What is a Webpage?

Common Issues with Web Pages: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Dynamic Websites
A webpage is a document written in HTML and can be viewed on Performance Issues: The Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) is a generic stateless presentation
any web browser. It is contained within the web server, which can Slow loading times due to large images, excessive JavaScript, or inefficient code. layer protocol with elements from other Internet presentation layer protocols. Dynamic Website is a website containing data that can be mutable or changeable. It uses client-side or server scripting to generate mutable content. L
be accessed by entering the URL for that web page, and once it is Lack of browser caching or compression techniques. The HTTP protocol is built on a client-server model where the client initiates a static website, it also contains HTML data.
loaded, it appears on the user's web browser. Each webpage is Cross-browser Compatibility: request and the server replies with a response. Dynamic websites are those websites that changes the content or layout with every request to the webserver. These websites have the capability of
linked with a unique URL; hence two pages cannot have the same Pages may render differently across various browsers and devices. The basic format of the HTTP protocol is based on the MIME Protocol with a producing different content for different visitors from the same source code file. There are two kinds of dynamic web pages i.e. client side scripting an
URL. Requires thorough testing and use of CSS prefixes or polyfills. set of HTTP Headers possibly followed by a message body containing a data server side scripting. The client-side web pages changes according to your activity on the web page. On the server-side, web pages are changed whene
A webpage may contain text, links for other pages, graphics, Accessibility Concerns: object in any 7-bit or 8-bit accepted by the client. The client specifies what data web page is loaded.
videos, etc. Moreover, it is mainly used to provide information to Inadequate support for screen readers and keyboard navigation. format it can handle by having a list of accept headers in the request. Example: login & signup pages, application & submission forms, inquiry and shopping cart pages.
the user in text, images, etc. Insufficient color contrast or missing alternative text for images. The basic WWW-model indicates that the client initiates a request and the A Typical Architecture of dynamic website
A webpage is a part of a website; it means a website contains Security Vulnerabilities: server responds by sending a data object to the client. However, often the client
different web pages. Such as javaTpoint.com is a website, and the Exposure to XSS (Cross-Site Scripting) attacks, SQL injection, or insecure data wants to post a data object to the server, e.g. to post a mail message to an email There are different languages used to create dynamic web pages like PHP, ASP, .NET and JSP. Whenever a dynamic page loads in browser, it reques
page currently you are accessing is the webpage. It can be transmission. address, to a news group, or to create a new file on the remote server. The database to give information depending upon user’s input. On receiving information from the database, the resulting web page is applied to the user af
understood as an example of a book. So, a Website is like a Lack of HTTPS encryption or improper handling of user authentication. HTTP protocol provides two methods for the client to transfer a data object to applying the styling codes.
complete book, and a webpage is like a page of that book.

SEO (Search Engine Optimization) Challenges: the server. Though, the client is not guaranteed that the request can be fulfilled - Features of dynamic webpage:
The WWW or Internet contains millions of web pages, and daily, a Poorly structured HTML or missing meta tags can affect search engine rankings. even on a successful return code. The action can at all times be cancelled by the These websites are very flexible.
lot is being added. Tim Berners-Lee developed the first webpage.

Lack of mobile-friendliness may impact visibility in search results. responsible person of the remote server. In these websites the content can be quickly changed on the user’s computer without new page request to the web browser.
Let's understand some basic terms that are used with Webpage: Tiers of Web Pages: One of the characteristics of the HTTP protocol is that it is a superset of the In these websites the owner have the ability to simply update and add new content to the site.
WebSite: A website is a collection of several web pages. These

web development, "tiers" typically refer to the layers or components of a web other Presentation Layer supported by the WWW-model. This means that These websites are featured with content management system, e-commerce system and intranet or extranet facilities.
pages are linked together with hyperlinks. A website has a unique application's architecture. These tiers work together to create a functional and interactive messages generated by other protocols can be handled by the HTTP protocol by Most of the dynamic web content, is assembled on the web using server-scripting languages.
domain name, and we can access it by entering that domain name

web experience. Here are the common tiers of web pages: wrapping a set of HTTP/MIME headers around the message. This is an Advantages of dynamic webpage:
in the URL. Presentation Tier (Frontend): essential feature for the concept of Proxy servers. It provides more functional websites.
Search Engine: A search engine is an internet service that helps

This tier deals with the user interface and presentation of the web page. The current version 1.0 of the HTTP protocol is built on top of the TCP It is very easy to update.
users find any information available on the internet. Some Technologies like HTML, CSS, and JavaScript are used to create the layout, styles, and Protocol that is a connection oriented protocol with a 3 way It helps in the search engines because new content brings people back to the site.
examples of search engines are Google, Yahoo, Bing, It is usually

interactivity. handshake connection establishment. This causes an substantial overhead in a These are interactive websites because these can be customized.
accessed with the help of Web browser. Frameworks and libraries such as React.js, Angular, or Vue.js are often employed to build client-server oriented environment like the HTTP protocol. It would therefore These websites can work as a system to allow staff or users to collaborate.
Web Browser: A web browser or simply browser is application

dynamic and responsive user interfaces. be an excessive optimization if the HTTP protocol was moved to a lighter It’s easy to modify or update data.
software used to access the internet. Some examples of Web Logic Tier (Backend): Transport Layer protocol such as the Transactional TCP Protocol which still It provides a user-friendly interactive interface for users.
browsers are Google Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer,

The logic tier, also known as the backend, handles the application's business logic, data provides a reliable stream transport service. proves smooth navigation.
Safari, etc. It does two things: processing, and server-side operations. web Client and Server provide interactive user interface
It connects to a web server on the internet and requests a page

It interacts with the presentation tier to serve dynamic content and handle user requests. web Client It provides a better user experience.
that the user wants to view; once it finds that page, it displays it on Technologies like server-side scripting languages (e.g., Node.js, Python, Ruby, PHP) and A client can be a device or a machine. It provides real-time data.
its device. frameworks (e.g., Express.js, Django, Ruby on Rails) are used to build the backend logic. A client program runs on the local machine, requesting service from the
It can interpret the set of HTML tags within a page to display the server. A client program is a finite program means that the service is

Data Tier (Database): Disadvantages of dynamic webpages:
page in the correct format. The data tier involves managing and storing the application's data. started by the user and terminates when the service is completed. For These types of websites are complex.
Webserver: A web server can be understood as a computer that instance, web browser.

Databases, such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, or Firebase, are used to store These are more expensive to develop.
hosts or provide a website on the internet. It contains webserver structured data. A client device is a machine that the end-user uses to access the web. Hosting of these websites is also costlier.
software and component files of a website such as HTML Examples of clients are smartphones, desktops, laptops, etc.

The backend interacts with the data tier to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) It requires a rapid, high-end web server.
document, images, CSS stylesheet, and JS files. operations and retrieve data for presentation to users. It is simple and less powerful and used for simple tasks. It has a basic high production costs.
HTML: HTML is an abbreviation of Hyper-Text Markup hardware configuration. Clients are categorized into thin client, fat client,

Infrastructure Tier: Slow to load content.
Language. A markup language is a computer language that The infrastructure tier encompasses the deployment, hosting, and scaling of the web and hybrid client. Thin client is lightweight and relies on the resources Client will require a skilled programmer to build a dynamic website.
specifies how a page should be formatted. With the help of HTML, of the host computer. A fat client (or thick client) lightly relies on the

application. Hosting a website is costly as compared to a dynamic website.
one can specify fonts, colors, images, headings, and everything Cloud service providers like AWS (Amazon Web Services), Azure, or Google Cloud server and provides rich functionality. A hybrid client is the combination Low speed compared to a static website
that he wants to display on a page displayed by the browser. Platform offer infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) solutions for hosting web applications. of the characteristics of a thin client and a thick client.
Characteristics of a Web Page Tools like Docker and Kubernetes are used for containerization and orchestration, Web Server Application Of Dynamic Website:
Following are some characteristics of a Web page: enabling easier deployment and scaling of web applications. A Here is a list of application where we use dynamic website over static website
A simple webpage can be created very quickly. These tiers work together to ensure that web applications are functional, scalable, and server
It takes very little time to create a webpage compared to a
Website.
maintainable. Each tier has its own technologies, tools, and considerations, and they
collectively contribute to delivering a seamless user experience on the web.
is like
a  Online booking system:

 E-commerce website.
A web page and a website should be compatible with any device, comparisons of Microsoft and java technologies Voting or polls,
such as Mobile, Desktop, Laptop, etc. compare Microsoft technologies with Java technologies across various aspects:
 Forums
The search engine provides a web page through a link, and when Language and Ecosystem: E-newsletter.
a user clicks on that link, it is redirected to the webpage of a Microsoft Technologies (C#, .NET):
website. C#: Developed by Microsoft, C# is a statically typed, object-oriented programming Real-life application:
A webpage can have any type of information including videos, and language designed for building robust and scalable applications. Here is a list of application where we use dynamic website in real world.
audios. .NET Framework/.NET Core: Microsoft's .NET framework is a software development
It can be made up of only HTML(Hypertext Markup Language), or

platform that supports multiple programming languages, including C#. It provides
CSS, or JavaScript for dynamic and attractive behavior. libraries, tools, and runtime for developing and running applications. Facebook


Difference between a Webpage and a Website Java Technologies: Twitter
Since both Websites and Web pages are related to each other, Java: Developed by Sun Microsystems (now owned by Oracle), Java is a versatile, object- LinkedIn
some users may use them interchangeably, but they are much computer program, which is used to provide functionality to other

oriented programming language known for its platform independence and write-once- Online booking website.
different from each other. The basic difference between them is run-anywhere paradigm. programs. It can be any computerized process called by a client to Social media
that webpage is a single web document, whereas a Website is Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE): The core platform for developing and distribute the work and share the resources. DHTML Introduction
a collection of different web pages. Here are some more deploying Java applications. It receives and responds to requests made over a network. Server DHTML, or Dynamic HTML, is a technology that differs from traditional HTML. DHTML combines HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and the Document O
differences between both of them: Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) / Jakarta EE: A set of specifications and APIs receives the request from the client for a web document, and it sends Model (DOM) to create dynamic content. It uses the Dynamic Object Model to modify settings, properties, and methods. Scripting is also an essential
for building enterprise-level applications, including web services and distributed systems. the requested information to the client's computer. component of DHTML, which was part of earlier computing trends. It is supported by some versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer 4.0
Development Tools and IDEs: A device can be both a client and a server at the same time, as an higher.
Website Webpage Microsoft Technologies: individual system has the ability to provide resources and use them from
Visual Studio: Microsoft's integrated development environment (IDE) for Windows, another system in one go. In a single machine, there can be multiple HTML: HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language and it is a client-side markup language. It is used to build the block of web pages.
macOS, and Linux, providing comprehensive tools for building various types of servers. Javascript: It is a Client-side Scripting language. Javascript is supported by most of browsers, and also has cookie collection to determine the user’s n
applications using languages like C# and F#. Server has high efficiency and performance. Simultaneous multiple-user CSS: The abbreviation of CSS is Cascading Style Sheet. It helps in the styling of the web pages and helps in designing of the pages. The CSS rules fo
A website is a collection of A webpage is a single Visual Studio Code: A lightweight, cross-platform code editor with support for various login and request processing are supported in servers. Some of the DHTML will be modified at different levels using JS with event handlers which adds a significant amount of dynamism with very little code.
different web pages that are hypertext document. programming languages and extensions, including C# and .NET Core. complex tasks like fulfilling client requests, storing and processing large DOM: It is known as a Document Object Model which acts as the weakest link in it. The only defect in it is that most of the browsers does not suppor
linked together with Java Technologies: datasets, data analysis are common for servers. DOM. It is a way to manipulate the static content.
hyperlinks. Eclipse: A widely used open-source IDE primarily for Java development, but also supports DHTML is not a technology; rather, it is the combination of three different technologies, client-side scripting (JavaScript or VBScript), cascading styl
other languages through plugins. There can be various types of servers: web server, application server, sheets and document object model.
IntelliJ IDEA: A popular commercial IDE developed by JetBrains, offering powerful database server, cloud server, file server, proxy server, mail server, and
features for Java development and support for other languages as well. many more.
It consists of more than one It is a single document Web Development: The basic difference between the client and server is that client relies on
webpage. that is displayed on the Microsoft Technologies: the services of the server, whereas the server authorizes the client's
user's browser. ASP.NET: Microsoft's web application framework for building dynamic web applications requests and facilitates them with the requested services. Servers can
and services using C# or other .NET languages. store and analyze the large data sets, whereas clients are not suited for
ASP.NET Core: An open-source, cross-platform version of ASP.NET, supporting modern such tasks.
web development practices and running on Windows, macOS, and Linux. Most of the servers are never turned off; they are always on. Switching
To develop a website, To develop a webpage, off servers may be disastrous for client systems that continuously
developers need more skills developers need basic Java Technologies:
JavaServer Pages (JSP): A technology used for developing web pages with dynamic request the services. Whereas the client systems can be switch off
and more time compared to HTML knowledge and without any fear.
a webpage. less time. content using Java.
Spring Framework: A comprehensive framework for building enterprise Java applications, Client v/s Server Note: Many times DHTML is confused with being a language like HTML but it is not. It must be kept in mind that it is an interface or browsers
offering features for web development, dependency injection, and more. the comparison between client and server. We are comparing both enhancement feature which makes it possible to access the object model through Javascript language and hence make the webpage more interactive.
Community and Support: terms based on some characteristics. Key Features:
A website is accessed
through its domain name,
A webpage is accessed
through a unique URL
Microsoft Technologies:
Microsoft has a large community of developers and extensive documentation and
 Tags and their properties can be changed using DHTML.


and it does not include any with some extension. Client Server It is used for real-time positioning.
support resources for its technologies, including forums, documentation, and tutorials. Dynamic fonts can be generated using DHTML.
extension in the URL. Java Technologies:
 It is also used for data binding.
Java boasts a vast community of developers worldwide, with abundant resources, forums, It makes a webpage dynamic and be used to create animations, games, applications along with providing new ways of navigating through we
and documentation available. Oracle, along with various organizations and communities,

Client relies on the services Server authorizes the client's The functionality of a webpage is enhanced due to the usage of low-bandwidth effect by DHTML.
It can contain information It can contain provides support and updates for Java technologies. DHTML also facilitates the use of methods, events, properties, and codes.
Platform and Ecosystem Lock-In: of server, and generates requests and facilitates them
for different entities, such information for a single requests for various with the requested services. DHTML DHTML makes a webpage dynamic but Javascript also do
as Javatpoint.com, which entity, such as currently Microsoft Technologies: question arises that what different does DHTML do? So the answer is that DHTML has the ability to change a webpages look, content and st
Development using Microsoft technologies often ties developers to the Windows services.
contains information about viewing a web page once the document has loaded on our demand without changing or deleting everything already existing on the browser’s webpage. DHTML c
different technologies. containing information platform and Microsoft ecosystem, though efforts like .NET Core aim to increase cross- change the content of a webpage on demand without the browser having to erase everything else, i.e. being able to alter changes on a webpag
about this page only. platform compatibility. after the document has completely loaded. Advantages:
Java Technologies: The configuration of client The configuration of the server Size of the files are compact in compared to other interactional media like Flash or Shockwave, and it downloads faster. It is supported b
Java's platform independence allows applications to run on any platform supporting the systems is simple. Their is more complex and browser manufacturers like Microsoft and Netscape.
Java Virtual Machine (JVM), reducing platform lock-in and promoting portability. tasks are limited to sophisticated. Server has Highly flexible and easy to make changes.
It is a little challenging to It is very simple to World-Wide Web Model generating requests. It has advanced hardware
create a perfect website and create a webpage. Viewer requires no extra plug-ins for browsing through the webpage that uses DHTML, they do not need any extra requirements or special software t
The basic idea behind the World-Wide Web is based on a client server application and a basic hardware configuration. it.
requires lots of hypertext documents as illustrated in the figure below. The model is simplified in that it configuration.
programming. User time is saved by sending less number of requests to the server. As it is possible to modify and replace elements even after a page is loaded, it is n
only contains elements that exists within the World-Wide Web concept. Later the model required to create separate pages for changing styles which in turn saves time in building pages and also reduces the number of requests that are sent t
will be expanded to a generic resource accessing model. server.
The efficiency of client is The performance of server is It has more advanced functionality than a static HTML. it is capable of holding more content on the web page at the same time.
Some examples of the Some examples of limited. high, and they are highly Disadvantages: It is not supported by all the browsers. It is supported only by rece
website are Javatpoint.com, Webpages are the efficient. browsers such as Netscape 6, IE 5.5, and Opera 5 like browsers. Learning of DHTML requires a lot of pre-requisites languages such a
Amazon.com, etc. currently viewing page, HTML, CSS, JS, etc should be known to the designer before starting with DHTML which is a long and time-consuming in itself. Implementation
different browsers are different. So if it worked in one browser, it might not necessarily work the same way in another browser.Even after being great
 functionality, DHTML requires a few tools and utilities that are some expensive. For example, the DHTML text editor, Dreamweaver. Along with it t
contact page, The Client The common tasks for The complex tasks like fulfilling improvement cost of transferring from HTML to DHTML makes cost rise much higher. Difference between HTML and DHTML:
registration page, the The client is the user's interface to the client are simple and client requests, storing and HTML is a markup language while DHTML is a collection of technologies.
home page, etc. Internet. Whatever type of service mostly include requesting processing large datasets, data HTML is used to create static webpages while DHTML is capable of creating dynamic webpages.
requested this interface stays the services. analysis are common for DHTML is used to create animations and dynamic menus but HTML not used.
same, so users do not need to server. HTML sites are slow upon client-side technologies whereas DHTML sites are comparatively faster.
How does a Web Page Work? understand the differences between Web pages created using HTML are rather simple and have no styling as it uses only one language whereas DHTML uses HTML, CSS, and Javascrip
A simple web page is created using HTML, which is a markup the many different access schemes in which results in a much better and way more presentable webpage.
language. However, we can also use CSS and JavaScript to add common use on the Internet. This HTML cannot be used as server side code but DHTML used as server side code.
more functionalities and make it more attractive. principle is the same as is seen from The client systems can be Switching off servers may be DHTML needs database connectivity but not in case of HTML.
It is created using HTML, hence containing different markup tags other popular applications such as switch off without any fear. disastrous for client systems Files in HTML are stored using .htm or .html extension while DHTML uses .dhtm extension.
that specify how the data should be formatted on screen. Microsoft Windows, Machintosh etc. that continuously request the HTML requires no processing from the browser but DHTML does
The webpage is contained within the webserver. To load this where the user is always presented to services.
webpage, a client sends the request to the server, and generally, the same GUI interface.
the browser is known as the client, which can request the page on Uniform Resource Identifier URI
the internet. The user initiates a request by specifying a Uniform Resource Identifier or a "hyperlink".
The web browser requests the page on the internet. Once it is There can be single user Server support multiple user
This link can specify any accessible information or resource on the Internet as long as it logins. login and request processing
responded to by the server, the browser interprets the markup can be uniquely identified as an object. The word "Web" refers to the combination of
tags and displays them on the user's screen in the correct format. simultaneously.
accessible objects and the links pointing to them throughout the Internet.
The Server
The server is responsible for handling the request sent from the client. This can either be a
local accessible resource or the server can request the resource from another server in Examples of clients are Examples of servers are web
which case the first server temporarily turns into a client.
Hypertext Transport Protocol HTTP smartphones, desktops, servers, file servers, database
The client sends of the user request to a WWW server using the Hypertext Transfer laptops, etc. servers, etc.
Protocol (HTTP). This is a typical client-server application based on a stateless connection
between the client requesting the URI and the server handling the request. JavaScript Operators
Hypertext Markup Language HTML JavaScript operators are symbols that are used to perform operations on operands. For example:
On a successful request, a data object is returned from the server to the client. The object is var sum=10+20;
written in the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) which is a hypertext language with Here, + is the arithmetic operator and = is the assignment operator.
the possibility of containing hyperlinks that the user can follow. There are following types of operators in JavaScript.
The model basically reflects the first version of the World-Wide Web as it is described in  Arithmetic Operators
The browser sends the request for a page or a file via an HTTP the HTTP Protocol version 0.9 and HTML version 1.0. However, the WWW specifications  Comparison (Relational) Operators
request. The HTTP is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol, a network have been rapidly changing during the last 3-4 years, even though the current model is still  Bitwise Operators
protocol that allows transferring hypermedia documents over the based on a client-server approach. From being a HTML and HTTP based model, the  Logical Operators
internet between a browser and server. World-Wide Web is now capable of handling virtually any existing data format on the  Assignment Operators
Once the request reaches the server, the HTTP server accepts the Internet using a large set of access methods apart from HTTP such as FTP, Gopher, WAIS,  Special Operators
request, finds the requested page, and sends it back to the Telnet etc. In other words, the World-Wide Web represents a generic information
browser through the HTTP response. If a server is unable to find exchange tool capable of accessing information throughout the Internet. Though, before JavaScript Arithmetic Operators
the requested page, it returns a 404 response. the more advanced model is presented, it is necessary to get an overview of the basic Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations on the operands. The following operators are known as JavaScript arithm
Types of a Web page elements in the WWW model mentioned above. operators.
There are mainly two types of a Web page based on functionality: Universal Resource Identifies
Static Webpage In order to address a data object or more general, a resource, in the model above it is
Dynamic Webpage necessary to define a name space that not only contains information about hosts but also Operator Description
Static Webpage about resources available on each host. The World-Wide Web model defines Uniform
Static webpages are those webpages that cannot be modified or Resource Identifiers or URIs that specifies a syntax for encoding the names and addresses
altered by the client. These are also known as stationary or flat of data objects on the Internet and how they can be accessed. The set of URIs covers
web pages. They are displayed on the client's browser in the same + Addition
format and manner as they are saved in the webserver. Users can Universal Resource Identifier (URI)
only load the page and read the information but cannot perform A generic set of all addresses in the address space of all resources on the Internet. They
any change on the page. describe a hierarchical naming scheme that together with the HTTP protocol makes a
- Subtraction
A static webpage is generally made up of HTML and CSS only. significant difference between the World-Wide Web model and other Internet access
Dynamic Webpage schemes such as FTP that has a flat address space.
As the name suggests, Dynamic webpages are dynamic, which Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
means it shows different information at different point of time. The term "URI" has been introduced by the IETF and is a a general description of all URL * Multiplication
The dynamic webpage shows different content each time it is that are not persistent. In practice the URLs consist of the current set of Internet protocols
viewed. There are two types of Dynamic web pages, which are: supported by the WWW, i.e, HTTP, FTP, Gopher, WAIS, etc., followed by a directory
Server-Side Dynamic Webpage: These web pages are created path, a file name, and possibly a search directive.
/ Division
using Server-side scripting. These pages are changed when they Uniform Resource Name (URN)
are visited or viewed. Some examples of server-side pages are However, the ultimate goal for URIs is to be a persistent naming scheme independent of
login pages, submission forms, shopping carts, etc. Various the mean of access, i.e., the protocol used and of the physical structure of resources on the
scripting languages such as PHP, ASP.Net, JSP, etc., can be used specific host. The only way to obtain this is to have a naming scheme like the Internet % Modulus (Remainder)
for server-side scripting. Domain Name Service. URNs are currently under consideration in IETF but little is known
Client-side Dynamic Webpage: These web pages are created about the status of the research.
using Client-side scripting. These pages get changed in response Uniform Resource Citation (URC)
to actions that occur within that page, such as mouse or keyboard This is meta information about a URI. They consist of pairs of attribute/value which can ++ Increment
action. Scripting languages such as JavaScript, Dart, etc., can be contain information on the author, publisher etc. The URC are currently not used.
used for client-Side scripting.
How to Create a Simple Webpage? -- Decrement
Creating a simple webpage is very easy; anyone with basic
knowledge of computers and HTML can create it. But before JavaScript Comparison Operators
creating a webpage, you should be aware of the below points: The JavaScript comparison operator compares the two operands. The comparison operators are as follows:
A simple webpage can be created using HTML code only. Such
pages are simple but not interactive and have very few
functionalities. Operator Description
To make your webpage interactive and add functionality, you
need to learn and use scripting languages, such as PHP, Python,
etc.
A web page can also be created using Notepad, but it is
recommended to use IDEs for advanced uses such as Atom, == Is equal to
Sublime Text editor, PyCharm,
Follow the below steps to create your webpage:
Open the Notepad application on your computer. === Identical (equal and of same type)
Write Below code on it.
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head> != Not equal to
<title>Your title goes here</title>
</head> HTTP response status codes
<body bgcolor="white" text="red"> HTTP response status codes indicate whether a specific HTTP request has been
successfully completed. Responses are grouped in five classes: !== Not Identical
<h1>first Web page</h1>
<p>This is my first web page!</p> Informational responses (100 – 199)
</body> Successful responses (200 – 299)
</html> Redirection messages (300 – 399) > Greater than
In the above code, the following tags are used: Client error responses (400 – 499)
<!DOCTYPE html>: It is used for document type declaration, Server error responses (500 – 599)
which means which version of HTML you are using. It indicates the The status codes listed below are defined by RFC 9110.
Note: If you receive a response that is not in this list, it is a non-standard response, >= Greater than or equal to
browser that which language it is supposed to interpret.
<html>: it indicates the start and of the HTML code. possibly custom to the server's software.
<head>: It can have different types of information such as title, Information responses
meta tag, etc.; this information will not appear on the webpage. 100 Continue < Less than
<body>: This tag contains other tags on the webpage, and users This interim response indicates that the client should continue the request or ignore the
can see them. In above code, we have included <h1> heading tag response if the request is already finished.
and <p> paragraph tags. 101 Switching Protocols
This code is sent in response to an Upgrade request header from the client and indicates <= Less than or equal to
Save the file with any name and .html extension. For example,
save it with html name. the protocol the server is switching to.
Go to the saved file (web.html), double click or right-click and run 102 Processing (WebDAV) JavaScript Bitwise Operators
it. This code indicates that the server has received and is processing the request, but no The bitwise operators perform bitwise operations on operands. The bitwise operators are as follows:
It will open on your default browser and will display the below response is available yet.
output: 103 Early Hints
This status code is primarily intended to be used with the Link header, letting the user JavaScript
JavaScript (js) is a light-weight object-oriented programming language Operator Description
You can also add more tags for different elements, such as add agent start preloading resources while the server prepares a response or preconnect to
an origin from which the page will need resources. which is used by several websites for scripting the webpages. It is an
images, background images, border, table, table, etc., using HTML interpreted, full-fledged programming language that enables dynamic
Successful responses
200 OK interactivity on websites when applied to an HTML document. It was
The request succeeded. The result meaning of "success" depends on the HTTP method: introduced in the year 1995 for adding programs to the webpages in the
 GET: The resource has been fetched and transmitted in the message body. Netscape Navigator browser. Since then, it has been adopted by all
HEAD: The representation headers are included in the response without any message other graphical web browsers. With JavaScript, users can build modern & Bitwise AND
body. web applications to interact directly without reloading the page every
PUT or POST: The resource describing the result of the action is transmitted in the time. The traditional website uses js to provide several forms of
message body. interactivity and simplicity.
TRACE: The message body contains the request message as received by the server. Although, JavaScript has no connectivity with Java programming | Bitwise OR
201 Created language. The name was suggested and provided in the times when Java
The request succeeded, and a new resource was created as a result. This is typically the was gaining popularity in the market. In addition to web browsers,
comparative studies of different technologies of dynamic page response sent after POST requests, or some PUT requests. databases such as CouchDB and MongoDB uses JavaScript as their ^ Bitwise XOR
creation 202 Accepted scripting and query language.
comparing different technologies for dynamic page creation, several The request has been received but not yet acted upon. It is noncommittal, since there is Features of JavaScript
factors come into play, including performance, ease of development, no way in HTTP to later send an asynchronous response indicating the outcome of the There are following features of JavaScript:
scalability, and community support. Here's a comparative study of some request. It is intended for cases where another process or server handles the request, or All popular web browsers support JavaScript as they provide built-in ~ Bitwise NOT
popular technologies used for dynamic page creation: for batch processing. execution environments.
1. PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor): 203 Non-Authoritative Information JavaScript follows the syntax and structure of the C programming
Performance: PHP is known for its speed and efficiency, especially when This response code means the returned metadata is not exactly the same as is available language. Thus, it is a structured programming language.
from the origin server, but is collected from a local or a third-party copy. This is mostly JavaScript is a weakly typed language, where certain types are implicitly << Bitwise Left Shift
combined with caching mechanisms like OPCache. However, it may not
be as fast as some compiled languages. used for mirrors or backups of another resource. Except for that specific case, the 200 cast (depending on the operation).
Ease of Development: PHP is relatively easy to learn and widely used OK response is preferred to this status. JavaScript is an object-oriented programming language that uses
for web development. It offers a vast ecosystem of frameworks and 204 No Content prototypes rather than using classes for inheritance. >> Bitwise Right Shift
libraries such as Laravel, Symfony, and CodeIgniter. There is no content to send for this request, but the headers may be useful. The user It is a light-weighted and interpreted language.
Scalability: While PHP can scale to handle high traffic websites with agent may update its cached headers for this resource with the new ones. It is a case-sensitive language.
proper architecture and optimization, it may require additional effort 205 Reset Content JavaScript is supportable in several operating systems including,
compared to some other technologies. Tells the user agent to reset the document which sent this request. Windows, macOS, etc. >>> Bitwise Right Shift with Zero
Community Support: PHP has a large and active community with Redirection messages It provides good control to the users over the web browsers.
abundant documentation, forums, and resources available. 300 Multiple Choices History of JavaScript JavaScript Logical Operators
2. Python (Django, Flask): The request has more than one possible response. The user agent or user should In 1993, Mosaic, the first popular web browser, came into existence. In The following operators are known as JavaScript logical operators.
Performance: Python is generally slower than compiled languages but choose one of them. (There is no standardized way of choosing one of the the year 1994, Netscape was founded by Marc Andreessen. He
offers good performance when optimized. Frameworks like Django and responses, but HTML links to the possibilities are recommended so the user can realized that the web needed to become more dynamic. Thus, a 'glue
Flask provide tools for optimization. pick.) language' was believed to be provided to HTML to make web designing Operator Description
Ease of Development: Python's syntax is clean and readable, making it 301 Moved Permanently easy for designers and part-time programmers. Consequently, in 1995,
easy to learn. Django and Flask offer powerful features for web The URL of the requested resource has been changed permanently. The new URL is the company recruited Brendan Eich intending to implement and
development, with Django being more opinionated and providing a full- given in the response. embed Scheme programming language to the browser. But, before
stack solution. 302 Found Brendan could start, the company merged with Sun Microsystems for && Logical AND
Scalability: Python applications can scale horizontally with ease, and This response code means that the URI of requested resource has been adding Java into its Navigator so that it could compete with Microsoft
frameworks like Django provide scalability features such as middleware, changed temporarily. Further changes in the URI might be made in the future. over the web technologies and platforms. Now, two languages were
caching, and database sharding. Therefore, this same URI should be used by the client in future requests. there: Java and the scripting language. Further, Netscape decided to give
Community Support: Python has a large and growing community with 303 See Other a similar name to the scripting language as Java's. It led to 'Javascript'. || Logical OR
active support for web development. Django, in particular, has a strong The server sent this response to direct the client to get the requested resource at Finally, in May 1995, Marc Andreessen coined the first code of Javascript
community and comprehensive documentation. another URI with a GET request. named 'Mocha'. Later, the marketing team replaced the name with
3. JavaScript (Node.js, Express.js): 304 Not Modified 'LiveScript'. But, due to trademark reasons and certain other reasons, in ! Logical Not
Performance: Node.js is known for its high performance and scalability This is used for caching purposes. It tells the client that the response has not been December 1995, the language was finally renamed to 'JavaScript'. From
due to its event-driven, non-blocking I/O model. However, poorly modified, so the client can continue to use the same cached version of the then, JavaScript came into existence.
response. Application of JavaScript JavaScript Assignment Operators
written code can lead to performance issues. The following operators are known as JavaScript assignment operators.
Ease of Development: JavaScript is ubiquitous, and many developers Client error responses JavaScript is used to create interactive websites. It is mainly used for:
are already familiar with it. Node.js and Express.js offer a lightweight 400 Bad Request Client-side validation,
and flexible approach to building web applications. The server cannot or will not process the request due to something that is Dynamic drop-down menus, Operator Description
Scalability: Node.js excels in handling concurrent connections and can perceived to be a client error (e.g., malformed request syntax, invalid request Displaying date and time,
scale horizontally with ease. However, it may not be suitable for CPU- message framing, or deceptive request routing). Displaying pop-up windows and dialog boxes (like an alert dialog box,
intensive tasks. 401 Unauthorized confirm dialog box and prompt dialog box),
Community Support: JavaScript has one of the largest and most active Although the HTTP standard specifies "unauthorized", semantically this response Displaying clocks etc.
communities, with numerous libraries and frameworks available. means "unauthenticated". That is, the client must authenticate itself to get the JavaScript Example = Assign
Node.js and Express.js have strong community support and extensive requested response. <script>
documentation. 402 Payment Required Experimental document.write("Hello JavaScript by JavaScript");
4. Ruby (Ruby on Rails, Sinatra): This response code is reserved for future use. The initial aim for creating this code </script>
was using it for digital payment systems, however this status code is used very Places to put JavaScript code += Add and assign
Performance: Ruby is generally slower than some other languages but
offers good performance when optimized. Ruby on Rails provides rarely and no standard convention exists. Between the body tag of html
features like caching and background processing to improve 403 Forbidden Between the head tag of html
performance. The client does not have access rights to the content; that is, it is unauthorized, so In .js file (external javaScript)
Ease of Development: Ruby's syntax is elegant and developer-friendly, the server is refusing to give the requested resource. Unlike 401 Unauthorized, the JavaScript Comment -= Subtract and assign
making it enjoyable to work with. Ruby on Rails is opinionated and client's identity is known to the server. JavaScript comments
provides conventions for rapid development. 404 Not Found Advantage of javaScript comments
Scalability: Ruby applications can scale horizontally with proper The server cannot find the requested resource. In the browser, this means the URL Single-line and Multi-line comments
is not recognized. In an API, this can also mean that the endpoint is valid but the The JavaScript comments are meaningful way to deliver message. It is *= Multiply and assign
architecture and optimization. Ruby on Rails provides tools for scaling,
such as database sharding and caching. resource itself does not exist. Servers may also send this response instead of 403 used to add information about the code, warnings or suggestions so
Community Support: Ruby has a passionate community with active Forbidden to hide the existence of a resource from an unauthorized client. This that end user can easily interpret the code.
support for web development. Ruby on Rails, in particular, has a strong response code is probably the most well known due to its frequent occurrence on The JavaScript comment is ignored by the JavaScript engine i.e.
community and comprehensive documentation. the web. embedded in the browser. /= Divide and assign
Active web pages Server error responses Advantages of JavaScript comments
Active web pages, also known as dynamic web pages, play a crucial role 500 Internal Server Error There are mainly two advantages of JavaScript comments.
in enhancing the functionality, interactivity, and user experience of The server has encountered a situation it does not know how to handle. To make code easy to understand It can be used to elaborate the code
modern websites. 501 Not Implemented so that end user can easily understand the code. %= Modulus and assign
need for active web pages: The request method is not supported by the server and cannot be handled. The To avoid the unnecessary code It can also be used to avoid the code
Real-time Updates: Active web pages allow content to be updated only methods that servers are required to support (and therefore that must not being executed. Sometimes, we add the code to perform some action.
dynamically without requiring the user to manually refresh the page. return this code) are GET and HEAD. But after sometime, there may be need to disable the code. In such case,
This real-time updating capability is essential for applications such as 502 Bad Gateway it is better to use comments. .
social media feeds, stock tickers, news websites, and messaging This error response means that the server, while working as a gateway to get a
platforms, where users expect to see the latest information instantly. response needed to handle the request, got an invalid response. Types of JavaScript Comments
Personalization: Active web pages enable personalized user 503 Service Unavailable There are two types of comments in JavaScript.
experiences by tailoring content and features based on user The server is not ready to handle the request. Common causes are a server that is Single-line Comment
interactions, preferences, and behavior. For example, e-commerce down for maintenance or that is overloaded. Note that together with this Multi-line Comment
websites can recommend products based on past purchases, while response, a user-friendly page explaining the problem should be sent. This Single line Comment
news websites can suggest articles based on reading history. response should be used for temporary conditions and the Retry-After HTTP It is represented by double forward slashes (//). It can be used before
Interactivity: Active web pages enable rich user interactions through header should, if possible, contain the estimated time before the recovery of the and after the statement.
features like forms, surveys, quizzes, and multimedia content. Users can service. The webmaster must also take care about the caching-related headers that Let’s see the example of single-line comment i.e. added before the
actively engage with the website by submitting data, participating in are sent along with this response, as these temporary condition responses should statement.
polls, or watching videos without leaving the page, leading to a more usually not be cached. // It is single line comment
immersive experience. 504 Gateway Timeout Multi line Comment
Data Processing: Active web pages facilitate complex data processing This error response is given when the server is acting as a gateway and cannot get It can be used to add single as well as multi line comments. So, it is more
tasks on the client-side or server-side, allowing websites to perform a response in time. convenient.
calculations, manipulate data, and generate dynamic content. For 505 HTTP Version Not Supported It is represented by forward slash with asterisk then asterisk with forward
instance, online calculators, weather forecasts, and interactive maps The HTTP version used in the request is not supported by the server slash. For example:
rely on dynamic data processing to deliver accurate and up-to-date /* your code here */
information. JavaScript Variable
JavaScript Special Operators JavaScript variable
Database Integration: Active web pages enable seamless integration The following operators are known as JavaScript special operators.
with databases, allowing websites to retrieve, store, and manipulate JavaScript Local variable
data dynamically. This integration is essential for applications such as JavaScript Global variable
content management systems (CMS), e-commerce platforms, and A JavaScript variable is simply a name of storage location. There are
Operato Description
customer relationship management (CRM) systems, where data needs two types of variables in JavaScript : local variable and global variable.
r
to be managed efficiently. There are some rules while declaring a JavaScript variable (also known as
Improved Performance: Active web pages can enhance performance by identifiers).
minimizing page reloads, reducing server load, and optimizing data Name must start with a letter (a to z or A to Z), underscore( _ ), or
transfer. Techniques like AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) dollar( $ ) sign.
enable asynchronous communication between the client and server, (?:) Conditional Operator returns value based on the condition. After first letter we can use digits (0 to 9), for example value1.
resulting in faster and more responsive web applications. It is like if-else. JavaScript variables are case sensitive, for example x and X are different
Enhanced User Engagement: Active web pages contribute to higher variables.
user engagement by providing interactive features, personalized
content, and real-time updates. Websites that offer dynamic and , Comma Operator allows multiple expressions to be JavaScript variables
engaging experiences are more likely to attract and retain users, leading evaluated as single statement. var x = 10;
to increased traffic, longer session durations, and higher conversion var _value="sonoo";
rates. local variable
Competitive Advantage: In today's competitive digital landscape, A JavaScript local variable is declared inside block or function. It is
having active web pages is essential for staying ahead of the delete Delete Operator deletes a property from the object. accessible within the function or block only. For example:
competition. Websites that deliver dynamic content, personalized <script>
experiences, and seamless interactions are perceived as more modern, function abc(){
user-friendly, and innovative, helping businesses differentiate var x=10;//local variable
themselves and attract customers. in In Operator checks if object has the given property }
</script>
Applet Life Cycle in Java global variable
A JavaScript global variable is accessible from any function. A variable
In Java, an applet is a special type of program embedded in the instanceof checks if the object is an instance of given type i.e. declared outside the function or declared with window object is
web page to generate dynamic content. Applet is a class in Java. known as global variable. For example:
The applet life cycle can be defined as the process of how the <script>
object is created, started, stopped, and destroyed during the new creates an instance (object) var data=200;//gloabal variable
function a(){
entire execution of its application. It basically has five core document.writeln(data);
methods namely init(), start(), stop(), paint() and destroy().These }
methods are invoked by the browser to execute. typeof checks the type of object. function b(){
document.writeln(data);
Along with the browser, the applet also works on the client side, }
thus having less processing time. a();//calling JavaScript function
void it discards the expression's return value. b();
Methods of Applet Life Cycle
</script>
Javascript Data Types
yield checks what is returned in a generator by the generator's JavaScript provides different data types to hold different types of values.
iterator. There are two types of data types in JavaScript.
Primitive data type
Non-primitive (reference) data type
JavaScript is a dynamic type language, means you don't need to
specify type of the variable because it is dynamically used by JavaScript
engine. You need to use var here to specify the data type. It can hold
any type of values such as numbers, strings etc. For example:
var a=40;//holding number
. var b="Rahul";//holding string
JavaScript primitive data types
There are five types of primitive data types in JavaScript. They are as
follows:

There are five methods of an applet life cycle, and they are: Data Type Description
\init(): The init() method is the first method to run that initializes
the applet. It can be invoked only once at the time of initialization.
The web browser creates the initialized objects, i.e., the web String represents sequence of characters e.g. "hello"
browser (after checking the security settings) runs the init()
method within the applet.
start(): The start() method contains the actual code of the applet Number represents numeric values e.g. 100
and starts the applet. It is invoked immediately after the init()
method is invoked. Every time the browser is loaded or refreshed,
the start() method is invoked. It is also invoked whenever the
applet is maximized, restored, or moving from one tab to another Boolean represents boolean value either false or true
in the browser. It is in an inactive state until the init() method is
invoked. stop(): The stop() method stops the execution of the
applet. The stop () method is invoked whenever the applet is Undefined represents undefined value
stopped, minimized, or moving from one tab to another in the
browser, the stop() method is invoked. When we go back to that
page, the start() method is invoked again.
destroy(): The destroy() method destroys the applet after its work Null represents null i.e. no value at all
is done. It is invoked when the applet window is closed or when
the tab containing the webpage is closed. It removes the applet JavaScript non-primitive data types
object from memory and is executed only once. We cannot start
the applet once it is destroyed. The non-primitive data types are as follows:
paint(): The paint() method belongs to the Graphics class in Java.
It is used to draw shapes like circle, square, trapezium, etc., in the
applet. It is executed after the start() method and when the Data Description
browser or applet windows are resized. Type
Sequence of method execution when an applet is executed:
init()
start()
paint()
Object represents instance through which we can access
Sequence of method execution when an applet is executed: members
stop()
destroy()
Applet Life Cycle WorkingThe Java plug-in software is
responsible for managing the life cycle of an applet. Array represents group of similar values
An applet is a Java application executed in any web browser
and works on the client-side. It doesn't have the main()
method because it runs in the browser. It is thus created to be
placed on an HTML page.
The init(), start(), stop() and destroy() methods belongs to
the applet.Applet class. RegExp represents regular expression
The paint() method belongs to the awt.Component class.
In Java, if we want to make a class an Applet class, we need to
extend the Applet
Whenever we create an applet, we are creating the instance of
the existing Applet class. And thus, we can use all the
methods of that class.
Flow of Applet Life Cycle: These methods are invoked by
the browser automatically. There is no need to call them
explicitly.
Q. Explain different form elements available and make it Q. Explain different form elements available and make it dynamic with the Q. Explain different form elements available and make it dynamic Q. Explain different form elements available and make it dynamic with the help of HTML?
dynamic with the help of HTML? help of HTML? with the help of HTML? HTML provides various form elements to collect user input. Some common form elements include:
HTML provides various form elements to collect user input. Some HTML provides various form elements to collect user input. Some common form HTML provides various form elements to collect user input. Some common 1. *Text Input*: <input type="text"> for single-line text input.
common form elements include: elements include: form elements include: 2. *Password Input*: <input type="password"> for password input.
1. *Text Input*: <input type="text"> for single-line text input. 1. *Text Input*: <input type="text"> for single-line text input. 1. *Text Input*: <input type="text"> for single-line text input. 3. *Textarea*: <textarea></textarea> for multi-line text input.
2. *Password Input*: <input type="password"> for password input. 2. *Password Input*: <input type="password"> for password input. 2. *Password Input*: <input type="password"> for password input. 4. *Radio Buttons*: <input type="radio"> for selecting one option from a group.
3. *Textarea*: <textarea></textarea> for multi-line text input. 3. *Textarea*: <textarea></textarea> for multi-line text input. 3. *Textarea*: <textarea></textarea> for multi-line text input. 5. *Checkboxes*: <input type="checkbox"> for selecting multiple options.
4. *Radio Buttons*: <input type="radio"> for selecting one option from 4. *Radio Buttons*: <input type="radio"> for selecting one option from a group. 4. *Radio Buttons*: <input type="radio"> for selecting one option from a 6. *Dropdown List*: <select><option></option></select> for a list of options.
a group. 5. *Checkboxes*: <input type="checkbox"> for selecting multiple options. group. 7. *Submit Button*: <input type="submit"> to submit the form.
5. *Checkboxes*: <input type="checkbox"> for selecting multiple 6. *Dropdown List*: <select><option></option></select> for a list of options. 5. *Checkboxes*: <input type="checkbox"> for selecting multiple options. 8. *Reset Button*: <input type="reset"> to reset form fields.
options. 7. *Submit Button*: <input type="submit"> to submit the form. 6. *Dropdown List*: <select><option></option></select> for a list of options.
6. *Dropdown List*: <select><option></option></select> for a list of 8. *Reset Button*: <input type="reset"> to reset form fields. 7. *Submit Button*: <input type="submit"> to submit the form. To make a form dynamic, you can use JavaScript. For example, you can add event listeners to respond to user actions. Here's a simple example:
options. 8. *Reset Button*: <input type="reset"> to reset form fields.
7. *Submit Button*: <input type="submit"> to submit the form. To make a form dynamic, you can use JavaScript. For example, you can add event <!DOCTYPE html>
8. *Reset Button*: <input type="reset"> to reset form fields. listeners to respond to user actions. Here's a simple example: To make a form dynamic, you can use JavaScript. For example, you can add <html lang="en">
event listeners to respond to user actions. Here's a simple example: <head>
To make a form dynamic, you can use JavaScript. For example, you can <!DOCTYPE html> <title>Dynamic Form</title>
add event listeners to respond to user actions. Here's a simple example: <html lang="en"> <!DOCTYPE html> <script>
<head> <html lang="en"> function submitForm() {
<!DOCTYPE html> <title>Dynamic Form</title> <head> alert('Form submitted!');
<html lang="en"> <script> <title>Dynamic Form</title> }
<head> function submitForm() { <script> function updateLabel() {
<title>Dynamic Form</title> alert('Form submitted!'); function submitForm() { var inputText = document.getElementById('dynamicInput').value;
<script> } alert('Form submitted!'); document.getElementById('dynamicLabel').innerText = 'You entered: ' + inputText;
function submitForm() { function updateLabel() { } }
alert('Form submitted!'); var inputText = document.getElementById('dynamicInput').value; function updateLabel() { </script>
} document.getElementById('dynamicLabel').innerText = 'You entered: ' + inputText; var inputText = document.getElementById('dynamicInput').value; </head>
function updateLabel() { } document.getElementById('dynamicLabel').innerText = 'You entered: ' + <body>
var inputText = document.getElementById('dynamicInput').value; </script> inputText; <form onsubmit="submitForm(); return false;">
document.getElementById('dynamicLabel').innerText = 'You </head> } <label for="dynamicInput">Enter text: </label>
entered: ' + inputText; <body> </script> <input type="text" id="dynamicInput" oninput="updateLabel()">
} <form onsubmit="submitForm(); return false;"> </head> <br>
</script> <label for="dynamicInput">Enter text: </label> <body> <span id="dynamicLabel"></span>
</head> <input type="text" id="dynamicInput" oninput="updateLabel()"> <form onsubmit="submitForm(); return false;"> <br>
<body> <br> <label for="dynamicInput">Enter text: </label> <input type="submit" value="Submit">
<form onsubmit="submitForm(); return false;"> <span id="dynamicLabel"></span> <input type="text" id="dynamicInput" oninput="updateLabel()"> </form>
<label for="dynamicInput">Enter text: </label> <br> <br> </body>
<input type="text" id="dynamicInput" oninput="updateLabel()"> <input type="submit" value="Submit"> <span id="dynamicLabel"></span> </html>
<br> </form> <br> In this example, the label dynamically updates based on the user's input, and the form submission triggers an alert. You can extend this concept for
<span id="dynamicLabel"></span> </body> <input type="submit" value="Submit"> complex dynamic behavior in your forms
<br> </html> </form> Q. Define Table tag and their attributes with an example.
<input type="submit" value="Submit"> In this example, the label dynamically updates based on the user's input, and the form </body> Here's a breakdown of the primary table-related tags and their attributes:
</form> submission triggers an alert. You can extend this concept for more complex dynamic </html> 1.<table>: This is the container element for the entire table.
</body> behavior in your forms In this example, the label dynamically updates based on the user's input, and Attributes: border: Specifies the border width. Deprecated in HTML5; CSS is recommended for styling.
</html> Q. Define Table tag and their attributes with an example. the form submission triggers an alert. You can extend this concept for more <table border="1">
In this example, the label dynamically updates based on the user's Here's a breakdown of the primary table-related tags and their attributes: complex dynamic behavior in your forms <!-- table content goes here -->
input, and the form submission triggers an alert. You can extend this 1.<table>: This is the container element for the entire table. Q. Define Table tag and their attributes with an example. </table>
concept for more complex dynamic behavior in your forms Attributes: border: Specifies the border width. Deprecated in HTML5; CSS is Here's a breakdown of the primary table-related tags and their 2. <tr>: Represents a table row.
Q. Define Table tag and their attributes with an example. recommended for styling. attributes: <tr> <!-- table cells (td or th) go here --> </tr>
Here's a breakdown of the primary table-related tags and <table border="1"> 1.<table>: This is the container element for the entire table. 3. <th>: Represents a header cell in a table.
their attributes: <!-- table content goes here --> Attributes: border: Specifies the border width. Deprecated in HTML5; CSS is Attributes: colspan: Specifies the number of columns a header cell should span. rowspan: Specifies the number of rows a header cell should spa
1.<table>: This is the container element for the entire table. </table> recommended for styling. Eg:<th colspan="2">Header Cell</th>
Attributes: border: Specifies the border width. Deprecated in HTML5; 2. <tr>: Represents a table row. <table border="1"> 4. <td>: Represents a standard data cell in a table. Attributes: colspan: Specifies the number of columns a data cell should span. rowspan: Specifies t
CSS is recommended for styling. <tr> <!-- table cells (td or th) go here --> </tr> <!-- table content goes here --> number of rows a data cell should span.
<table border="1"> 3. <th>: Represents a header cell in a table. </table> <td rowspan="2">Data Cell</td>
<!-- table content goes here --> Attributes: colspan: Specifies the number of columns a header cell should span. 2. <tr>: Represents a table row. Example of a simple table:
</table> rowspan: Specifies the number of rows a header cell should span. <tr> <!-- table cells (td or th) go here --> </tr> <table border="1">
2. <tr>: Represents a table row. Eg:<th colspan="2">Header Cell</th> 3. <th>: Represents a header cell in a table. <tr>
<tr> <!-- table cells (td or th) go here --> </tr> 4. <td>: Represents a standard data cell in a table. Attributes: colspan: Specifies the Attributes: colspan: Specifies the number of columns a header cell should <th>Header 1</th>
3. <th>: Represents a header cell in a table. number of columns a data cell should span. rowspan: Specifies the number of rows a data span. rowspan: Specifies the number of rows a header cell should span. <th>Header 2</th>
Attributes: colspan: Specifies the number of columns a header cell cell should span. Eg:<th colspan="2">Header Cell</th> </tr>
should span. rowspan: Specifies the number of rows a header cell <td rowspan="2">Data Cell</td> 4. <td>: Represents a standard data cell in a table. Attributes: colspan: <tr>
should span. Example of a simple table: Specifies the number of columns a data cell should span. rowspan: Specifies <td>Data 1</td>
Eg:<th colspan="2">Header Cell</th> <table border="1"> the number of rows a data cell should span. <td>Data 2</td>
4. <td>: Represents a standard data cell in a table. Attributes: colspan: <tr> <td rowspan="2">Data Cell</td> </tr>
Specifies the number of columns a data cell should span. rowspan: <th>Header 1</th> Example of a simple table: <tr>
Specifies the number of rows a data cell should span. <th>Header 2</th> <table border="1"> <td>Data 3</td>
<td rowspan="2">Data Cell</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Data 4</td>
Example of a simple table: <tr> <th>Header 1</th> </tr>
<table border="1"> <td>Data 1</td> <th>Header 2</th> </table>
<tr> <td>Data 2</td> </tr> Q. Create a HTML document that displays a table of basketball scores at national games in which the team names have their
<th>Header 1</th> </tr> <tr> respective team colourS. The score of the leading/'winning team should appear larger and in a different font than the losing tea
<th>Header 2</th> <tr> <td>Data 1</td> Use CSS?
</tr> <td>Data 3</td> <td>Data 2</td> Certainly! Below is an example of an HTML document that displays a table of basketball scores with team names and colors. The winning team's sco
<tr> <td>Data 4</td> </tr> displayed in a larger font and a different color compared to the losing team's score. The styling is done using CSS:
<td>Data 1</td> </tr> <tr> <!DOCTYPE html>
<td>Data 2</td> </table> <td>Data 3</td> <head>
</tr> Q. Create a HTML document that displays a table of basketball scores at <td>Data 4</td> <title>Basketball Scores</title>
<tr> national games in which the team names have their respective team colourS. </tr> <style>
<td>Data 3</td> The score of the leading/'winning team should appear larger and in a </table> table {
<td>Data 4</td> different font than the losing team. Use CSS? Q. Create a HTML document that displays a table of basketball width: 50%;
</tr> Certainly! Below is an example of an HTML document that displays a table of basketball scores at national games in which the team names have their border-collapse: collapse;
</table> scores with team names and colors. The winning team's score is displayed in a larger font respective team colourS. The score of the leading/'winning team margin: 20px auto;
Q. Create a HTML document that displays a table of basketball and a different color compared to the losing team's score. The styling is done using CSS: should appear larger and in a different font than the losing team. }
scores at national games in which the team names have their <!DOCTYPE html> Use CSS? th, td {
respective team colourS. The score of the leading/'winning <head> Certainly! Below is an example of an HTML document that displays a table of border: 1px solid #dddddd;
team should appear larger and in a different font than the <title>Basketball Scores</title> basketball scores with team names and colors. The winning team's score is padding: 8px;
losing team. Use CSS? <style> displayed in a larger font and a different color compared to the losing team's text-align: center;
Certainly! Below is an example of an HTML document that displays a table { score. The styling is done using CSS: }
table of basketball scores with team names and colors. The winning width: 50%; <!DOCTYPE html> th {
team's score is displayed in a larger font and a different color compared border-collapse: collapse; <head> background-color: #f2f2f2;
to the losing team's score. The styling is done using CSS: margin: 20px auto; <title>Basketball Scores</title> }
<!DOCTYPE html> } <style> .winning-team {
<head> th, td { table { font-size: 18px;
<title>Basketball Scores</title> border: 1px solid #dddddd; width: 50%; font-weight: bold;
<style> padding: 8px; border-collapse: collapse; color: #006600; /* Green color for winning team */
table { text-align: center; margin: 20px auto; }
width: 50%; } } </style>
border-collapse: collapse; th { th, td { </head>
margin: 20px auto; background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid #dddddd; <body>
} } padding: 8px; <h1>Basketball Scores - National Games</h1>
th, td { .winning-team { text-align: center; <table>
border: 1px solid #dddddd; font-size: 18px; } <thead>
padding: 8px; font-weight: bold; th { <tr>
text-align: center; color: #006600; /* Green color for winning team */ background-color: #f2f2f2; <th>Team</th>
} } } <th>Score</th>
th { </style> .winning-team { </tr>
background-color: #f2f2f2; </head> font-size: 18px; </thead>
} <body> font-weight: bold; <tbody>
.winning-team { <h1>Basketball Scores - National Games</h1> color: #006600; /* Green color for winning team */ <tr>
font-size: 18px; <table> } <td style="color: #ff0000;">Team Red</td>
font-weight: bold; <thead> </style> <td class="winning-team">85</td>
color: #006600; /* Green color for winning team */ <tr> </head> </tr>
} <th>Team</th> <body> <tr>
</style> <th>Score</th> <h1>Basketball Scores - National Games</h1> <td style="color: #0000ff;">Team Blue</td>
</head> </tr> <table> <td>72</td>
<body> </thead> <thead> </tr>
<h1>Basketball Scores - National Games</h1> <tbody> <tr> <tr>
<table> <tr> <th>Team</th> <td style="color: #00ff00;">Team Green</td>
<thead> <td style="color: #ff0000;">Team Red</td> <th>Score</th> <td>78</td>
<tr> <td class="winning-team">85</td> </tr> </tr>
<th>Team</th> </tr> </thead> </tbody>
<th>Score</th> <tr> <tbody> </table>
</tr> <td style="color: #0000ff;">Team Blue</td> <tr> </body>
</thead> <td>72</td> <td style="color: #ff0000;">Team Red</td> </html>
<tbody> </tr> <td class="winning-team">85</td> Q. Write a Java Script code to validate a user by considering username as ABC" and password as XYZ". Assume username and
<tr> <tr> </tr> password is getting from the form element?
<td style="color: #ff0000;">Team Red</td> <td style="color: #00ff00;">Team Green</td> <tr> <!DOCTYPE html>
<td class="winning-team">85</td> <td>78</td> <td style="color: #0000ff;">Team Blue</td> <head>
</tr> </tr> <td>72</td> <title>User Validation</title>
<tr> </tbody> </tr> <script>
<td style="color: #0000ff;">Team Blue</td> </table> <tr> function validateUser() {
<td>72</td> </body> <td style="color: #00ff00;">Team Green</td> var username = document.getElementById('username').value;
</tr> </html> <td>78</td> var password = document.getElementById('password').value;
<tr> Q. Write a Java Script code to validate a user by considering username as </tr> if (username === "ABC" && password === "XYZ") {
<td style="color: #00ff00;">Team Green</td> ABC" and password as XYZ". Assume username and password is getting from </tbody> alert("Login successful!");
<td>78</td> the form element? </table> } else {
</tr> <!DOCTYPE html> </body> alert("Invalid username or password. Please try again.");
</tbody> <head> </html> }
</table> <title>User Validation</title> Q. Write a Java Script code to validate a user by considering }
</body> <script> username as ABC" and password as XYZ". Assume username and </script>
</html> function validateUser() { password is getting from the form element? </head>
Q. Write a Java Script code to validate a user by considering var username = document.getElementById('username').value; <!DOCTYPE html> <body>
username as ABC" and password as XYZ". Assume username var password = document.getElementById('password').value; <head> <h1>User Login</h1>
and password is getting from the form element? if (username === "ABC" && password === "XYZ") { <title>User Validation</title> <form>
<!DOCTYPE html> alert("Login successful!"); <script> <label for="username">Username:</label>
<head> } else { function validateUser() { <input type="text" id="username" name="username" required>
<title>User Validation</title> alert("Invalid username or password. Please try again."); var username = document.getElementById('username').value; <br>
<script> } var password = document.getElementById('password').value; <label for="password">Password:</label>
function validateUser() { } if (username === "ABC" && password === "XYZ") { <input type="password" id="password" name="password" required>
var username = document.getElementById('username').value; </script> alert("Login successful!"); <br>
var password = document.getElementById('password').value; </head> } else { <button type="button" onclick="validateUser()">Login</button>
if (username === "ABC" && password === "XYZ") { <body> alert("Invalid username or password. Please try again."); </form>
alert("Login successful!"); <h1>User Login</h1> } </body>
} else { <form> } </html>
alert("Invalid username or password. Please try again."); <label for="username">Username:</label> </script> Q. Write a java script to find factorial of a given number.
} <input type="text" id="username" name="username" required> </head> const number = parseInt(prompt('Enter a positive integer: '));
} <br> <body> if (number < 0) {
</script> <label for="password">Password:</label> <h1>User Login</h1> console.log('Error! Factorial for negative number does not exist.');
</head> <input type="password" id="password" name="password" required> <form> }
<body> <br> <label for="username">Username:</label> else if (number === 0) {
<h1>User Login</h1> <button type="button" onclick="validateUser()">Login</button> <input type="text" id="username" name="username" required> console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is 1.`);
<form> </form> <br> }
<label for="username">Username:</label> </body> <label for="password">Password:</label> else {
<input type="text" id="username" name="username" required> </html> <input type="password" id="password" name="password" required> let fact = 1;
<br> Q. Write a java script to find factorial of a given number. <br> for (i = 1; i <= number; i++) {
<label for="password">Password:</label> const number = parseInt(prompt('Enter a positive integer: ')); <button type="button" onclick="validateUser()">Login</button> fact *= i;
<input type="password" id="password" name="password" if (number < 0) { </form> }
required> console.log('Error! Factorial for negative number does not exist.'); </body> console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is ${fact}.`);
<br> } </html> }
<button type="button" onclick="validateUser()">Login</button> else if (number === 0) { Q. Write a java script to find factorial of a given number. Q. What is the need of scripting languages in Web Technologies?
</form> console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is 1.`); const number = parseInt(prompt('Enter a positive integer: ')); Scripting languages play a crucial role in web technologies for several reasons:
</body> } if (number < 0) { 1. *Interactivity:* Scripting languages, such as JavaScript, enable interactive and dynamic behavior on websites. They allow you to create responsive
</html> else { console.log('Error! Factorial for negative number does not exist.'); engaging user interfaces, enabling features like form validation, real-time updates, and interactive elements.
Q. Write a java script to find factorial of a given number. let fact = 1; } 2. *Client-Side Processing:* Scripting languages are executed on the client-side (in the user's browser). This reduces the need for frequent server
const number = parseInt(prompt('Enter a positive integer: ')); for (i = 1; i <= number; i++) { else if (number === 0) { requests, improving the overall performance and responsiveness of web applications.
if (number < 0) { fact *= i; console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is 1.`); 3. *User Experience Enhancement:* Through scripting languages, developers can enhance the overall user experience by creating dynamic content,
console.log('Error! Factorial for negative number does not exist.'); } } smooth animations, and interactive interfaces. This contributes to a more user-friendly and enjoyable browsing experience.
} console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is ${fact}.`); else { 4. *Asynchronous Operations:* Scripting languages support asynchronous operations, allowing web applications to load and process data in the
else if (number === 0) { } let fact = 1; background without blocking the main thread. This leads to faster and more efficient web applications.
console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is 1.`); Q. What is the need of scripting languages in Web Technologies? for (i = 1; i <= number; i++) { 5. *Form Validation:* Scripting languages are commonly used to validate user input in web forms before submitting the data to the server. This help
} Scripting languages play a crucial role in web technologies for several reasons: fact *= i; ensure that data is accurate and reduces the need for server-side validation.
else { 1. *Interactivity:* Scripting languages, such as JavaScript, enable interactive and dynamic } 6. *AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML):* Scripting languages, particularly JavaScript, facilitate AJAX, enabling seamless communication betwee
let fact = 1; behavior on websites. They allow you to create responsive and engaging user interfaces, console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is ${fact}.`); client and server without requiring a full page reload. This leads to more dynamic and responsive web applications.
for (i = 1; i <= number; i++) { enabling features like form validation, real-time updates, and interactive elements. } 7. *Cross-Browser Compatibility:* Scripting languages help manage the challenges of cross-browser compatibility by providing a consistent way to in
fact *= i; 2. *Client-Side Processing:* Scripting languages are executed on the client-side (in the Q. What is the need of scripting languages in Web Technologies? with the Document Object Model (DOM) across different browsers.
} user's browser). This reduces the need for frequent server requests, improving the overall Scripting languages play a crucial role in web technologies for several reasons: 8. *Rich User Interfaces:* Scripting languages contribute to the creation of rich and interactive user interfaces, supporting features like sliders, drag-
 console.log(`The factorial of ${number} is ${fact}.`); performance and responsiveness of web applications. 1. *Interactivity:* Scripting languages, such as JavaScript, enable interactive drop functionality, and other advanced UI components that enhance the visual appeal of web applications.
} 3. *User Experience Enhancement:* Through scripting languages, developers can and dynamic behavior on websites. They allow you to create responsive and Q.Define an XML schema. Show how an XML schema can be created?
Q. What is the need of scripting languages in Web enhance the overall user experience by creating dynamic content, smooth animations, engaging user interfaces, enabling features like form validation, real-time An XML schema is a way to define the structure, content, and data types of XML documents. It provides a set of rules and constraints that an XML
Technologies? and interactive interfaces. This contributes to a more user-friendly and enjoyable updates, and interactive elements. document must adhere to for it to be considered valid according to the specified schema. XML Schema Definition (XSD) is the most commonly used
Scripting languages play a crucial role in web technologies for several browsing experience. 2. *Client-Side Processing:* Scripting languages are executed on the client-side schema language for XML.
reasons: 4. *Asynchronous Operations:* Scripting languages support asynchronous operations, (in the user's browser). This reduces the need for frequent server requests, Example XML Document (example.xml):
1. *Interactivity:* Scripting languages, such as JavaScript, enable allowing web applications to load and process data in the background without blocking improving the overall performance and responsiveness of web applications. <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
interactive and dynamic behavior on websites. They allow you to create the main thread. This leads to faster and more efficient web applications. 3. *User Experience Enhancement:* Through scripting languages, developers <bookstore>
responsive and engaging user interfaces, enabling features like form 5. *Form Validation:* Scripting languages are commonly used to validate user input in can enhance the overall user experience by creating dynamic content, smooth <book>
validation, real-time updates, and interactive elements. web forms before submitting the data to the server. This helps ensure that data is animations, and interactive interfaces. This contributes to a more user-friendly <title>XML Basics</title>
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developers can enhance the overall user experience by creating cross-browser compatibility by providing a consistent way to interact with the Document 5. *Form Validation:* Scripting languages are commonly used to validate user <author>Jane Smith</author>
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contributes to a more user-friendly and enjoyable browsing experience. 8. *Rich User Interfaces:* Scripting languages contribute to the creation of rich and that data is accurate and reduces the need for server-side validation. </book>
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asynchronous operations, allowing web applications to load and process and other advanced UI components that enhance the visual appeal of web applications. JavaScript, facilitate AJAX, enabling seamless communication between the Q. Java Servlet and CGI
data in the background without blocking the main thread. This leads to Q.Define an XML schema. Show how an XML schema can be created? client and server without requiring a full page reload. This leads to more The world has changed into a mobile-first era but even today, none of the applications could emerge as effective as the web-based apps. Surfacing o
faster and more efficient web applications. An XML schema is a way to define the structure, content, and data types of XML dynamic and responsive web applications. of this is the prevalence of progressive web apps that perform functions identical to mobile apps. In this article, we will understand the difference
5. *Form Validation:* Scripting languages are commonly used to documents. It provides a set of rules and constraints that an XML document must adhere 7. *Cross-Browser Compatibility:* Scripting languages help manage the between the two functionalities in web-based applications namely servlets and CGI.
validate user input in web forms before submitting the data to the to for it to be considered valid according to the specified schema. XML Schema Definition challenges of cross-browser compatibility by providing a consistent way to Servlet is a Java class that is used to extend the capabilities of servers that host applications accessed by means of a request-response model. Servle
server. This helps ensure that data is accurate and reduces the need for (XSD) is the most commonly used schema language for XML. interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) across different browsers. mainly used to extend the applications hosted by web servers, however, they can respond to other types of requests too. For such applications, HTT
server-side validation. Example XML Document (example.xml): 8. *Rich User Interfaces:* Scripting languages contribute to the creation of rich specific servlet classes are defined by Java Servlet technology. All the programs of Servlets are written in JAVA and they get to run on JAVA Virtual
6. *AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML):* Scripting languages, <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> and interactive user interfaces, supporting features like sliders, drag-and-drop Machine. The following image describes how a request from clients is served with the help of threads:
particularly JavaScript, facilitate AJAX, enabling seamless <bookstore> functionality, and other advanced UI components that enhance the visual Common Gateway Interface(CGI): The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) provides the middleware between WWW servers and external databases a
communication between the client and server without requiring a full <book> appeal of web applications. information sources. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) defined the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and also defined how a program intera
page reload. This leads to more dynamic and responsive web <title>XML Basics</title> Q.Define an XML schema. Show how an XML schema can be with a HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server. The Web server typically passes the form information to a small application program that process
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7. *Cross-Browser Compatibility:* Scripting languages help manage the <price>29.99</price> An XML schema is a way to define the structure, content, and data types of called the common gateway interface (CGI). The following image describes how a web server acts as an intermediate between the CGI program and
challenges of cross-browser compatibility by providing a consistent way </book> XML documents. It provides a set of rules and constraints that an XML client browser
to interact with the Document Object Model (DOM) across different <book> document must adhere to for it to be considered valid according to the
browsers. <title>Advanced XML</title> specified schema. XML Schema Definition (XSD) is the most commonly used
8. *Rich User Interfaces:* Scripting languages contribute to the creation <author>Jane Smith</author> schema language for XML.
of rich and interactive user interfaces, supporting features like sliders, <price>39.95</price> Example XML Document (example.xml):
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enhance the visual appeal of web applications. </bookstore> <bookstore>
Q.Define an XML schema. Show how an XML schema can be Q. Java Servlet and CGI <book>
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<author>John Doe</author> with the help of threads: The world has changed into a mobile-first era but even today, none of the
<price>29.99</price> Common Gateway Interface(CGI): The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) provides the applications could emerge as effective as the web-based apps. Surfacing on
</book> middleware between WWW servers and external databases and information sources. The top of this is the prevalence of progressive web apps that perform functions
<book> World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) defined the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and identical to mobile apps. In this article, we will understand the difference
<title>Advanced XML</title> also defined how a program interacts with a HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server. between the two functionalities in web-based applications namely servlets and
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<price>39.95</price> processes the data and may send back a confirmation message. This process or Servlet is a Java class that is used to extend the capabilities of servers that host
</book> convention for passing data back and forth between the server and the application is applications accessed by means of a request-response model. Servlets are
</bookstore> called the common gateway interface (CGI). The following image describes how a web mainly used to extend the applications hosted by web servers, however, they
Q. Java Servlet and CGI server acts as an intermediate between the CGI program and the client browser can respond to other types of requests too. For such applications, HTTP-
The world has changed into a mobile-first era but even today, none of specific servlet classes are defined by Java Servlet technology. All the programs
the applications could emerge as effective as the web-based apps. of Servlets are written in JAVA and they get to run on JAVA Virtual Machine.
Surfacing on top of this is the prevalence of progressive web apps that The following image describes how a request from clients is served with the
perform functions identical to mobile apps. In this article, we will help of threads:
understand the difference between the two functionalities in web- Common Gateway Interface(CGI): The Common Gateway Interface (CGI)
based applications namely servlets and CGI. provides the middleware between WWW servers and external databases and
Servlet is a Java class that is used to extend the capabilities of servers information sources. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) defined the
that host applications accessed by means of a request-response model. Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and also defined how a program interacts
Servlets are mainly used to extend the applications hosted by web with a HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server. The Web server typically
servers, however, they can respond to other types of requests too. For passes the form information to a small application program that processes the
such applications, HTTP-specific servlet classes are defined by Java data and may send back a confirmation message. This process or convention
Servlet technology. All the programs of Servlets are written in JAVA and for passing data back and forth between the server and the application is
they get to run on JAVA Virtual Machine. The following image describes called the common gateway interface (CGI). The following image describes
how a request from clients is served with the help of threads: how a web server acts as an intermediate between the CGI program and the
Common Gateway Interface(CGI): The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) client browser
provides the middleware between WWW servers and external
databases and information sources. The World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) defined the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and also defined
how a program interacts with a HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
server. The Web server typically passes the form information to a small
application program that processes the data and may send back a
confirmation message. This process or convention for passing data back
and forth between the server and the application is called the common
gateway interface (CGI). The following image describes how a web
server acts as an intermediate between the CGI program and the client
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Q.State Sampling theorem. Explain the process of Q.State Sampling theorem. Explain the process of transforming analog data Q.State Sampling theorem. Explain the process of transforming Q.State Sampling theorem. Explain the process of transforming analog data into digital signal using Pulse Code Modulation
transforming analog data into digital signal using Pulse Code into digital signal using Pulse Code Modulation technique with the help of analog data into digital signal using Pulse Code Modulation technique with the help of diagram?
Modulation technique with the help of diagram? diagram? technique with the help of diagram? The Sampling Theorem, also known as Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, states that for a continuous signal to be accurately reconstructed from i
The Sampling Theorem, also known as Nyquist-Shannon sampling The Sampling Theorem, also known as Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, states that The Sampling Theorem, also known as Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem, samples, the sampling frequency (Fs) must be at least twice the maximum frequency (Fmax) present in the original signal. Mathematically, it can be
theorem, states that for a continuous signal to be accurately for a continuous signal to be accurately reconstructed from its samples, the sampling states that for a continuous signal to be accurately reconstructed from its expressed as:
reconstructed from its samples, the sampling frequency (Fs) must be at frequency (Fs) must be at least twice the maximum frequency (Fmax) present in the samples, the sampling frequency (Fs) must be at least twice the maximum Fs ≥ 2 × Fmax
least twice the maximum frequency (Fmax) present in the original original signal. Mathematically, it can be expressed as: frequency (Fmax) present in the original signal. Mathematically, it can be This condition ensures that there is sufficient information to reconstruct the original signal without aliasing.
signal. Mathematically, it can be expressed as: Fs ≥ 2 × Fmax expressed as: *Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Process:*
Fs ≥ 2 × Fmax This condition ensures that there is sufficient information to reconstruct the original Fs ≥ 2 × Fmax 1. *Sampling:*
This condition ensures that there is sufficient information to reconstruct signal without aliasing. This condition ensures that there is sufficient information to reconstruct the - Analog signal is sampled at regular intervals.
the original signal without aliasing. *Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Process:* original signal without aliasing. - Sampling rate (\(f_s\)) adheres to the Sampling Theorem.
*Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Process:* 1. *Sampling:* *Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Process:* 2. *Quantization:*
1. *Sampling:* - Analog signal is sampled at regular intervals. 1. *Sampling:* - Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels.
- Analog signal is sampled at regular intervals. - Sampling rate (\(f_s\)) adheres to the Sampling Theorem. - Analog signal is sampled at regular intervals. - Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the digital signal.
- Sampling rate (\(f_s\)) adheres to the Sampling Theorem. 2. *Quantization:* - Sampling rate (\(f_s\)) adheres to the Sampling Theorem. 3.*Encoding*:
2. *Quantization:* - Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels. 2. *Quantization:* - Quantized samples are encoded into binary code.
- Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels. - Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the digital signal. - Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels. - Each binary code represents a specific amplitude level.
- Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the 3.*Encoding*: - Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the digital - Longer binary codes are used for higher amplitude resolution.
digital signal. - Quantized samples are encoded into binary code. signal. Diagram:
3.*Encoding*: - Each binary code represents a specific amplitude level. 3.*Encoding*:
- Quantized samples are encoded into binary code. - Longer binary codes are used for higher amplitude resolution. - Quantized samples are encoded into binary code. Analog Signal
- Each binary code represents a specific amplitude level. Diagram: - Each binary code represents a specific amplitude level. |
- Longer binary codes are used for higher amplitude resolution. - Longer binary codes are used for higher amplitude resolution. v
Diagram: Analog Signal Diagram: Sampling
| |
Analog Signal v Analog Signal v
| Sampling | Quantization
v | v |
Sampling v Sampling v
| Quantization | Encoding
v | v |
Quantization v Quantization v
| Encoding | Digital Signal (PCM)
v | v In this process, the analog signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete levels, and finally encoded into binary to form a Pulse Code Modulated
Encoding v Encoding digital signal. The accuracy of this transformation relies on adhering to the Sampling Theorem during the sampling phase.
| Digital Signal (PCM) | Q. What is the importance of multiplexing in data communication? Discuss its different application in detail.
v In this process, the analog signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete levels, and v Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication to transmit multiple signals over a single communication channel. It plays a crucial role in
Digital Signal (PCM) finally encoded into binary to form a Pulse Code Modulated (PCM) digital signal. The Digital Signal (PCM) optimizing the use of network resources, increasing efficiency, and reducing costs. By combining multiple signals into a single channel, multiplexing
In this process, the analog signal is first sampled, then quantized to accuracy of this transformation relies on adhering to the Sampling Theorem during the In this process, the analog signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete for more effective utilization of bandwidth.
discrete levels, and finally encoded into binary to form a Pulse Code sampling phase. levels, and finally encoded into binary to form a Pulse Code Modulated (PCM) Importance of Multiplexing:
Modulated (PCM) digital signal. The accuracy of this transformation Q. What is the importance of multiplexing in data communication? Discuss its digital signal. The accuracy of this transformation relies on adhering to the Efficient Use of Bandwidth:
relies on adhering to the Sampling Theorem during the sampling phase. different application in detail. Sampling Theorem during the sampling phase. Multiplexing enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single communication channel, optimizing bandwidth utilization.
Q. What is the importance of multiplexing in data Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication to transmit multiple signals over Q. What is the importance of multiplexing in data communication? This is particularly valuable in scenarios where bandwidth is limited or expensive.
communication? Discuss its different application in detail. a single communication channel. It plays a crucial role in optimizing the use of network Discuss its different application in detail. Cost Savings:
Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication to transmit resources, increasing efficiency, and reducing costs. By combining multiple signals into a Multiplexing is a technique used in data communication to transmit multiple Multiplexing helps in cost reduction by minimizing the need for additional physical communication channels.
multiple signals over a single communication channel. It plays a crucial single channel, multiplexing allows for more effective utilization of bandwidth. signals over a single communication channel. It plays a crucial role in Rather than dedicating separate channels for each signal, multiple signals share a common channel.
role in optimizing the use of network resources, increasing efficiency, Importance of Multiplexing: optimizing the use of network resources, increasing efficiency, and reducing Increased Throughput:
and reducing costs. By combining multiple signals into a single channel, Efficient Use of Bandwidth: costs. By combining multiple signals into a single channel, multiplexing allows Multiplexing allows for increased data throughput by transmitting multiple signals concurrently.
multiplexing allows for more effective utilization of bandwidth. Multiplexing enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single for more effective utilization of bandwidth. It enhances the overall capacity and efficiency of communication systems.
Importance of Multiplexing: communication channel, optimizing bandwidth utilization. Importance of Multiplexing: Flexibility and Scalability:
Efficient Use of Bandwidth: This is particularly valuable in scenarios where bandwidth is limited or expensive. Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Multiplexing provides flexibility and scalability, allowing for the easy addition or removal of signals as needed.
Multiplexing enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals Cost Savings: Multiplexing enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a It adapts to changing communication requirements without significant infrastructure changes.
over a single communication channel, optimizing bandwidth utilization. Multiplexing helps in cost reduction by minimizing the need for additional physical single communication channel, optimizing bandwidth utilization. Resource Optimization:
This is particularly valuable in scenarios where bandwidth is limited or communication channels. This is particularly valuable in scenarios where bandwidth is limited or Efficient resource utilization is achieved through multiplexing, as it enables the integration of various data streams.
expensive. Rather than dedicating separate channels for each signal, multiple signals share a expensive. Resources such as cables, satellites, or network links are utilized more effectively.
Cost Savings: common channel. Cost Savings: Improved Communication Reliability:
Multiplexing helps in cost reduction by minimizing the need for Increased Throughput: Multiplexing helps in cost reduction by minimizing the need for additional Multiplexing enhances communication reliability by ensuring that different signals can coexist without interfering with each other.
additional physical communication channels. Multiplexing allows for increased data throughput by transmitting multiple signals physical communication channels. It helps in avoiding signal collisions and reduces the risk of data corruption.
Rather than dedicating separate channels for each signal, multiple concurrently. Rather than dedicating separate channels for each signal, multiple signals Applications of Multiplexing:
signals share a common channel. It enhances the overall capacity and efficiency of communication systems. share a common channel. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
Increased Throughput: Flexibility and Scalability: Increased Throughput: Application: Used in traditional analog communication systems, such as radio and television broadcasting. • Allocates distinct frequency bands to
Multiplexing allows for increased data throughput by transmitting Multiplexing provides flexibility and scalability, allowing for the easy addition or removal Multiplexing allows for increased data throughput by transmitting multiple different signals, allowing them to coexist without interference.
multiple signals concurrently. of signals as needed. signals concurrently. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
It enhances the overall capacity and efficiency of communication It adapts to changing communication requirements without significant infrastructure It enhances the overall capacity and efficiency of communication systems. Application: Commonly used in digital communication systems, including telecommunications and computer networking.
systems. changes. Flexibility and Scalability: • Divides the time into slots, and each signal is allocated a specific time slot for transmission.
Flexibility and Scalability: Resource Optimization: Multiplexing provides flexibility and scalability, allowing for the easy addition Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):
Multiplexing provides flexibility and scalability, allowing for the easy Efficient resource utilization is achieved through multiplexing, as it enables the or removal of signals as needed. Application: In fiber-optic communication systems, particularly in high-capacity long-distance networks. • Uses different wavelengths of light to tran
addition or removal of signals as needed. integration of various data streams. It adapts to changing communication requirements without significant multiple signals simultaneously over a single optical fiber.
It adapts to changing communication requirements without significant Resources such as cables, satellites, or network links are utilized more effectively. infrastructure changes.
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):
infrastructure changes. Improved Communication Reliability: Resource Optimization: Application: Commonly used in wireless communication systems, including CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) in cellular networks.
Resource Optimization: Multiplexing enhances communication reliability by ensuring that different signals can Efficient resource utilization is achieved through multiplexing, as it enables the • Assigns a unique code to each signal, allowing multiple signals to share the same frequency without interference.
Efficient resource utilization is achieved through multiplexing, as it coexist without interfering with each other. integration of various data streams.
Statistical Multiplexing:
enables the integration of various data streams. It helps in avoiding signal collisions and reduces the risk of data corruption. Resources such as cables, satellites, or network links are utilized more
Application: Used in packet-switched networks, such as the internet.
Resources such as cables, satellites, or network links are utilized more Applications of Multiplexing: effectively.
• Allocates bandwidth dynamically based on demand, allowing multiple users to share the same channel as needed.
effectively. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Improved Communication Reliability:
Q. Explain the process involved in PAM with neat diagram?
Improved Communication Reliability: Application: Used in traditional analog communication systems, such as radio and Multiplexing enhances communication reliability by ensuring that different
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
Multiplexing enhances communication reliability by ensuring that television broadcasting. • Allocates distinct frequency bands to different signals, allowing signals can coexist without interfering with each other.
PAM is a modulation technique where the amplitude of regularly spaced pulses is varied based on the amplitude of the message signal. Here's a det
different signals can coexist without interfering with each other. them to coexist without interference. It helps in avoiding signal collisions and reduces the risk of data corruption.
explanation of the process with a diagram:
It helps in avoiding signal collisions and reduces the risk of data Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Applications of Multiplexing:
corruption. 1. Sampling: • The continuous message signal is sampled at regular intervals. • Samples represent the amplitude of the message signal at specific
Application: Commonly used in digital communication systems, including Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
points in time.
Applications of Multiplexing: telecommunications and computer networking. Application: Used in traditional analog communication systems, such as radio
2. Quantization: • Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels. • Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth o
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): • Divides the time into slots, and each signal is allocated a specific time slot for and television broadcasting. • Allocates distinct frequency bands to different
PAM signal.
Application: Used in traditional analog communication systems, such as transmission. signals, allowing them to coexist without interference.
3. Pulse Generation: • Pulses are generated based on the quantized amplitude values. • Higher amplitude corresponds to taller pulses, and lowe
radio and television broadcasting. • Allocates distinct frequency bands Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
to different signals, allowing them to coexist without interference. amplitude corresponds to shorter pulses.
Application: In fiber-optic communication systems, particularly in high-capacity long- Application: Commonly used in digital communication systems, including
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): telecommunications and computer networking. 4. Amplitude Modulation: • The generated pulses modulate the amplitude of a carrier signal. • The amplitude variations in the pulses represent
distance networks. • Uses different wavelengths of light to transmit multiple signals
Application: Commonly used in digital communication systems, • Divides the time into slots, and each signal is allocated a specific time slot information from the message signal.
simultaneously over a single optical fiber.
including telecommunications and computer networking. for transmission. Diagram:
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):
• Divides the time into slots, and each signal is allocated a specific time Application: Commonly used in wireless communication systems, including CDMA (Code Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Message Signal
slot for transmission. Division Multiple Access) in cellular networks. Application: In fiber-optic communication systems, particularly in high-capacity |
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): • Assigns a unique code to each signal, allowing multiple signals to share the same long-distance networks. • Uses different wavelengths of light to transmit v
Application: In fiber-optic communication systems, particularly in high- frequency without interference. multiple signals simultaneously over a single optical fiber. Sampling
capacity long-distance networks. • Uses different wavelengths of light Statistical Multiplexing: Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): |
to transmit multiple signals simultaneously over a single optical fiber. Application: Used in packet-switched networks, such as the internet. Application: Commonly used in wireless communication systems, including v
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): • Allocates bandwidth dynamically based on demand, allowing multiple users to share CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) in cellular networks. Quantization
Application: Commonly used in wireless communication systems, the same channel as needed. • Assigns a unique code to each signal, allowing multiple signals to share the |
including CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) in cellular networks. Q. Explain the process involved in PAM with neat diagram? same frequency without interference. v
• Assigns a unique code to each signal, allowing multiple signals to Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM): Statistical Multiplexing: Pulse Generation
share the same frequency without interference. PAM is a modulation technique where the amplitude of regularly spaced pulses is varied Application: Used in packet-switched networks, such as the internet.
|
Statistical Multiplexing: based on the amplitude of the message signal. Here's a detailed explanation of the • Allocates bandwidth dynamically based on demand, allowing multiple users
v
Application: Used in packet-switched networks, such as the internet. process with a diagram: to share the same channel as needed.
Amplitude Modulation
• Allocates bandwidth dynamically based on demand, allowing multiple 1. Sampling: • The continuous message signal is sampled at regular intervals. Q. Explain the process involved in PAM with neat diagram?
users to share the same channel as needed. |
• Samples represent the amplitude of the message signal at specific points in time. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
Q. Explain the process involved in PAM with neat diagram? v
2. Quantization: • Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set of levels. PAM is a modulation technique where the amplitude of regularly spaced
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM): • Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the PAM signal. pulses is varied based on the amplitude of the message signal. Here's a PAM Signal
PAM is a modulation technique where the amplitude of regularly detailed explanation of the process with a diagram: In the diagram, the message signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete levels. The quantized samples are used to generate pulses, and these
3. Pulse Generation: • Pulses are generated based on the quantized amplitude values.
spaced pulses is varied based on the amplitude of the message signal. 1. Sampling: • The continuous message signal is sampled at regular modulate the amplitude of a carrier signal. The resulting PAM signal carries the information from the original message signal through variations in p
• Higher amplitude corresponds to taller pulses, and lower amplitude corresponds to
Here's a detailed explanation of the process with a diagram: amplitude. PAM is a basic form of modulation used in various communication systems.
shorter pulses. intervals. • Samples represent the amplitude of the message signal at specific
1. Sampling: • The continuous message signal is sampled at regular Q. Define Channel Capacity. What key factors affect highest data rate for noiseless channel and noisy channel?
4. Amplitude Modulation: • The generated pulses modulate the amplitude of a points in time.
intervals. • Samples represent the amplitude of the message signal at 2. Quantization: • Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a discrete set Channel Capacity:
carrier signal. • The amplitude variations in the pulses represent the information from the
specific points in time. Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at which information can be reliably transmitted over a communication channel. It is a fundamental co
message signal. of levels. • Quantization levels determine the resolution or bit depth of the
2. Quantization: • Each sample's amplitude is quantized into a in information theory and is measured in bits per second (bps). The channel capacity is influenced by various factors, and it is not always possible to
Diagram: PAM signal.
transmit data at the channel's theoretical capacity due to practical constraints.
discrete set of levels. • Quantization levels determine the resolution or Message Signal 3. Pulse Generation: • Pulses are generated based on the quantized
bit depth of the PAM signal. Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noiseless Channel:
| amplitude values. • Higher amplitude corresponds to taller pulses, and lower
3. Pulse Generation: • Pulses are generated based on the quantized amplitude corresponds to shorter pulses. 1. Bandwidth (B): - A wider bandwidth allows for a higher data rate in a noiseless channel. The relationship between bandwidth and data rate is g
v by the Nyquist formula: (C = 2B), where (C) is the channel capacity.
amplitude values. • Higher amplitude corresponds to taller pulses, and Sampling 4. Amplitude Modulation: • The generated pulses modulate the amplitude
lower amplitude corresponds to shorter pulses. 2. Signal Levels (L):- Increasing the number of distinct signal levels (symbols) that can be transmitted per unit of time enhances data rate in a nois
| of a carrier signal. • The amplitude variations in the pulses represent the
4. Amplitude Modulation: • The generated pulses modulate the channel.
v information from the message signal.
3. Transmission Time (T): - Shorter transmission times contribute to a higher data rate, given the same amount of transmitted information.
amplitude of a carrier signal. • The amplitude variations in the pulses
Quantization Diagram:
represent the information from the message signal. Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noisy Channel:
| Message Signal
Diagram: 1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):- A higher SNR results in a better ratio of signal power to noise power, allowing for more reliable communication
v |
Message Signal is crucial in achieving higher data rates in the presence of noise.
Pulse Generation v
| 2. Error Correction Coding: - The use of error correction codes can improve the robustness of communication in a noisy channel, allowing for hig
| Sampling
data rates by compensating for errors.
v |
v 3. Modulation Scheme:- More advanced modulation schemes can be employed to transmit multiple bits per symbol, increasing data rate. Howev
Sampling v
Amplitude Modulation these schemes may require a higher SNR.
| Quantization
| 4. Channel Equalization: - Techniques like equalization can be applied to mitigate the effects of channel distortion, enabling higher data rates by
v |
v improving signal integrity.
Quantization v
PAM Signal 5. Adaptive Modulation: - Systems that can adapt the modulation scheme and data rate based on the channel conditions can achieve higher effic
| Pulse Generation in noisy environments.
In the diagram, the message signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete levels. The
v quantized samples are used to generate pulses, and these pulses modulate the amplitude | Achieving the highest data rate involves a trade-off between factors like bandwidth, signal levels, transmission time, and considerations specific to d
Pulse Generation of a carrier signal. The resulting PAM signal carries the information from the original v with noise in the channel. In practice, achieving the theoretical channel capacity is often challenging due to practical limitations and imperfections in
| message signal through variations in pulse amplitude. PAM is a basic form of modulation Amplitude Modulation world communication channels.
v used in various communication systems. |
Amplitude Modulation Q. Define Channel Capacity. What key factors affect highest data rate for v
| noiseless channel and noisy channel? PAM Signal
v Channel Capacity: In the diagram, the message signal is first sampled, then quantized to discrete
PAM Signal Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at which information can be reliably levels. The quantized samples are used to generate pulses, and these pulses
In the diagram, the message signal is first sampled, then quantized to transmitted over a communication channel. It is a fundamental concept in information modulate the amplitude of a carrier signal. The resulting PAM signal carries the
discrete levels. The quantized samples are used to generate pulses, and theory and is measured in bits per second (bps). The channel capacity is influenced by information from the original message signal through variations in pulse
these pulses modulate the amplitude of a carrier signal. The resulting various factors, and it is not always possible to transmit data at the channel's theoretical amplitude. PAM is a basic form of modulation used in various communication
PAM signal carries the information from the original message signal capacity due to practical constraints. systems.
through variations in pulse amplitude. PAM is a basic form of Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noiseless Channel: Q. Define Channel Capacity. What key factors affect highest data
modulation used in various communication systems. 1. Bandwidth (B): - A wider bandwidth allows for a higher data rate in a noiseless rate for noiseless channel and noisy channel?
Q. Define Channel Capacity. What key factors affect highest channel. The relationship between bandwidth and data rate is given by the Nyquist Channel Capacity:
data rate for noiseless channel and noisy channel? formula: (C = 2B), where (C) is the channel capacity. Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at which information can be
Channel Capacity: 2. Signal Levels (L):- Increasing the number of distinct signal levels (symbols) that can reliably transmitted over a communication channel. It is a fundamental
Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted per unit of time enhances data rate in a noiseless channel. concept in information theory and is measured in bits per second (bps). The
be reliably transmitted over a communication channel. It is a 3. Transmission Time (T): - Shorter transmission times contribute to a higher data channel capacity is influenced by various factors, and it is not always possible
fundamental concept in information theory and is measured in bits per rate, given the same amount of transmitted information. to transmit data at the channel's theoretical capacity due to practical
second (bps). The channel capacity is influenced by various factors, and Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noisy Channel: constraints.
it is not always possible to transmit data at the channel's theoretical 1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):- A higher SNR results in a better ratio of signal power Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noiseless Channel:
capacity due to practical constraints. to noise power, allowing for more reliable communication. This is crucial in achieving 1. Bandwidth (B): - A wider bandwidth allows for a higher data rate in a
Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noiseless Channel: higher data rates in the presence of noise. noiseless channel. The relationship between bandwidth and data rate is given
1. Bandwidth (B): - A wider bandwidth allows for a higher data rate in 2. Error Correction Coding: - The use of error correction codes can improve the by the Nyquist formula: (C = 2B), where (C) is the channel capacity.
a noiseless channel. The relationship between bandwidth and data rate robustness of communication in a noisy channel, allowing for higher data rates by 2. Signal Levels (L):- Increasing the number of distinct signal levels
is given by the Nyquist formula: (C = 2B), where (C) is the channel compensating for errors. (symbols) that can be transmitted per unit of time enhances data rate in a
capacity. 3. Modulation Scheme:- More advanced modulation schemes can be employed to noiseless channel.
2. Signal Levels (L):- Increasing the number of distinct signal levels transmit multiple bits per symbol, increasing data rate. However, these schemes may 3. Transmission Time (T): - Shorter transmission times contribute to a
(symbols) that can be transmitted per unit of time enhances data rate in require a higher SNR. higher data rate, given the same amount of transmitted information.
a noiseless channel. 4. Channel Equalization: - Techniques like equalization can be applied to mitigate the Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noisy Channel:
3. Transmission Time (T): - Shorter transmission times contribute to effects of channel distortion, enabling higher data rates by improving signal integrity. 1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):- A higher SNR results in a better ratio of
a higher data rate, given the same amount of transmitted information. 5. Adaptive Modulation: - Systems that can adapt the modulation scheme and data signal power to noise power, allowing for more reliable communication. This is
Factors Affecting Highest Data Rate for Noisy Channel: rate based on the channel conditions can achieve higher efficiency in noisy environments. crucial in achieving higher data rates in the presence of noise.
1. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):- A higher SNR results in a better Achieving the highest data rate involves a trade-off between factors like bandwidth, 2. Error Correction Coding: - The use of error correction codes can
ratio of signal power to noise power, allowing for more reliable signal levels, transmission time, and considerations specific to dealing with noise in the improve the robustness of communication in a noisy channel, allowing for
communication. This is crucial in achieving higher data rates in the channel. In practice, achieving the theoretical channel capacity is often challenging due to higher data rates by compensating for errors.
presence of noise. practical limitations and imperfections in real-world communication channels. 3. Modulation Scheme:- More advanced modulation schemes can be
2. Error Correction Coding: - The use of error correction codes can employed to transmit multiple bits per symbol, increasing data rate. However,
improve the robustness of communication in a noisy channel, allowing these schemes may require a higher SNR.
for higher data rates by compensating for errors. 4. Channel Equalization: - Techniques like equalization can be applied to
3. Modulation Scheme:- More advanced modulation schemes can be mitigate the effects of channel distortion, enabling higher data rates by
employed to transmit multiple bits per symbol, increasing data rate. improving signal integrity.
However, these schemes may require a higher SNR. 5. Adaptive Modulation: - Systems that can adapt the modulation scheme
4. Channel Equalization: - Techniques like equalization can be and data rate based on the channel conditions can achieve higher efficiency in
applied to mitigate the effects of channel distortion, enabling higher noisy environments.
data rates by improving signal integrity. Achieving the highest data rate involves a trade-off between factors like
5. Adaptive Modulation: - Systems that can adapt the modulation bandwidth, signal levels, transmission time, and considerations specific to
scheme and data rate based on the channel conditions can achieve dealing with noise in the channel. In practice, achieving the theoretical channel
higher efficiency in noisy environments. capacity is often challenging due to practical limitations and imperfections in
Achieving the highest data rate involves a trade-off between factors like real-world communication channels.
bandwidth, signal levels, transmission time, and considerations specific
to dealing with noise in the channel
Q.Define Topology. Discuss different types of Topology? Q.Define Topology. Discuss different types of Topology? Q.Define Topology. Discuss different types of Topology? Q.Define Topology. Discuss different types of Topology?
Topology: Topology: Topology: Topology:
Topology refers to the arrangement or structure of a computer Topology refers to the arrangement or structure of a computer network, including the Topology refers to the arrangement or structure of a computer network, Topology refers to the arrangement or structure of a computer network, including the physical or logical layout of its components. It defines how de
network, including the physical or logical layout of its components. It physical or logical layout of its components. It defines how devices, nodes, and links are including the physical or logical layout of its components. It defines how nodes, and links are interconnected and how data flows within the network. The choice of network topology affects factors such as performance,
defines how devices, nodes, and links are interconnected and how data interconnected and how data flows within the network. The choice of network topology devices, nodes, and links are interconnected and how data flows within the reliability, scalability, and ease of maintenance.
flows within the network. The choice of network topology affects affects factors such as performance, reliability, scalability, and ease of maintenance. network. The choice of network topology affects factors such as performance, Different Types of Network Topology:
factors such as performance, reliability, scalability, and ease of Different Types of Network Topology: reliability, scalability, and ease of maintenance. Bus Topology: • All devices are connected to a central communication bus. The bus acts as a shared communication medium.
maintenance. Bus Topology: • All devices are connected to a central communication bus. The bus acts Different Types of Network Topology: • Simple and cost-effective. • Single point of failure.
Different Types of Network Topology: as a shared communication medium. Bus Topology: • All devices are connected to a central communication bus. • Performance degrades as more devices are added.
Bus Topology: • All devices are connected to a central communication • Simple and cost-effective. • Single point of failure. The bus acts as a shared communication medium. Star Topology: • All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The central hub facilitates communication between devices. •Centralized co
bus. The bus acts as a shared communication medium. • Performance degrades as more devices are added. • Simple and cost-effective. • Single point of failure. simplifies network management.
• Simple and cost-effective. • Single point of failure. Star Topology: • All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The central hub • Performance degrades as more devices are added. •Failure of one cable or device does not impact others. •Dependence on the central hub; if it fails, the entire network is affected.
• Performance degrades as more devices are added. facilitates communication between devices. •Centralized control simplifies network Star Topology: • All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The Ring Topology: •Devices are connected in a closed loop or ring, where each device is connected to exactly two other devices.
Star Topology: • All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. management. central hub facilitates communication between devices. •Centralized control •Simple and easy to install.
The central hub facilitates communication between devices. •Failure of one cable or device does not impact others. •Dependence on the central hub; simplifies network management. •Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions.
•Centralized control simplifies network management. if it fails, the entire network is affected. •Failure of one cable or device does not impact others. •Dependence on the •Failure of one device or cable can disrupt the entire network.
•Failure of one cable or device does not impact others. •Dependence on Ring Topology: •Devices are connected in a closed loop or ring, where each device is central hub; if it fails, the entire network is affected. Mesh Topology: •Every device is directly connected to every other device in the network. There are full mesh (every device connected to every ot
the central hub; if it fails, the entire network is affected. connected to exactly two other devices. Ring Topology: •Devices are connected in a closed loop or ring, where each and partial mesh (some devices are directly connected) variations.
Ring Topology: •Devices are connected in a closed loop or ring, •Simple and easy to install. device is connected to exactly two other devices. •High redundancy and fault tolerance.
where each device is connected to exactly two other devices. •Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions. •Simple and easy to install. •Expensive and complex due to numerous connections.
•Simple and easy to install. •Failure of one device or cable can disrupt the entire network. •Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions. •Provides multiple communication paths.
•Data travels in one direction, reducing collisions. Mesh Topology: •Every device is directly connected to every other device in the •Failure of one device or cable can disrupt the entire network. Tree Topology: •Combines characteristics of star and bus topologies. •Devices are organized hierarchically, and multiple star-configured networks
•Failure of one device or cable can disrupt the entire network. network. There are full mesh (every device connected to every other) and partial mesh Mesh Topology: •Every device is directly connected to every other device in connected to a central bus backbone.
Mesh Topology: •Every device is directly connected to every other (some devices are directly connected) variations. the network. There are full mesh (every device connected to every other) and •Scalable and allows for expansion.
device in the network. There are full mesh (every device connected to •High redundancy and fault tolerance. partial mesh (some devices are directly connected) variations. •Failure in the central backbone affects the entire network.
every other) and partial mesh (some devices are directly connected) •Expensive and complex due to numerous connections. •High redundancy and fault tolerance. •Commonly used in larger organizations.
variations. •Provides multiple communication paths. •Expensive and complex due to numerous connections. Hybrid Topology:A combination of two or more different types of topologies. For example, a network may have a combination of star and bus
•High redundancy and fault tolerance. Tree Topology: •Combines characteristics of star and bus topologies. •Devices are •Provides multiple communication paths. topologies.
•Expensive and complex due to numerous connections. organized hierarchically, and multiple star-configured networks are connected to a Tree Topology: •Combines characteristics of star and bus topologies. •Offers flexibility to meet specific requirements.
•Provides multiple communication paths. central bus backbone. •Devices are organized hierarchically, and multiple star-configured networks •Complex to design and manage.
Tree Topology: •Combines characteristics of star and bus topologies. •Scalable and allows for expansion. are connected to a central bus backbone. •Commonly used in larger networks.
•Devices are organized hierarchically, and multiple star-configured •Failure in the central backbone affects the entire network. •Scalable and allows for expansion. The choice of topology depends on factors like the size of the network, cost, scalability, fault tolerance, and the specific needs of the organization or
networks are connected to a central bus backbone. •Commonly used in larger organizations. •Failure in the central backbone affects the entire network. application. Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages, and the selection should align with the network's goals and requirements.
•Scalable and allows for expansion. Hybrid Topology:A combination of two or more different types of topologies. For •Commonly used in larger organizations. # Short Note
•Failure in the central backbone affects the entire network. example, a network may have a combination of star and bus topologies. Hybrid Topology:A combination of two or more different types of (a). Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal:
•Commonly used in larger organizations. •Offers flexibility to meet specific requirements. topologies. For example, a network may have a combination of star and bus Periodic Signal:
Hybrid Topology:A combination of two or more different types of •Complex to design and manage. topologies. A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a specific time interval, known as the period.
topologies. For example, a network may have a combination of star and •Commonly used in larger networks. •Offers flexibility to meet specific requirements. The mathematical representation of a periodic signal can be expressed as x(t)=x(t+T) where T is the period.
bus topologies. The choice of topology depends on factors like the size of the network, cost, scalability, •Complex to design and manage. Examples of periodic signals include sine waves, square waves, and triangular waves.
•Offers flexibility to meet specific requirements. fault tolerance, and the specific needs of the organization or application. Each topology •Commonly used in larger networks. Periodic signals have a fundamental frequency and harmonics.
•Complex to design and manage. has its advantages and disadvantages, and the selection should align with the network's The choice of topology depends on factors like the size of the network, cost, Non-Periodic Signal (Aperiodic):
•Commonly used in larger networks. goals and requirements. scalability, fault tolerance, and the specific needs of the organization or A non-periodic signal does not repeat its pattern, and there is no defined period.
The choice of topology depends on factors like the size of the network, # Short Note application. Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages, and the The mathematical representation of a non-periodic signal does not satisfy
cost, scalability, fault tolerance, and the specific needs of the (a). Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal: selection should align with the network's goals and requirements. x(t)= x(t+T) for any T.
organization or application. Each topology has its advantages and Periodic Signal: # Short Note Examples of non-periodic signals include transient signals and random signals.
disadvantages, and the selection should align with the network's goals A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a specific time interval, known as the period. (a). Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal: Non-periodic signals do not have a fundamental frequency or harmonics.
and requirements. The mathematical representation of a periodic signal can be expressed as x(t)=x(t+T) Periodic Signal: Note: Many real-world signals are a combination of periodic and non-periodic components. Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a signal into
# Short Note where T is the period. A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a specific time interval, known as the frequency components, whether periodic or non-periodic.
(a). Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal: Examples of periodic signals include sine waves, square waves, and triangular waves. period. (b). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
Periodic Signal: Periodic signals have a fundamental frequency and harmonics. The mathematical representation of a periodic signal can be expressed as Time Division Multiplexing is a technique used in communication systems to transmit multiple signals over a single communication channel by alloca
A periodic signal repeats its pattern over a specific time interval, known Non-Periodic Signal (Aperiodic): x(t)=x(t+T) where T is the period. specific time slots to each signal.
as the period. A non-periodic signal does not repeat its pattern, and there is no defined period. Examples of periodic signals include sine waves, square waves, and triangular In TDM, the time axis is divided into discrete time slots, and each input signal is assigned a unique time slot for transmission.
The mathematical representation of a periodic signal can be expressed The mathematical representation of a non-periodic signal does not satisfy waves. Key Points:
as x(t)=x(t+T) where T is the period. x(t)= x(t+T) for any T. Periodic signals have a fundamental frequency and harmonics. Time Slot Allocation:
Examples of periodic signals include sine waves, square waves, and Examples of non-periodic signals include transient signals and random signals. Non-Periodic Signal (Aperiodic): Each input signal is assigned a fixed time slot.
triangular waves. Non-periodic signals do not have a fundamental frequency or harmonics. A non-periodic signal does not repeat its pattern, and there is no defined The time slots are cyclically allocated, ensuring that each signal gets its turn.
Periodic signals have a fundamental frequency and harmonics. Note: Many real-world signals are a combination of periodic and non-periodic period. Synchronization:
Non-Periodic Signal (Aperiodic): components. Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a signal into its frequency The mathematical representation of a non-periodic signal does not satisfy Devices in the communication system need to be synchronized to ensure accurate time slot allocation.
A non-periodic signal does not repeat its pattern, and there is no components, whether periodic or non-periodic. x(t)= x(t+T) for any T. Efficiency:
defined period. (b). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Examples of non-periodic signals include transient signals and random signals. TDM improves channel efficiency by allowing multiple signals to share the same channel without interference.
The mathematical representation of a non-periodic signal does not Time Division Multiplexing is a technique used in communication systems to transmit Non-periodic signals do not have a fundamental frequency or harmonics. Applications:
satisfy multiple signals over a single communication channel by allocating specific time slots to Note: Many real-world signals are a combination of periodic and non-periodic Commonly used in telephone networks, where multiple conversations share the same physical communication line.
x(t)= x(t+T) for any T. each signal. components. Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a signal into its
Types:
Examples of non-periodic signals include transient signals and random In TDM, the time axis is divided into discrete time slots, and each input signal is assigned a frequency components, whether periodic or non-periodic.
Synchronous TDM (STDM): All devices operate in sync with a common clock.
signals. unique time slot for transmission. (b). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Asynchronous TDM (ATDM): Devices operate independently, and a specific slot is allocated only when there is data to transmit.
Non-periodic signals do not have a fundamental frequency or Key Points: Time Division Multiplexing is a technique used in communication systems to
Drawback:
harmonics. Time Slot Allocation: transmit multiple signals over a single communication channel by allocating
TDM might face challenges in handling variable data rates or bursty traffic efficiently.
Note: Many real-world signals are a combination of periodic and non- Each input signal is assigned a fixed time slot. specific time slots to each signal.
periodic components. Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a (c). Spread Spectrum Technique:
The time slots are cyclically allocated, ensuring that each signal gets its turn. In TDM, the time axis is divided into discrete time slots, and each input signal is
signal into its frequency components, whether periodic or non-periodic. Spread Spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the signal over a wide frequency band, providing advantages such as increased resistan
Synchronization: assigned a unique time slot for transmission.
interference and improved security.
(b). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Devices in the communication system need to be synchronized to ensure accurate time Key Points:
Key Points:Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
Time Division Multiplexing is a technique used in communication slot allocation. Time Slot Allocation:
systems to transmit multiple signals over a single communication The transmitted signal rapidly changes its frequency within the channel bandwidth.
Efficiency: Each input signal is assigned a fixed time slot.
channel by allocating specific time slots to each signal. The transmitter and receiver are synchronized to hop between frequencies in a predetermined pattern.
TDM improves channel efficiency by allowing multiple signals to share the same channel The time slots are cyclically allocated, ensuring that each signal gets its turn.
In TDM, the time axis is divided into discrete time slots, and each input Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
without interference. Synchronization:
signal is assigned a unique time slot for transmission. Each bit of the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal (chip sequence).
Applications: Devices in the communication system need to be synchronized to ensure
Key Points: The chip sequence is combined with the original signal, spreading it over a wider frequency band.
Commonly used in telephone networks, where multiple conversations share the same accurate time slot allocation.
Time Slot Allocation: Advantages:
physical communication line. Efficiency:
Each input signal is assigned a fixed time slot. Interference Resistance: Spread spectrum signals are more resistant to interference and jamming.
Types: TDM improves channel efficiency by allowing multiple signals to share the
The time slots are cyclically allocated, ensuring that each signal gets its Security: Difficult to intercept due to signal spreading.
Synchronous TDM (STDM): All devices operate in sync with a common clock. same channel without interference.
turn. Multiple Access: Supports multiple users sharing the same frequency band.
Asynchronous TDM (ATDM): Devices operate independently, and a specific slot is Applications:
Synchronization: Applications:
allocated only when there is data to transmit. Commonly used in telephone networks, where multiple conversations share
Devices in the communication system need to be synchronized to Widely used in wireless communication systems, such as Wi-Fi and CDMA-based mobile networks.
Drawback: the same physical communication line.
ensure accurate time slot allocation. Military applications for secure communication.
TDM might face challenges in handling variable data rates or bursty traffic efficiently. Types:
Efficiency: Challenges:
(c). Spread Spectrum Technique: Synchronous TDM (STDM): All devices operate in sync with a common clock.
TDM improves channel efficiency by allowing multiple signals to share Requires more bandwidth compared to narrowband systems.
Spread Spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the signal over a wide Asynchronous TDM (ATDM): Devices operate independently, and a specific slot
the same channel without interference. Increased complexity in implementation.
frequency band, providing advantages such as increased resistance to interference and is allocated only when there is data to transmit.
Applications: Q.What is the total bandwidth required for frequency modulation?
improved security. Drawback:
Commonly used in telephone networks, where multiple conversations The total bandwidth required for Frequency Modulation (FM) is determined by Carson's rule, which provides an approximate formula for calculating
Key Points:Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): TDM might face challenges in handling variable data rates or bursty traffic
share the same physical communication line. bandwidth of an FM signal.
The transmitted signal rapidly changes its frequency within the channel bandwidth. efficiently.
Types: Carson's Rule for FM Bandwidth:
The transmitter and receiver are synchronized to hop between frequencies in a (c). Spread Spectrum Technique:
Synchronous TDM (STDM): All devices operate in sync with a common B FM ≈2(Δf+f m )
Spread Spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the signal over a
clock. predetermined pattern. wide frequency band, providing advantages such as increased resistance to Where:
Asynchronous TDM (ATDM): Devices operate independently, and a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): interference and improved security. B FM is the total bandwidth.
specific slot is allocated only when there is data to transmit. Each bit of the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal Key Points:Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Δf is the frequency deviation, representing the maximum frequency deviation from the carrier frequency caused by the modulating signal.
Drawback: (chip sequence). The transmitted signal rapidly changes its frequency within the channel f m is the frequency of the modulating signal (audio signal).
TDM might face challenges in handling variable data rates or bursty The chip sequence is combined with the original signal, spreading it over a wider bandwidth. In summary, the bandwidth of an FM signal is directly proportional to the frequency deviation (Δf) and the frequency of the modulating signal (f m).
traffic efficiently. frequency band. The transmitter and receiver are synchronized to hop between frequencies in factor of 2 accounts for both the upper and lower sidebands created during frequency modulation.
(c). Spread Spectrum Technique: Advantages: a predetermined pattern. It's important to note that FM signals have a wide bandwidth compared to amplitude modulation (AM), making efficient utilization of the frequency
Spread Spectrum is a communication technique that spreads the signal Interference Resistance: Spread spectrum signals are more resistant to interference and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): spectrum a crucial consideration in FM broadcasting.
over a wide frequency band, providing advantages such as increased jamming. Each bit of the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted Q. Explain ASK, FSK and PSK with neat diagram.
resistance to interference and improved security. Security: Difficult to intercept due to signal spreading. signal (chip sequence). ASK
Key Points:Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Multiple Access: Supports multiple users sharing the same frequency band. The chip sequence is combined with the original signal, spreading it over a The short form of Amplitude Shift Keying is referred as ASK. It is the digital modulation technique. In this technique, amplitude of the RF carrier is va
The transmitted signal rapidly changes its frequency within the channel Applications: wider frequency band. accordance with baseband digital input signal. The figure depicts operation of ASK modulation. As shown in the figure, binary 1 will be represented b
bandwidth. Widely used in wireless communication systems, such as Wi-Fi and CDMA-based mobile Advantages: carrier signal with some amplitude while binary 0 will be represented by carrier of zero amplitude(i.e. no carrier).
The transmitter and receiver are synchronized to hop between networks. Interference Resistance: Spread spectrum signals are more resistant to
frequencies in a predetermined pattern. Military applications for secure communication. interference and jamming.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Challenges: Security: Difficult to intercept due to signal spreading.
Each bit of the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the Requires more bandwidth compared to narrowband systems. Multiple Access: Supports multiple users sharing the same frequency band.
transmitted signal (chip sequence). Increased complexity in implementation. Applications:
The chip sequence is combined with the original signal, spreading it Q.What is the total bandwidth required for frequency modulation? Widely used in wireless communication systems, such as Wi-Fi and CDMA- Often in ASK modulation, binary-1 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A2 and binary-0 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A1. Here A2 is
over a wider frequency band. The total bandwidth required for Frequency Modulation (FM) is determined by Carson's based mobile networks. greater in magnitude compare to A1.
Advantages: rule, which provides an approximate formula for calculating the bandwidth of an FM Military applications for secure communication. • In ASK probability of error (Pe) is high and SNR is less.
Interference Resistance: Spread spectrum signals are more resistant to signal. Challenges: • It has lowest noise immunity against noise.
interference and jamming. Carson's Rule for FM Bandwidth: Requires more bandwidth compared to narrowband systems. • ASK is a bandwidth efficient system but it has lower power efficiency.
Security: Difficult to intercept due to signal spreading. B FM ≈2(Δf+f m ) Increased complexity in implementation. FSK
Multiple Access: Supports multiple users sharing the same frequency Where: Q.What is the total bandwidth required for frequency modulation? The short form of Frequency Shift Keying is referred as FSK. It is also digital modulation technique. In this technique, frequency of the RF carrier is va
band. B FM is the total bandwidth. The total bandwidth required for Frequency Modulation (FM) is determined by in accodance with baseband digital input. The figure depicts the FSK modulation. As shown, binary 1 and 0 is represented by two different carrier
Applications: Δf is the frequency deviation, representing the maximum frequency deviation from the Carson's rule, which provides an approximate formula for calculating the frequencies. Figure depicts that binary 1 is represented by high frequency 'f1' and binary 0 is represented by low frequency 'f2'.
Widely used in wireless communication systems, such as Wi-Fi and carrier frequency caused by the modulating signal. bandwidth of an FM signal.
CDMA-based mobile networks. f m is the frequency of the modulating signal (audio signal). Carson's Rule for FM Bandwidth:
Military applications for secure communication. In summary, the bandwidth of an FM signal is directly proportional to the frequency B FM ≈2(Δf+f m )
Challenges: deviation (Δf) and the frequency of the modulating signal (f m). The factor of 2 accounts Where:
Requires more bandwidth compared to narrowband systems. for both the upper and lower sidebands created during frequency modulation. B FM is the total bandwidth.
Increased complexity in implementation. It's important to note that FM signals have a wide bandwidth compared to amplitude Δf is the frequency deviation, representing the maximum frequency deviation
Q.What is the total bandwidth required for frequency modulation (AM), making efficient utilization of the frequency spectrum a crucial from the carrier frequency caused by the modulating signal.
modulation? consideration in FM broadcasting. f m is the frequency of the modulating signal (audio signal).
The total bandwidth required for Frequency Modulation (FM) is Q. Explain ASK, FSK and PSK with neat diagram. In summary, the bandwidth of an FM signal is directly proportional to the • In case of FSK, Pe is less and SNR is high.
determined by Carson's rule, which provides an approximate formula ASK frequency deviation (Δf) and the frequency of the modulating signal (f m). The • This technique is widely employed in modem design and development.
for calculating the bandwidth of an FM signal. The short form of Amplitude Shift Keying is referred as ASK. It is the digital modulation factor of 2 accounts for both the upper and lower sidebands created during • It has increased immunity to noise but requires larger bandwidth compare to other modulation types.
Carson's Rule for FM Bandwidth: technique. In this technique, amplitude of the RF carrier is varied in accordance with frequency modulation. PSK
B FM ≈2(Δf+f m ) baseband digital input signal. The figure depicts operation of ASK modulation. As shown It's important to note that FM signals have a wide bandwidth compared to The short form of Phase Shift Keying is referred as PSK. It is digital modulation technique where in phase of the RF carrier is changed based on digita
Where: in the figure, binary 1 will be represented by carrier signal with some amplitude while amplitude modulation (AM), making efficient utilization of the frequency input. Figure depicts Binary Phase Shift Keying modulation type of PSK. As shown in the figure, Binary 1 is represented by 180 degree phase of the ca
B FM is the total bandwidth. binary 0 will be represented by carrier of zero amplitude(i.e. no carrier). spectrum a crucial consideration in FM broadcasting.
Δf is the frequency deviation, representing the maximum frequency Q. Explain ASK, FSK and PSK with neat diagram.
deviation from the carrier frequency caused by the modulating signal. ASK
f m is the frequency of the modulating signal (audio signal). The short form of Amplitude Shift Keying is referred as ASK. It is the digital
In summary, the bandwidth of an FM signal is directly proportional to modulation technique. In this technique, amplitude of the RF carrier is varied
the frequency deviation (Δf) and the frequency of the modulating signal in accordance with baseband digital input signal. The figure depicts operation and binary 0 is represented by 0 degree phase of the RF carrier.
(f m). The factor of 2 accounts for both the upper and lower sidebands Often in ASK modulation, binary-1 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A2 and of ASK modulation. As shown in the figure, binary 1 will be represented by
carrier signal with some amplitude while binary 0 will be represented by • In case of PSK probability of error is less. SNR is high.
created during frequency modulation. binary-0 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A1. Here A2 is greater in magnitude
carrier of zero amplitude(i.e. no carrier). • It is a power efficient system but it has lower bandwidth efficiency.
It's important to note that FM signals have a wide bandwidth compared compare to A1. • PSK modulation is widely used in wireless transmission.
to amplitude modulation (AM), making efficient utilization of the • In ASK probability of error (Pe) is high and SNR is less. • The variants of basic PSK and ASK modulations are QAM, 16-QAM, 64-QAM and so on.
frequency spectrum a crucial consideration in FM broadcasting. • It has lowest noise immunity against noise.
Q. Explain ASK, FSK and PSK with neat diagram. • ASK is a bandwidth efficient system but it has lower power efficiency.
ASK FSK
The short form of Amplitude Shift Keying is referred as ASK. It is the The short form of Frequency Shift Keying is referred as FSK. It is also digital modulation
digital modulation technique. In this technique, amplitude of the RF technique. In this technique, frequency of the RF carrier is varied in accodance with Often in ASK modulation, binary-1 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A2
carrier is varied in accordance with baseband digital input signal. The baseband digital input. The figure depicts the FSK modulation. As shown, binary 1 and 0 is and binary-0 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A1. Here A2 is greater in
figure depicts operation of ASK modulation. As shown in the figure, represented by two different carrier frequencies. Figure depicts that binary 1 is magnitude compare to A1.
binary 1 will be represented by carrier signal with some amplitude while represented by high frequency 'f1' and binary 0 is represented by low frequency 'f2'. • In ASK probability of error (Pe) is high and SNR is less.
binary 0 will be represented by carrier of zero amplitude(i.e. no carrier). • It has lowest noise immunity against noise.
• ASK is a bandwidth efficient system but it has lower power efficiency.
FSK
The short form of Frequency Shift Keying is referred as FSK. It is also digital
modulation technique. In this technique, frequency of the RF carrier is varied
in accodance with baseband digital input. The figure depicts the FSK
Often in ASK modulation, binary-1 is represented by carrier with modulation. As shown, binary 1 and 0 is represented by two different carrier
amplitude-A2 and binary-0 is represented by carrier with amplitude-A1. frequencies. Figure depicts that binary 1 is represented by high frequency 'f1'
Here A2 is greater in magnitude compare to A1. • In case of FSK, Pe is less and SNR is high. and binary 0 is represented by low frequency 'f2'.
• In ASK probability of error (Pe) is high and SNR is less. • This technique is widely employed in modem design and development.
• It has lowest noise immunity against noise. • It has increased immunity to noise but requires larger bandwidth compare to other
• ASK is a bandwidth efficient system but it has lower power efficiency. modulation types.
FSK PSK
The short form of Frequency Shift Keying is referred as FSK. It is also The short form of Phase Shift Keying is referred as PSK. It is digital modulation technique
digital modulation technique. In this technique, frequency of the RF where in phase of the RF carrier is changed based on digital input. Figure depicts Binary
carrier is varied in accodance with baseband digital input. The figure Phase Shift Keying modulation type of PSK. As shown in the figure, Binary 1 is represented
depicts the FSK modulation. As shown, binary 1 and 0 is represented by by 180 degree phase of the carrier and binary 0 is represented by 0 degree phase of the
two different carrier frequencies. Figure depicts that binary 1 is • In case of FSK, Pe is less and SNR is high.
represented by high frequency 'f1' and binary 0 is represented by low • This technique is widely employed in modem design and development.
frequency 'f2'. • It has increased immunity to noise but requires larger bandwidth compare to
other modulation types.
PSK
RF carrier. The short form of Phase Shift Keying is referred as PSK. It is digital modulation
technique where in phase of the RF carrier is changed based on digital input.
• In case of PSK probability of error is less. SNR is high.
Figure depicts Binary Phase Shift Keying modulation type of PSK. As shown in
• It is a power efficient system but it has lower bandwidth efficiency.
the figure, Binary 1 is represented by 180 degree phase of the carrier and
• PSK modulation is widely used in wireless transmission.
binary 0 is represented by 0 degree phase of the RF carrier.
• The variants of basic PSK and ASK modulations are QAM, 16-QAM, 64-QAM and so on.

• In case of FSK, Pe is less and SNR is high.

• This technique is widely employed in modem design and
development.
• It has increased immunity to noise but requires larger bandwidth
compare to other modulation types.
PSK • In case of PSK probability of error is less. SNR is high.
The short form of Phase Shift Keying is referred as PSK. It is digital • It is a power efficient system but it has lower bandwidth efficiency.
modulation technique where in phase of the RF carrier is changed based • PSK modulation is widely used in wireless transmission.
on digital input. Figure depicts Binary Phase Shift Keying modulation • The variants of basic PSK and ASK modulations are QAM, 16-QAM, 64-QAM
type of PSK. As shown in the figure, Binary 1 is represented by 180 and so on.
degree phase of the carrier and binary 0 is represented by 0 degree

phase of the RF carrier.

• In case of PSK probability of error is less. SNR is high.
• It is a power efficient system but it has lower bandwidth efficiency.
• PSK modulation is widely used in wireless transmission.
• The variants of basic PSK and ASK modulations are QAM, 16-QAM, 64-
QAM and so on.