed areas
4- Working at significant heights
5- Noxious substances
6- Excessive temperature
7- Moving equipment

Every AME should be aware that he can influence the safety of those with
whom he works.