DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Resistance to flow
in fluid systems

Lecturer – Eng (Mr) Ranjan M.T.T. 1

DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Fluid systems ?

2
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Fluid systems cont 2.1:
……. INTRODUCTION
DMME

▪ Almost all branches of engineering somehow involved with flows

of liquids and gases through ducts, pipes, channels or various
types of apparatus.
▪ In some applications most part of the fluid flow systems consist of
very long pipes or channels.

➢ Oil pipelines,
➢ Gas lines,
➢ Water lines,
➢ Steam pipes,
➢ Air ducts,
➢ Rivers, etc.
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Fluid systems cont …….
▪ In some applications most part of the fluid flow systems consist of
very long pipes or channels.

4
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Fluid systems cont 2.1:
……. INTRODUCTION
DMME

▪ In some applications most part of the fluid flow systems consist of

very long pipes or channels.

5
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Fluid systems cont …….
▪ In other cases the ducting are relatively short but there are fittings
and branches in the form of valves, bends, junctions, barriers, etc.
➢ Air ducts of complex ventilation systems,
➢ Industrial drying systems,
➢ Flue gas ducting of chemical & other factories, boilers & furnaces,
Nuclear reactors.

6
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

When fluid
flowing through
the systems ?

Water supply project designer ??

7
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Introduction cont…..

▪ Fluid motion is usually created by a difference in pressure or gravity effects.

➢ Pump system,
➢ Fans,
➢ Flow in a river,
➢ Flow from overhead tank or reservoir.
▪ As the fluid flows through the system, there is resistance to flow resulting
energy loss.
▪ The resistance to flow is offered by viscous properties of the fluid and other
mechanical flow-hindering aspects of the construction of the pipes /ducts and
equipment properties such as dimensions, configuration, shape, surface
roughness, etc.
▪ The knowledge of the resistance to flow is an essential requirement, primarily
to determine the pumping (or energy) requirements for any apparatus or
eventually for the entire plant involved in the fluid flow system.
8
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Introduction cont…..
▪ Furthermore, engineering design of a fluid flow system is impossible
without clear understanding of the principal physicomechanical processes
taking place in the individual components of the system
➢ And also the consideration of suggestions for the improvement of flow
conditions and reduction in the local fluid resistance of them.
▪ Accurate estimation of resistance to flow in different components of a
particular fluid flow system is very difficult because the resistance is greatly
influenced by many factors:
➢ Regime of flow (Laminar / Turbulent),
➢ Prehistory of the flow (i.e. conditions of supply to the section, nature of the
velocity profiles and degree of turbulent at the inlet), and
➢ Subsequent history of the flow (i.e. flow removal from the section).
▪ Further, many complex components of flow systems exhibit flow-instability
due to periodic fluid separation from the walls and formation of wakes (i.e.
eddies) resulting in large oscillation of fluid resistance.
9
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..

1. Major losses
The friction loss in a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as "major loss", is caused by the
effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules against each other or against the (possibly
rough) wall of the pipe. Here, it is greatly affected by whether the flow is laminar (Re < 2000)
or turbulent (Re > 4000):

2. Minor losses
The additional losses due to entries and exits, fittings and valves are traditionally referred to as
minor losses.

10
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..
▪ Mechanical Energy in Moving Fluid:
p V2
H = + + Z, with usual notation.
g 2g
▪ Energy Loss:

Head Loss hf = H1 − H 2
p1 − p2 1V12 −  2V22
= + + (Z1 − Z 2 )
g 2g
If V1 = V2 , 1 =  2 and Z1 = Z 2
Component p1 − p2 p f
hf = = ,
g g
where p f is the static pressure loss.
Section (1) Section (2)

p1 V12 p2 V22
H1 = + 1 + Z1 H2 = + 2 + Z2
g 2g g 2g
11
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..

▪ Coefficient of Fluid Resistance:

hf p f
K =
V
2

=
(12 V ) 2
.
 2g 
▪ Type of Losses: There are two types.
A B
➢ Wall frictional losses,
V Flow V
➢ Local losses.
▪ Frictional Losses:
A B
➢ The resistance to flow in a straight
pipe of uniform cross section is The total energy of fluid at Section-B is less than that
due to the viscous effect, of Section-A. (i.e. pA - pB = pf > 0)

➢ Due to the viscosity (both molecular and turbulent or eddy) of real

fluids in motion,
➢ Results from momentum transfer between the molecules (in laminar
flow) and between the individual particles (in turbulent flow) of
adjacent fluid layers moving at different velocities.
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..
▪ Local Losses - Caused by number of factors:
➢ Local disturbances of the flow,
➢ Separation of flow from the walls,
➢ Formation of large eddies or vortices at places where the geometrical
configurations of the flow system change or fluid streams meet
obstructions (eg: entrance to a duct, expansion, contraction, bending
& branching of the flow, flow through orifices, grids, or valves, etc.).
➢ The local pressure losses also include the loss of velocity head as the
fluid discharge from the system into another reservoir or into the
atmosphere (i.e. exit loss).
▪ All of these factors contribute to the exchange of momentum
between the moving fluid particles (i.e. turbulent friction), thus
enhancing energy dissipation.
➢ Molecular and turbulent viscosity of the moving fluid irreversibly
converts the mechanical energy (the work of the resistance forces)
into heat.
➢ Therefore, the term fluid resistance, or hydraulic loss, represents the
irreversible loss of total energy of the system. 13
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..

▪ Local Losses:
Eddy Zone
B Eddy Zones
A B

B
Eddy Zone

A B
A A
(a) Flow through a Pipe Bend (b) Flow through a Pipe Orifice

The total energy of fluid at Section-B is less than that of Section-A.

(i.e. pA - pB = pf > 0)
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..
▪ Local Losses:

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Energy losses cont …..

▪ Local Losses:

𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑲
𝟐𝒈

16
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Entry Length and Fully Developed Flow

▪ When a fluid enters a pipe, the layers adjacent to the wall are
slowed down due to wall shear stresses forming a boundary
layer.

▪ As the fluid passes in to the pipe, more and more fluid particles
get retarded, boundary layer thickness increases. Finally
boundary layers from opposite walls meet at the center, after
which the flow is fully developed.

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Laminar Laminar
Boundary Inviscid Boundary Turbulent
Layer Center Layer Boundary Layer
Flow

Fully Fully
Developed Developed
Entrance Length Entrance Length Flow Region
Le Flow Region Le
(Laminar) (Turbulent)

(a) Laminar Fully Developed Flow (b) Turbulent Fully Developed Flow

18
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

Energy Loss in Fully Developed Flow:

▪ Consider flow through a conduit.

Section (1) L Section (2) Control

p1 Volume
w
V1 p2
 Weight mg = ALg
V2 Shear Force = PLw
where A - Flow Area
w P - Wetted Perimeter
Z1 Z2 w - Wall Shear Stress
mg
Z1 - Z2 = L sin
Datum Level

19
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

▪ The head loss (energy loss per unit weight) of the fluid
p1 − p2
h f = H1 − H 2 = + ( z1 − z 2 )
g
▪ Then the application of momentum equation gives
p1 − p2  w PL
+ (z1 − z2 ) = .
g gA

▪ The friction factor is defined by f = w/(1/2V2), where V is the

average flow velocity.
▪ For a circular pipe of diameter d, A = d2/4 and P = d.
▪ Then, by combining the energy and momentum equations, the
head loss due to friction may be written as

L V 2  L V 2  V 2 
hf = 4f   =    = K f  
d  2 g  d  2 g   2 g 
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

For laminar flow f is a function of Re only. In turbulent flow f is a

function of both Re and the - relative roughness of the pipe wall.
The variation of f is represented graphically in the "Moody chart ".

• Region 1- Laminar Flow (Re < 2000): In this viscous region, friction factor is
independent of the surface roughness and f = 16/Re.
• Region 2- Critical Zone (2000 < Re < 4000): This region represents the transition of the
flow conditions from laminar to turbulent. Frictional losses cannot be predicted in this
region.
• Region 3- Transition Zone (Re > 4000): This region corresponds to turbulent motion of
the fluid where f is function of both Re and  (i.e. transition zone between viscous region
and fully rough pipes). Number of empirical expressions have been proposed and some of
these are:
* Smooth Pipes: 4000< Re <105 f = 0.079Re-0.25
* Smooth Pipes: 4000< Re <3.2106 f -0.5 = 4.0log10[Re(f)0.5] - 0.4
* Rough Pipes: 4000< Re f -0.5 = -4.0log10[/3.7 + 1.255/{Re(f)0.5}]
• Region 4 - Fully Rough Pipes: In the case of flow through rough pipes at sufficiently high
Reynolds numbers f becomes function of  only. Proposed formula for f in this region is
f -0.5 = -4.0log10[] + 2.28 when Re(f)0.5 > 100.
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

• Energy Loss in Fully Developed Flow: Moody

Chart for Pipe Friction
▪ Moody Chart for Pipe Friction

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 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
DMME Resistance to2.3:
flow inRESISTANCE TO FLOW IN
straight conduits cont…
Wall Roughness STRAIGHT CONDUITS

▪ The roughness of the pipe wall is an important factor in

turbulent flow, especially at high Reynolds numbers.
▪ The estimation of roughness is usually difficult.
▪ Furthermore the roughness will change with use.
▪ Where pipes have become corroded, the roughness may
increase up to tenfold.
▪ Typical values of the absolute roughness for a number of
materials under different conditions are given in following
Tables:

23
 Resistance to2.3:
flow inRESISTANCE TO FLOW IN
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
straight conduits cont…
Wall Roughness STRAIGHT CONDUITS
Category Material and Type of State of the Tube Surface and Conditions Absolute
Tubes of Use Roughness
k (mm)
Metal Seamless Tubes made Commercially smooth 0.0015-0.0100
Tubes from Brass, Copper,
Lead 0.015 - 0.06
Aluminum Tubes
Seamless Steel Tubes New, unused 0.02 - 0.10
(Commercial) Cleaned after many years of used Up to 0.04
Bitunimized
Superheated steam pipes of heating 0.10
systems, Water pipes of heating systems
with deaeration and chemical water
treatment of running water
Saturated steam ducts and water pipes of 0.20
heating systems, Oil pipelines
Corroded pipes, Pipes with small 0.4 - 1.0
depositions of scale
Steam pipelines operating periodically, 0.5 - 1.0
Condensate pipes
Compressed air pipes 0.8
Water pipelines previously used 1.2 - 1.5
Poor condition >5.0
Welded Steel Tubes Good condition (new or old) 0.04 - 0.10 24
Used previously, uniformly corroded 0.15
 treatment of running water
DMME Resistance to flow in straight Saturated steam cont…
conduits ducts and water pipes of 0.20ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
heating systems, Oil pipelines
Corroded pipes, Pipes with small 0.4 - 1.0
depositions of scale
• Wall Roughness Steam pipelines operating periodically,
Condensate pipes
0.5 - 1.0

Category Material and Type of Compressed air pipes

State of the Tube Surface andand Conditions
Conditions 0.8
Absolute
Absolute
Tubes of Use pipelines previously used
Water Roughness
1.2 - 1.5
Roughness
Poor condition k>5.0
k (mm)
(mm)
Metal
Metal Galvanized
Seamless
Welded Steel
Tubes
Steel Tubes
Tubesmade Bright galvanized,
Commercially
Good condition New
smooth
(new or old) 0.07 -- 0.10
0.0015-0.0100
0.04 0.10
Tubes
Tubes from Brass, Copper, Ordinary galvanized 0.1 - 0.15
Used previously, uniformly corroded 0.15
Galvanized Sheet Steel New 0.15
Lead Lacquered on the inside layer 0.015
0.3 - 0.4 - 0.06
Used previously for water 0.18
Aluminum Tubes With
Steel Tubes Coatedsimple or double
with glass enamel transverse riveted
on both sides 0.6 - 0.7
0.001 - 0.01
Seamless Steel Tubes
Cast-Iron Tubes
New, unused
joints
New
0.02 -
0.25 - 1.0
0.10
(Commercial) Cleaned
Lacquered
Water after many
on the(used
pipelines inside years butofrusted,
layer
previously) used Up -to1.5
.95
1.4 0.04
Bitunimized
soiled whenWith
Corroded, transporting
deposits water 1.0 - 1.5
Superheated
Small deposits
Appreciable steam pipes of heating
deposits 0.10- 4.0
1.5
2.0
systems, after
Cleaned
Corroded Water usedpipes of heating
for many yearssystems 0.3
2.0 - 1.5
with deaeration
Heavily
Appreciablecorroded
deposits and chemical water Up
2.0 to
- 4.03.0
Water conduits of New, cleanof running water
treatment
Poor condition 0.015
>5.0 - 0.17
electric power stations New, clean,
Saturated coated on the inside 0.014 - 0.7
Riveted Steel Tubes Lateral &steam ducts
longitudinal andrivets
waterwith
pipesone
of 0.20- 0.7
0.3
(Steel) Used,
heating clean, slightly corroded
systems, Oil pipelines 0.10 - 0.30
line of rivets
Used,
Corrodedclean, moderately
pipes, Pipescorroded
with small 0.30
0.4 -- -1.3
0.70
1.0
With
Used,
double
clean,
longitudinal
heavily
riveting
corroded
0.6
0.80 - 1.5
depositions
With orofsixscale
four used, longitudinal
Formerly up to 20 yearsriveting
of service, 2.0 - -4.0
0.12 5.0
Steam
Very
without
pipelines
poor operating
condition of the surface
deposits
periodically, 0.5 - 1.0
>5.0 25
Condensateused,
Formerly pipesheavily corroded, with 3.0 - 6.5
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…
• Wall Roughness
Category Material and Type of State of the Tube Surface and Conditions Absolute
Tubes of Use Roughness
k (mm)
Metal Galvanized Steel Tubes Bright galvanized, New 0.07 - 0.10
Tubes Ordinary galvanized 0.1 - 0.15
Galvanized Sheet Steel New 0.15
Used previously for water 0.18
Steel Tubes Coated with glass enamel on both sides 0.001 - 0.01
Cast-Iron Tubes New 0.25 - 1.0
Water pipelines (used previously) 1.4
Corroded, With deposits 1.0 - 1.5
Appreciable deposits 2.0 - 4.0
Cleaned after used for many years 0.3 - 1.5
Heavily corroded Up to 3.0
Water conduits of New, clean 0.015 - 0.17
electric power stations New, clean, coated on the inside 0.014 - 0.7
(Steel) Used, clean, slightly corroded 0.10 - 0.30
Used, clean, moderately corroded 0.30 - 0.70
Used, clean, heavily corroded 0.80 - 1.5
Formerly used, up to 20 years of service, 0.12 - 5.0
without deposits
26
Formerly used, heavily corroded, with 3.0 - 6.5
 Water conduits of New, clean 0.015 - 0.17
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits
electric power stations New, clean, coated on the inside
(Steel)
cont…
Used, clean, slightly corroded
0.014 - 0.7
0.10 - 0.30

Wall Roughness
Used, clean, moderately corroded 0.30 - 0.70
Used, clean, heavily corroded 0.80 - 1.5
Formerly used, up to 20 years of service, 0.12 - 5.0
Category Material and Type of State of deposits
without the Tube Surface and Conditions Absolute
Tubes of Use
Formerly used, heavily corroded, with Roughness
3.0 - 6.5
deposits k (mm)
Metal
Concrete Galvanized Steel Tubes Bright
Concrete Tubes galvanized,
New, plaster finishNew 0.07
0.05 - 0.10
0.15
Tubes
and Ordinary galvanizedused, smooth
New or previously 0.1
0.10- 0.15
- 0.20
Cement Galvanized Sheet Steel New
Previously used, moderately smooth 0.15
0.30 - 1.0
Tubes Used
Used,previously
with corrodedfor water
and wave surface; 0.18
1.0 - 4.0
Steel Tubes Coated with glass enamel on both sides
Wood framework 0.001 - 0.01
Cast-Iron Tubes New
Old, poorly manufactured, poorly fitted; 0.25
3.0 - -6.0
1.0
Water pipelines
With deposits of(used
sand,previously)
gravel, clay 1.4
Corroded,
Very old withWithsurface
deposits
heavily damaged 1.0
>5.0- 1.5
Reinforced Concrete Appreciable
New deposits 2.0
0.25- 4.0
- 0.34
Tubes Cleaned after used for many years
Non-processed 0.3
2.5 - 1.5
Asbestos-Cement Heavily
New corroded Up
0.05to- 3.0
0.10
Water
Tubes conduits of New, clean
Average 0.015
0.60 - 0.17
electric power stations New,
Cement Tubes clean, coated on the inside
Smoothed 0.014
0.30 - -0.80
0.7
(Steel) Used, clean, slightly corroded
Non-processed 0.10
1.0 - -2.0
0.30
Used, clean,
Joint not moderately corroded
smoothed 0.30
1.9 - -6.4
0.70
Conduit with a cement- Used,
Good clean,
plasterheavily
made corroded
of pure cement; all 0.80
0.05 - 1.5
0.22
mortar plaster Formerly
asperities used, up tometal
removed; 20 years of service,
casing 0.12 - 5.0
without deposits
Steel-troweled 0.5
Plaster over metalic Formerly
- used, heavily corroded, with 3.0
10 --15
6.5
screen deposits
Concrete Concrete Tubes New, plaster finish 0.05 - 0.15
27
and New or previously used, smooth 0.10 - 0.20
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

Wall Roughness
Category Material and Type of State of the Tube Surface and Conditions Absolute
Tubes of Use Roughness
k (mm)
Wood, Wood Tubes Boards well dressed 0.15 - 0.3
Plywood, Boards undressed 0.7 - 1.0
and Starved 0.6
Drawn Plywood Tubes With transverse grains 0.12
Tubes With longitudinal grains 0.03 - 0.05
Drawn Tubes Pure Glass, PVC 0.0015 - 0.010
Tunnels Tunnels in Rocks Blast-hewed in rock mass 100 - 500
(Rough) Roughly cut with highly uneven surfaces 500 - 1500
Tunnels Unlined Rocks 200 - 700
Shale 200 - 650

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Useful equations for calculations

𝟒 𝑳𝑽𝟐
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝒉𝒇 =
𝟐𝑫𝒈

𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 (𝒆 )
Relative roughness = 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑫)

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Local Losses:

𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝑲
𝟐𝒈

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

Exercise 1

Water flows at a mean velocity of 1.5 m/s through a pipe system consists of 2.5 cm diameter
circular cast iron pipes of total length 20 m connected through three 90° Standard Elbows
and a globe valve (1/2 open). Calculate the total rate of energy loss in the system.

You may take 𝝆 = 103 kg/m3, μ = 0.89×10-3 Ns/m2 for water.

31
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

32
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
DMME Resistance to2.3:
flow inRESISTANCE TO FLOW IN
straight conduits cont…
STRAIGHT CONDUITS
Exercise 2

Water is discharged from a reservoir through a pipeline of diameter 5 cm, effective

surface roughness 0.5 mm and length 85 m into a second reservoir. The difference of
the water levels in the two reservoirs is 10 m. The pipeline consists of a gate valve (1/2
Open), a 90° Standard Elbow and a 90° Smooth Bend. Estimate the velocity of the flow
through the pipe.

You may take 𝝆 = 103 kg/m3, μ = 0.89×10-3 Ns/m2 for water.

33
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ All the relations presented so far for the friction factor are
applicable to conduits of circular cross-sections only.
▪ However conduits of non-circular cross-sections are useful for
many engineering applications.
✓ E.g. Many ducts commonly used in air conditioning systems and
furnaces are rectangular in cross-section.
▪ Resistance to flow in non-circular conduits is more difficult to
estimate than circular conduits due to two main reasons.
✓ Firstly, conduits with arbitrary cross-section cannot be described
with a single geometrical parameter such as a pipe diameter.
✓ Secondly, the presence of convective transfer across the flow due
to the motion of large-scale vortices and secondary flows. This
behavior together with the variable roughness of the walls is
responsible for the non-uniform distribution of shear on the flow
boundaries.
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

• Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ Secondary flow:

(a) Triangular Duct (b) Rectangular Duct

35
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ Secondary flow:

36
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
DMME Resistance to2.3:
flow inRESISTANCE TO FLOW IN
straight conduits cont…
STRAIGHT
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts CONDUITS

▪ In order to analyze the flow, it is essential to define a single geometrical

parameter which describes the effects of the shape and the size of the
conduit on the flow characteristics.
✓ Accordingly, the equivalent diameter de = 4A/P is defined.
▪ Introduction of the equivalent diameter allows one to use the Darcy-
Weisbach equation for non-circular cross-sections.
✓ However the derivation of this equation involves the assumption that the wall
shear stress at the flow boundary is uniform, which is valid only for circular
sections.
✓ Satisfactory application of the concept is limited to cases where the wall
shear distribution is approximately uniform.

37
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
DMME Resistance to2.3:
flow inRESISTANCE TO FLOW IN
straight conduits cont…
STRAIGHT CONDUITS
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ In general the equivalent diameter concept is not applicable for laminar

flow through non-circular conduits as the wall shear varies greatly
around the circumference.
✓ E.g. In a rectangular or triangular cross-section, wall shear is largest
near the mid-point of the sides and zero in the corners.
▪ However, in turbulent flow wall shear is nearly constant in major part of
the circumference due to the presence of secondary flow.
▪ Consequently, the equivalent diameter concept provides satisfactory
results for the effects of geometry in turbulent flow through non-circular
conduits.
✓ Note that, although the equivalent diameter concept is not applicable
for laminar flow, in principle laminar flow through any conduit cross-
section can be solved analytically.
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ In many practical applications it is convenient to express the

friction factor of non-circular conduits (f) through friction factor
of the corresponding circular section (f0 ) with a correction
factor :
f = f0
where f0 is the friction factor of a circular conduit of diameter de
at the same Reynolds number Re = Ude/ and relative
roughness  = k/de.
▪ The correction factor  is usually a function of the shape of the
cross-section only.
▪ Then head loss due to friction can be estimated through Darcy
equation.
L V 
2
L V 
2
hf = 4 f   =   
de  2 g  de  2 g 
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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…

Flow in Non-Circular Ducts

▪ The correction factors / frictional coefficients:
Shape, Equivalent Diameter Correction factor of the frictional coefficient
Rectangle • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)

b b/a 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

 1.50 1.34 1.20 1.02 0.94 0.90 0.89
a
• Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)
2ab
de =
a+b b/a 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.01 1.0

Trapezoid b1

1 2 h
 is determined in approximately the same way as for a
b2 rectangle where the aspect ratio b/a is defined by 2h/(b1+b2).
2h
de =
 h  1 1 
 1 + 
 sin  sin  
+
 b1 + b2  1 2 

40
Ellipse • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont…
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts
▪ The correction factors / frictional coefficients:
Shape, Equivalent Diameter Correction factor of the frictional coefficient
Ellipse • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)

b 1 d 
2
  b 2 
 =  e 1 +   
8 b    a  

a b/a 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
 1.21 1.16 1.11 1.08 1.05 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.0
4ab
de = ;
1.5(a + b) − ab
or more precisely : • Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)
ab
de =   1.0
0.983a + 0.331b + 0.287b 2 / a
Concentric Annulus • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)
1 − ( a / b) 2
a b =
1 + (a / b) 2 + [1 − (a / b) 2 ] / ln( a / b)
a/b 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
 1.0 1.40 1.44 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.49 1.50

• Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)

de = b - a
 a  1 a 
f = 0.005  + 0.245 0.25  − 0.27  + 0.1
 b    f0  b 
41
DMME Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont… ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Flow in Non-Circular Ducts
▪ The correction factors / frictional coefficients:
Shape, Equivalent Diameter Correction factor of the frictional coefficient
Eccentric Annulus • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)
  = c/(1 + e)2, where c is the correction factor of the
a b
corresponding concentric annulus and  is function of a/b
as given below.

a/b 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0
 0 0.65 0.90 1.10 1.22 1.30 1.39 1.45 1.48

de = b - a • Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)

e = 2/(b - a) f = fc[1-0.9(1-2e/3)e2], where fc is the friction factor of the
corresponding concentric annulus.
Isosceles Triangle • Laminar Region (Re < 2000, f = 16/Re)
3 1 − ( + 2) tan 2  5 1 
= ,  = 4+  − 1
h 4 ( − 2)(tan + 1 + tan 2  )2 2  tan 2  

• Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)

2h  0 10 20 30 40 60 80 90
de = ;  0.75 0.84 0.89 0.93 0.96 0.98 0.90 1.0
1 + 1 + 1/ tan 
2

Smooth Rubber Hoses In this case the diameter is function of the internal pressure.
1.1mm thick
d cloth insert • Laminar Region (Re < 2000)
(2 or 3 no.s)
f = 16/Re
1 mm thick
rubber layer
(external)
• Turbulent Region (Re > 2000)

2 mm thick rubber f = A/Re0.265; where 0.38<A<0.52 depending

layer (internal) on the hose quality
42
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
Resistance to flow in curved conduits cont…
Flow Curved Conduits

Vortex Pair

Axial Velocity
Distribution at
the exist
Streamline

▪ The energy loss in curved conduits is much larger than that of straight conduit
of the same length.
✓ The presence of secondary flow and formation of eddies at inner as well as outer
walls leads to the increase in the resistance coefficient.
✓ Note that in general, main portion of the energy loss is due to the presence of the
eddies at the inner wall. 43
DMME Resistance to flow in straight conduits cont… ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Generation of secondary flow:

✓ As the fluid passes through a curved conduit, fluid particles are
subjected to centrifugal forces directed from the center of
curvature to the outer wall of the conduit.
Eddy Zone in the
✓ This leads to an increase of the pressure at the outer wall region outer wall region

and decrease in pressure at the inner region, as the flow passes

from the straight section to the curved section of the conduit.
✓ This pressure gradient in radial direction is just sufficient balances Eddy Zone in the
inner wall region
the centrifugal force so that the streamlines can follow the wall
curvature.
✓ However on the sides of the conduit the velocity is retarded (due to
the presence of the boundary layer) leading to less centrifugal
force.
✓ Then the pressure causes a flow toward the center of curvature.
Conservation of mass dictates a return flow in the center part of
the conduit.
✓ This results in formation of so-called vortex pair, which is
superimposed on the main flow and imparts a helical shape to the
streamline.
44
✓ This effect is some time referred to as Dean effect.
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

▪ The effect of conduit curvature is substantially greater in laminar

flow than in turbulent flow.
▪ Secondary flow patterns stabilizes laminar flow and increases the
transition Reynolds number Recritical.

  d 1/ 2 
Re critical  2100 1 +   ,
  dc  

Eddy Zone in the

outer wall region

Eddy Zone in the

inner wall region

45
 DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

▪ For smooth curved circular tubes ( < 0.0002) including spirals

(coils), the value of the friction factor f up to Re  105, dc/d > 6 and
L/d > 10 can be calculated from the following equations:

0.175
5 d 
f  0.65   at 50  De  600,
Re  dc 
0.225
0.175 2.6  d 
5 d  f  0.55   at 600  De  1400,
  at 50  De  600, Re  dc 
Re 0.65  dc 
0.275 0.5
0.225 1.25  d  d 
2.6  d  f  0.45   at 1400  De  5000, where De = Re  is the Dean Num
  at 600  De  1400, Re  dc   dc 
Re 0.55  dc 
0.275 0.5
1.25  d  d 
  at 1400  De  5000, where De = Re  is the Dean Number.
Re 0.45  dc   dc 

46
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Flow through valves and fittings

47
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

48
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

49
 ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
DMME
Local resistance to flow
• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Basics:
✓ Occur due to turbulent friction associated with local disturbances to the flow.
✓ Caused by, sudden/gradual expansion or contraction; valves & fittings; grids,
screens & porous media; various types of apparatus such as filters, heat exchangers,
separators etc., as well as entry & exit losses.
✓ The local resistance to flow is mainly a function of the geometrical parameters of the
flow system considered and also some general factors of fluid motion such as the
condition of the entry flow (velocity distribution and the degree of turbulence); the
Reynolds number (which determines the type of flow - Laminar or Turbulent) and the
Mach number (which determines the effect due to compressibility) of the flow.
✓ Note that the local losses are also referred to as minor losses in some literature.
However, these losses may not be so minor, for an example a partially closed valve
can result in a higher loss than the frictional loss of a long pipe

50
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Local Resistance Coefficient:

✓ Evaluation of the energy loss involves the determination of the appropriate local
resistance coefficient defined by
K = hlocal/(V2/2g).
✓ The values of the local resistance coefficients of different components usually
assume the condition of uniform velocity distribution in the inlet of the components
and most of the values were obtained for commercial smooth conduit walls because
the effect of wall roughness on the local resistance coefficients is very complex and
has not been studied extensively.
✓ In order to calculate the total energy loss in a flow system, the principle of
superposition of losses is used.
✓ This can be realized by two methods:
(1) by summing the pressure losses in separate components of the system
(2) by summing the resistance coefficients of separate components, which were
normalized to a certain velocity.
51
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Local Resistance Coefficient:

✓ However it should be noted that the mutual effects of local resistance of
different components in a fluid flow system could be important and may lead to
an increase or decrease in the total loss as compared with the sum of the
individual losses.
✓ There are several methods for determining the values of K.
➢ K - Factor (Loss Coefficient) Method
➢ Equivalent Length Method
➢ Crane Method
➢ 2-K (Hooper) Method
✓ In all of these methods the effect of compressibility is ignored and therefore
applicable up to Mach Number M < 0.3.

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

53
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ K - Factor (Loss Coefficient) Method:

✓ In this method values of K for various components are taken as
constants.
- That is the loss coefficient is assumed to be independent of
the Reynolds number (degree of turbulence) as well as the
geometrical size of the component.
- Although these assumptions are not very accurate, this
method is the simplest.
✓ Then the total head loss (including friction) may be represented
by.
 L  V 2 
htot = h f +  hloc =  4 f +  K  ,
 de  2 g 

54
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Equivalent Length Method:

✓ In this method, local losses is expressed in terms of an 'equivalent length' le of a
straight conduit in which an equal loss would occur.

V 2  le  V 2  le
hloc = K   = 4 f  , or K = 4f .
 2g  de  2 g  de
✓ Then the total head loss (including friction) may be represented by.
L +  le  V 2  Le  V 2 
htot = h f +  hloc = 4f   = 4 f  ,
de  2g  de  2 g 
where Le is the 'effective length' of the flow system.
✓ Usually the values of le/de are presented for local losses of different components.
✓ As the friction factor f is function of Re and , this method allows to include the
effects of Re and , on the local losses.
✓ Note that this method assumes the influence of Re on the local losses is to be
same as for frictional loss of the conduit, which is not accurate.
55
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Equivalent Length Method:

✓ As an example for a fully opened standard globe valve le/de = 340,
and the calculated loss coefficients for four different sizes (0.5",
1", 2" and 4") at Re = 5103 and 1106 are given below:

Size 0.5" 1" 2" 4"

Re = 5103 4f 0.042 0.040 0.0387 0.0385
K 14.3 13.6 13.2 13.1
Re = 1106 4f 0.0285 0.0235 0.02 0.0172
K 9.7 8.0 6.8 5.8

✓ Note that the absolute roughness of the material is taken as

k=0.05mm (Commercial Steel, new).

56
DMME Local resistance to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ Crane Method:
✓ This is a modified version of the equivalent length method.
✓ However, this method considers the fact that the local losses are associated
with higher turbulence effects than in the conduit at the same Re, and fully
turbulent value for the friction factor f (which is independent of Re) is always
employed:
2
V  2
le  0.25 
hloc = K  , with K = 4 fT , where fT =  .
 2g  de  log 10 (3.7 /  )
✓ Then the total head loss (including friction) may be represented by.
 L le  V 2 
htot = h f +  hloc = 4 f +  fT  .
 de d e  2 g 

✓ As an example, estimated values of K for the globe valves stated above are:
0.5" 1" 2" 4"
4fT 0.028 0.0234 0.0196 0.0167
K 9.5 8.0 6.7 5.7 57
DMME to flow cont ….. ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics
2.5: LOCAL RESISTANCE TO FLOW
Local resistance
• Methods of Representation of the Local Losses

▪ 2-K (Hooper) Method:

✓ This is the most accurate method, where the effects of both Re
and geometrical size (scale) of the component are reflected in the
expression:  2 V 
K1  1
hloc = K  , with K = + K 2 1 + ,
 2g  Re  de 
where de is the equivalent diameter of the conduit (in inches) that
contains the component.
✓ As an example, for a fully opened standard globe valve K1 = 1500
and K2 = 4.0 and the estimated loss coefficients at different
conditions are given below:

0.5" 1" 2" 4"

3
Re = 510 12.3 8.3 6.3 5.3
Re = 1106 12.0 8.0 6.0 5.0

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

59
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Maximum Velocity
Application
(m/s) (ft/s)
Tap water (low noise) 0.5 - 0.7 1.6 - 2.3
water 1.0 - 2.5 3.3 - 8.2
Cooling water 1.5 - 2.5 4.9 - 8.2
Suction boiler feed water 0.5 - 1.0 1.6 - 3.3
Discharge boiler feed water 1.5 - 2.5 4.9 - 8.2
Condensate 1.0 - 2.0 3.3 - 6.5
Heating circulation 1.0 - 3.0 3.3 - 9.8

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 DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Figure shows a pipe flow system where air at pressure p1 forces water from a large tank through a pipe of
total length 40 m that contains a series of valves and fittings. The discharge is at atmospheric pressure.
All elements are on the same horizontal plane. The pipe and all components are 6 cm diameter of
Galvanized iron. If the flow flow rate is 0.35 m3/min 'compute p1 by,
(a) equivalent length method
(b) the K- factor method.

You may take ρ = 103 kg/m3

μ = 0.89×10-3 Ns/m2 for water.

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DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Increased
System Increased Static
Losses Head
Pump Head
System
BEP Operating
H Point

System Head
decreased
Efficiency System Losses
Curve

Flow Rate - Q 62
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

63
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

64
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Globe valve
Reservoir

10m
Tee with
run flow

Gate valve
Gate valve

65
DMME ME 8302 Industrial Fluid Dynamics

Thank You

66