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15 views44 pages

Chapter 1.2.1

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guptsidd31
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University Institute of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE


& ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science & Engineering)
Subject Name: Computer Networks
Subject Code: 21CSH-256/ 21ITH-256

DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER


Chapter 3

Data and Signals


Note

To be transmitted, data must be


transformed to electromagnetic signals.
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data


refers to information that is continuous; digital data
refers to information that has discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data
take on discrete values.
Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data


Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
Note

Data can be analog or digital.


Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.


Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals [1]
Note

In data communications, we commonly


use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.
3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Periodic analog signals can be classified as


simple or composite. A simple periodic
analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. A
composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
Figure 3.2 A sine wave [1]

s(t ) = A sin(2πft + φ)
A-Amplitude
2π = 360 degree =1Period
φ --Phase
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes [1]
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of


each other.
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies [1]
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency [1]
Example 3.3

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.


The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:
Example 3.4

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is
10−3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We make the following
substitutions:.
Example 3.5

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in


kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
Note

Frequency is the rate of change with


respect to time.

Change in a short span of time


means high frequency.

Change over a long span of


time means low frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its


frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note

Phase describes the position of the


waveform relative to time 0.
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases [1]
Example 3.6

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.


What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period [1]

The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one


period.
Note

A complete sine wave in the time


domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is


the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
Example 3.10

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves


with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth?
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available


2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Topics discussed in this section:

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate


Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate

BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 M


L-Levels for sending signals
Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal transmission rate is
2B:
C = 2B

eg: B=3100 Hz; C=6200 bps

With multilevel signaling


C = 2B log2 M,
where M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may


reduce the reliability of the system.
Example 3.34

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000


Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example 3.35

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a


signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
In 1944,Claude Shannon introduced a formula,
called the Shannon capacity, to determine the
theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) = power of signal/power of noise

A high SNR means a high-quality signal.


Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the


upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
❑ Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.
❑ The imperfection causes signal impairment.
❑ This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium.

❑ What is sent is not what is received.


❑ Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise.
Attenuation
• Attenuation means a loss of energy.
• it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the
signal.

Figure: Attenuation [1]


The decibel(dB) measures the relative strengths
of two signals or one signal at two different
points.
Example

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its


power is reduced to one-half.

P2= (1/2)P1.
In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated
as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.


Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10


times.

This means that P2 = 10P1 .

What is the amplification (gain of power)?

39
Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or


shape.

Figure: Distortion [1]


Noise

Several types of noise, such as thermal noise,


induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.

Figure: Noise [1]


Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise


is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

42
Example

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

43
References:
Textbooks
[1] Forouzan, Behrouz A.: “Data Communications & networking”, 4th edition TataMcgraw Hill.
[2] Tanenbaum, Andrew S: “Computer networks”, 4th Edition, Pearson education.

Reference books
[3] Stallings, William : “Data and computer communications”,8th edition,Pearson
Education.
[4] Ross, Kurose,“Computer Networking: A top down Approach”, 2nd edition, Pearson
Education.
[5] Coomer,Douglas E.: “Internet working with TCP/IP” , 2 nd edition, Pearson Education
[6] Dave,” Computer Networks, Cengage Learning.

Links:
http://eti2506.elimu.net/Introduction/Books/Data%20Communications%20and%20Networking%20By%20
Behrouz%20A.Forouzan.pdf

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